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Max Born
Max Born (1882-1970)
Max Born (1882-1970)
Born December 11, 1882(1882-12-11)
Breslau, Germany
Died January 5, 1970 (aged 87)
Göttingen, Germany
Nationality German - British
Ethnicity Jewish-German
Fields Physicist
Institutions University of Frankfurt am Main
University of Göttingen
University of Edinburgh
Alma mater University of Göttingen
Doctoral advisor Carl Runge
Other academic advisors Joseph Larmor
J. J. Thomson
Doctoral students Victor Frederick Weisskopf
Robert Oppenheimer
Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim
Max Delbrück
Walter Elsasser
Friedrich Hund
Pascual Jordan
Maria Goeppert-Mayer
Herbert S. Green
Cheng Kaijia
Siegfried Flügge
Edgar Krahn
Maurice Pryce
Antonio Rodríguez
Bertha Swirles
Paul Weiss
Emil Wolf
Known for Born-Haber cycle
Born rigidity
Born approximation
Born-Infeld theory
Born-Oppenheimer approximation
Born's Rule
Notable awards Nobel Prize in Physics (1954)
Religious stance Lutheran

Max Born (December 11, 1882 – January 5, 1970) was a German physicist and mathematician who was instrumental in the development of quantum mechanics. Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Year 1882 ( MDCCCLXXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Wrocław (Breslau Vratislav Vratislavia or Wratislavia Yiddish: ברעסלוי) is the chief City of the historical region of Lower Silesia The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification Events 1477 - Battle of Nancy: Charles the Bold is killed and Burgundy becomes part of France. Year 1970 ( MCMLXX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Göttingen ( ˈgœtɪŋən, Low German: Chöttingen is a College town in Lower Saxony, Germany. West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany ( Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. A physicist is a Scientist who studies or practices Physics. Physicists study a wide range of physical phenomena in many branches of physics spanning The Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main (also known as Frankfurt University) was founded in 1914 as a Citizens' University which means that while it was The University of Göttingen ( German: Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) is a University in the city of Göttingen, Germany. The University of Edinburgh (Oilthigh Dhùn Èideann founded in 1582 is a renowned centre for teaching and research in Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. Alma mater is Latin for "nourishing mother" It was used in Ancient Rome as a title for the mother Goddess, and in Medieval The University of Göttingen ( German: Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) is a University in the city of Göttingen, Germany. A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement Carl David Tolmé Runge (pronounced /ˈʀuŋˌge/ ( August 30 1856 &ndash January 3 1927) was a German Mathematician, Sir Joseph Larmor ( 11 July 1857 Magheragall, County Antrim, Northern Ireland – 19 May 1942 Holywood Sir Joseph John “JJ” Thomson, OM, FRS (18 December 1856 &ndash 30 August 1940 was a British Physicist and Nobel laureate Weisskopf redirects here For people known under English version of that name see Whitehead. Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim ( November 7, 1899, München - October 5, 1985, La Jolla, California, USA was a Max Ludwig Henning Delbrück ( September 4, 1906 &ndash March 9, 1981) was a German-American Biophysicist and Nobel Walter Maurice Elsasser (born March 20, 1904, in Mannheim, Germany; died October 14, 1991, in Baltimore) was Friedrich Hund (4 February 1896 - 31 March 1997 was a German Physicist from Karlsruhe known for his work on atoms and molecules Pascual Jordan (b October 18, 1902 in Hanover, Germany; d July 31, 1980 in Hamburg, Federal Republic Maria Goeppert-Mayer ( June 28, 1906 &ndash February 20, 1972) was a German -born American Herbert (Bert Sydney Green ( December 17, 1920 – February 16, 1999) was a doctoral student of the Nobel Laureate Max Born CHENG Kaijia ( Traditional Chinese:, Simplified Chinese:, Pinyin: Chéng Kāijiǎ (1918- also known as CHENG Kai-jia or CHENG Kai Jia Siegfried Flügge ( 16 March 1912 in Dresden &ndash 15 December 1997 in Hinterzarten) was a German Theoretical Edgar Krahn ( October 1, 1894 &ndash March 6, 1961) was an Estonian Mathematician. Bertha Swirles, Lady Jeffreys ( 22 May, 1903 &ndash 18 December, 1999) carried out research on quantum theory, particularly Emil Wolf (born July 30, 1922) is a Czech born American Physicist who made advancements in physical Optics, including Diffraction, The Born-Haber cycle is an approach to analyzing reaction energies. Born rigidity, proposed by and later named after Max Born, is a concept in Special relativity. In Scattering theory and in particular in Quantum mechanics, the Born approximation consists of taking the incident field in place of the total field as the driving In physics the Born-Infeld theory is a Nonlinear Generalization of Electromagnetism (see Nonlinear electrodynamics) In Quantum chemistry, the computation of the energy and Wavefunction of an average-size Molecule is a formidable task that is alleviated by the Born-Oppenheimer The Born rule (also called the Born law, Born's rule, or Born's law) is a law of Quantum mechanics which gives the probability that The Nobel Prize in Physics (Nobelpriset i fysik is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Year 1882 ( MDCCCLXXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1477 - Battle of Nancy: Charles the Bold is killed and Burgundy becomes part of France. Year 1970 ( MCMLXX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. A physicist is a Scientist who studies or practices Physics. Physicists study a wide range of physical phenomena in many branches of physics spanning A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is the field of Mathematics. Quantum mechanics is the study of mechanical systems whose dimensions are close to the Atomic scale such as Molecules Atoms Electrons He also made contributions to solid-state physics and optics and supervised the work of a number of notable physicists in the 1920s and 30s. Solid-state physics, the largest branch of Condensed matter physics, is the study of rigid Matter, or Solids The bulk of solid-state physics theory and Born won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics. The Nobel Prize in Physics (Nobelpriset i fysik is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Contents

Early life and education

Born was born in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland), which at Born's birth was in the Prussian Province of Silesia. Wrocław (Breslau Vratislav Vratislavia or Wratislavia Yiddish: ברעסלוי) is the chief City of the historical region of Lower Silesia Wrocław (Breslau Vratislav Vratislavia or Wratislavia Yiddish: ברעסלוי) is the chief City of the historical region of Lower Silesia Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising The Province of Silesia (Provinz Schlesien Prowincja Śląsk was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1815 to 1919 the territory had been conquered from He was one of two children borne to Gustav Born, (b. Gustav Jacob Born (ca 1851 &ndash 1900 was a German histologist and medical author and the father of Max Born. April 22, 1850, Kempen, d. July 6, 1900, Breslau), an anatomist and embryologist, and Margarethe Kauffmann (b. January 22, 1856, Tannhausen, d. Tannhausen is a Municipality in the German state of Baden-Württemberg, in Ostalbkreis district August 29, 1886, Breslau), from a Silesian family of industrialists. Gustav and Margarethe married on May 7, 1881. Max Born had a sister called Käthe (b. March 5, 1884), and a half-brother called Wolfgang (b. October 21, 1892), from his father's second marriage (m. September 13, 1891) with Bertha Lipstein. His mother died when Max Born was four years old.

Initially educated at the König-Wilhelm-Gymnasium, Born went on to study at the University of Breslau followed by Heidelberg University and the University of Zurich. A gymnasium (pronounced with ɡ- in several languages is a type of school providing Secondary education in some parts of Europe, comparable to English grammar The University of Wrocław (Uniwersytet Wrocławski Universität Breslau Universitas Wratislaviensis is one of nine universities in Wrocław, Poland The Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg ( University of Heidelberg, Ruperto Carola, Heidelberg University, or simply Heidelberg) is a The University of Zurich ( German: Universität Zürich) located in the city of Zurich, is the largest University in Switzerland During study for his Ph. D. [1] and Habilitation [2] at the University of Göttingen, he came into contact with many prominent scientists and mathematicians including Klein, Hilbert, Minkowski, Runge, Schwarzschild, and Voigt. Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a person can achieve by their own pursuit in certain European and Asian countries Felix Christian Klein ( 25 April 1849 &ndash 22 June 1925) was a German Mathematician, known for his work in Group David Hilbert ( January 23, 1862 &ndash February 14, 1943) was a German Mathematician, recognized as one of the most Hermann Minkowski ( June 22 1864 – January 12 1909) was a Russian born German Mathematician, of Jewish Carl David Tolmé Runge (pronounced /ˈʀuŋˌge/ ( August 30 1856 &ndash January 3 1927) was a German Mathematician, Karl Schwarzschild ( October 9, 1873 - May 11, 1916) was a German Jewish Physicist and Astronomer. In 1908-1909 he studied at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Gonville and Caius College Cambridge is a constituent College of Cambridge University, one of the world's most academically respected institutions

When Born arrived in Göttingen in 1904, Klein, Hilbert, and Minkowski[3] were the high priests of mathematics and were known as the “mandarins. ” Very quickly after his arrival, Born formed close ties to the latter two men. From the first class he took with Hilbert, Hilbert identified Born as having exceptional abilities and selected him as the lecture scribe, whose function was to write up the class notes[4] for the students’ mathematics reading room at the University of Göttingen. Being class scribe put Born into regular, invaluable contact with Hilbert, during which time Hilbert’s intellectual largesse benefited Born’s fertile mind. Hilbert became Born’s mentor and Hilbert eventually selected him to be the first to hold the unpaid, semi-official position of Hilbert’s assistant. Born’s introduction to Minkowski came through Born’s stepmother, Bertha, as she knew Minkowski from dancing classes in Königsberg. Königsberg (Karaliaučius Low German: Königsbarg; Królewiec see also other names) was until 1946 the name of Kaliningrad. The introduction netted Born invitations to the Minkowski household for Sunday dinners. In addition, while performing his duties as scribe and assistant, Born often saw Minkowski at Hilbert’s house. Born’s outstanding work on elasticity - a subject near and dear to Klein - became the core of his magna cum laude Ph. D. thesis, in spite of some of Born’s irrationalities in dealing with Klein. [5]

Born married Hedwig, née Ehrenberg, who was also of Jewish descent (although a practising Christian), on August 2, 1913, and converted to the Lutheran faith soon thereafter; the marriage produced three children including G. V. R. Born. Events 338 BC - A Macedonian army led by Philip II defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes in the Year 1913 ( MCMXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Gustav Victor Rudolf Born, born 29 July 1921, Germany is Emeritus Professor of Pharmacology at King's College London and His daughter Irene was the mother of British-born Australian singer and actress Olivia Newton-John

Career

After Born’s Habilitation in 1909, he settled in as a young academic at Göttingen as a Privatdozent (associate professor). The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Olivia Newton-John, AO, OBE (born September 26 1948) is a Grammy Award -winning and Golden Globe -nominated English-born [6] In Göttingen, Born stayed at a boarding house run by Sister Annie at Dahlmannstarsse 17, known as El BoKaReBo The name was derived from the first letters of the last names of its boarders: “El” for Ella Philipson (a medical student), “Bo” for Born and Hans Bolza (a physics student), “Ka” for Theodore von Kármán (a Privatdozent), and “Re” for Albrecht Renner (a medical student). A boarding house, also known as a "rooming house" (mainly in the United States) or a "lodging house" is a House (often a family home A frequent visitor to the boarding house was Paul Peter Ewald, a doctoral student of Arnold Sommerfeld on loan to David Hilbert at Göttingen as a special assistant for physics. Paul Peter Ewald ( January 23, 1888 in Berlin, Germany &ndash August 22, 1985 in Ithaca, New York Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld (5 December 1868 &ndash 26 April 1951 was a German theoretical Physicist who pioneered developments in atomic David Hilbert ( January 23, 1862 &ndash February 14, 1943) was a German Mathematician, recognized as one of the most [7] Richard Courant, a mathematician and Privatdozent, called these people the “in group. Richard Courant (born January 8, 1888 &ndash January 27, 1972) was a German American Mathematician. ”[8]

From 1915 to 1919, except for a period in the German army, Born was extraordinarius professor of theoretical physics at the University of Berlin, where he formed a life-long friendship with Albert Einstein. The German Army (Deutsches Heer heɐ) is the land component of the armed forces of the Federal Republic of Germany. Theoretical physics employs Mathematical models and Abstractions of Physics in an attempt to explain experimental data taken of the natural world Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical In 1919, he became ordinarius professor on the science faculty at the University of Frankfurt am Main. The Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main (also known as Frankfurt University) was founded in 1914 as a Citizens' University which means that while it was While there, the University of Göttingen was looking for a replacement for Peter Debye, and the Philosophy Faculty had Born at the top of their list. The University of Göttingen ( German: Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) is a University in the city of Göttingen, Germany. Peter Joseph William Debye ( March 24 1884 &ndash November 2 1966) was a Dutch physicist and physical chemist In negotiating for the position with the education ministry, Born arranged for another chair at Göttingen and for his long-time friend and colleague James Franck to fill it. James Franck ( August 26, 1882 &ndash May 21, 1964) was a German -born Physicist and Nobel laureate from [9] In 1921, Born became ordinarius professor of theoretical physics and Director of the new Institute of Theoretical Physics at Göttingen. Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar [10] While there, he formulated[11] the now-standard interpretation of the probability density function for ψ*ψ in the Schrödinger equation of quantum mechanics, published in July 1926[12] and for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1954, some three decades later. In Quantum mechanics, a probability amplitude is a complex -valued function that describes an uncertain or unknown quantity In Physics, especially Quantum mechanics, the Schrödinger equation is an equation that describes how the Quantum state of a Physical system Quantum mechanics is the study of mechanical systems whose dimensions are close to the Atomic scale such as Molecules Atoms Electrons The Nobel Prize in Physics (Nobelpriset i fysik is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

For the 12 years Born and Franck were at Göttingen, 1921 - 1933, Born had a collaborator with shared views on basic scientific concepts - a distinct advantage for teaching and his research on the developing quantum theory. The approach of close collaboration between theoretical physicists and experimental physicists was also shared by Born at Göttingen and Arnold Sommerfeld at the University of Munich, who was ordinarius professor of theoretical physics and Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics - also a prime mover in the development of quantum theory. Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld (5 December 1868 &ndash 26 April 1951 was a German theoretical Physicist who pioneered developments in atomic The Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München also known as LMU, is a University in Munich and with more In quantum field theory (QFT the forces between particles are mediated by other particles Born and Sommerfeld not only shared their approach in using experimental physics to test and advance their theories, Sommerfeld, in 1922 when he was in the United States lecturing at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, sent his student Werner Heisenberg to be Born’s assistant. Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Werner Heisenberg (5 December 1901 in Würzburg &ndash1 February 1976 in Munich) was a German theoretical physicist best known for enunciating the Heisenberg again returned to Göttingen in 1923 and completed his Habilitation under Born in 1924 and became a Privatdozent at Göttingen - the year before Heisenberg and Born published their first papers on matrix mechanics. Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a person can achieve by their own pursuit in certain European and Asian countries Private docent (abbreviates PD or Priv-Doz) is a title conferred in some European university systems especially in German -speaking countries Matrix mechanics is a formulation of Quantum mechanics created by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan in 1925 [13] [14]

In 1925, Born and Werner Heisenberg formulated the matrix mechanics representation of quantum mechanics. Werner Heisenberg (5 December 1901 in Würzburg &ndash1 February 1976 in Munich) was a German theoretical physicist best known for enunciating the On July 9, Heisenberg gave Born a paper to review and submit for publication. [15] In the paper, Heisenberg formulated quantum theory avoiding the concrete but unobservable representations of electron orbits by using parameters such as transition probabilities for quantum jumps, which necessitated using two indexes corresponding to the initial and final states. [16] When Born read the paper, he recognized the formulation as one which could be transcribed and extended to the systematic language of matrices,[17] which he had learned from his study under Jakob Rosanes[18] at Breslau University. The University of Wrocław (Uniwersytet Wrocławski Universität Breslau Universitas Wratislaviensis is one of nine universities in Wrocław, Poland Born, with the help of his assistant and former student Pascual Jordan, began immediately to make the transcription and extension, and they submitted their results for publication; the paper was received for publication just 60 days after Heisenberg’s paper. Pascual Jordan (b October 18, 1902 in Hanover, Germany; d July 31, 1980 in Hamburg, Federal Republic [19] A follow-on paper was submitted for publication before the end of the year by all three authors. [20] (A brief review of Born’s role in the development of the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics along with a discussion of the key formula involving the non-commutivity of the probability amplitudes can be found in an article by Jeremy Bernstein. Matrix mechanics is a formulation of Quantum mechanics created by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan in 1925 [21] A detailed historical and technical account can be found in Mehra and Rechenberg’s book The Historical Development of Quantum Theory. Volume 3. The Formulation of Matrix Mechanics and Its Modifications 1925–1926. [22])

Up until this time, matrices were seldom used by physicists; they were considered to belong to the realm of pure mathematics. Broadly speaking pure mathematics is Mathematics motivated entirely for reasons other than application Gustav Mie had used them in a paper on electrodynamics in 1912 and Born had used them in his work on the lattices theory of crystals in 1921. Gustav Adolf Feodor Wilhelm Ludwig Mie ( September 29, 1869 Rostock &ndash February 13, 1957 Freiburg im Breisgau) was While matrices were used in these cases, the algebra of matrices with their multiplication did not enter the picture as they did in the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics. [23]

Born, however, had learned matrix algebra from Rosanes, as already noted, but Born had also learned Hilbert’s theory of integral equations and quadratic forms for an infinite number of variables as was apparent from a citation by Born of Hilbert’s work Grundzüge einer allgemeinen Theorie der Linearen Integralgleichungen published in 1912. In Mathematics, an integral equation is an equation in which an unknown function appears under an Integral sign In Mathematics, a quadratic form is a Homogeneous polynomial of degree two in a number of variables [24] [25] Jordan, too was well equipped for the task. For a number of years, he had been an assistant to Richard Courant at Göttingen in the preparation of Courant and David Hilbert’s book Methoden der mathematischen Physik I, which was published in 1924. Richard Courant (born January 8, 1888 &ndash January 27, 1972) was a German American Mathematician. David Hilbert ( January 23, 1862 &ndash February 14, 1943) was a German Mathematician, recognized as one of the most Year 1924 ( MCMXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [26] This book, fortuitously, contained a great many of the mathematical tools necessary for the continued development of quantum mechanics. In 1926, John von Neumann became assistant to David Hilbert, and he would coin the term Hilbert space to describe the algebra and analysis which were used in the development of quantum mechanics. David Hilbert ( January 23, 1862 &ndash February 14, 1943) was a German Mathematician, recognized as one of the most A neologism (from Greek neo = "new" + logos = "word" is a word that although devised relatively recently in a specific time period has been This article assumes some familiarity with Analytic geometry and the concept of a limit. [27] [28]

In 1928, Albert Einstein nominated Heisenberg, Born, and Jordan for the Nobel Prize in Physics,[29] but it was not to be. Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical The Nobel Prize in Physics (Nobelpriset i fysik is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The announcement of the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1932 was delayed until November 1933. Year 1932 ( MCMXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [30] It was at that time that it was announced Heisenberg had won the Prize for 1932 “for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen”[31] and Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac shared the 1933 Prize "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory". M N O [32] One can rightly ask why Born was not awarded the Prize in 1932 along with Heisenberg – Bernstein gives some speculations on this matter. One of them is related to Jordan joining the Nazi Party on May 1, 1933 and becoming a Storm Trooper. The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 The, abbreviated SA, ( German for "Assault detachment" or "Assault section" usually translated as " stormtroop(ers [33] Hence, Jordan’s Party affiliations and Jordan’s links to Born may have affected Born’s chance at the Prize at that time. Bernstein also notes that when Born won the Prize in 1954, Jordan was still alive, and the Prize was awarded for the statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics, attributable alone to Born. [34]

Heisenberg’s reaction to Born for Heisenberg receiving the Prize for 1932 and to Born for Born receiving the Prize in 1954 are also instructive in evaluating whether Born should have shared the Prize with Heisenberg. On November 25, 1933 Born received a letter from Heisenberg in which he said he had been delayed in writing due to a “bad conscience” that he alone had received the Prize “for work done in Göttingen in collaboration – you, Jordan and I. Events 1034 - Máel Coluim mac Cináeda, King of Scots dies Donnchad, the Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ” Heisenberg went on to say that Born and Jordan’s contribution to quantum mechanics cannot be changed by “a wrong decision from the outside. ”[35] In 1954, Heisenberg wrote an article honoring Max Planck for his insight in 1900. In the article, Heisenberg credited Born and Jordan for the final mathematical formulation of matrix mechanics and Heisenberg went on to stress how great their contributions were to quantum mechanics, which were not “adequately acknowledged in the public eye. ”[36]

Those who received their Ph. D. degrees under Born at Göttingen included Max Delbrück, Walter Elsasser, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim, Robert Oppenheimer, and Victor Weisskopf. Max Ludwig Henning Delbrück ( September 4, 1906 &ndash March 9, 1981) was a German-American Biophysicist and Nobel Walter Maurice Elsasser (born March 20, 1904, in Mannheim, Germany; died October 14, 1991, in Baltimore) was Friedrich Hund (4 February 1896 - 31 March 1997 was a German Physicist from Karlsruhe known for his work on atoms and molecules Pascual Jordan (b October 18, 1902 in Hanover, Germany; d July 31, 1980 in Hamburg, Federal Republic Maria Goeppert-Mayer ( June 28, 1906 &ndash February 20, 1972) was a German -born American Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim ( November 7, 1899, München - October 5, 1985, La Jolla, California, USA was a Weisskopf redirects here For people known under English version of that name see Whitehead. [37] Born’s assistants at the University of Göttingen’s Institute for Theoretical Physics included Enrico Fermi, Werner Heisenberg, Gerhard Herzberg, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, Léon Rosenfeld, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner. Werner Heisenberg (5 December 1901 in Würzburg &ndash1 February 1976 in Munich) was a German theoretical physicist best known for enunciating the Gerhard Herzberg, PC, CC, FRSC, FRS ( December 25, 1904 &ndash March 3, 1999) was a pioneering Friedrich Hund (4 February 1896 - 31 March 1997 was a German Physicist from Karlsruhe known for his work on atoms and molecules Pascual Jordan (b October 18, 1902 in Hanover, Germany; d July 31, 1980 in Hamburg, Federal Republic Léon Rosenfeld (1904 &ndash 1974 was a Belgian Physicist. He obtained a PhD at the University of Liege in 1926 and he was a collaborator of the physicist Edward Teller (original Hungarian name Teller Ede) (January 15 1908 &ndash September 9 2003 was a Hungarian -American theoretical Physicist Eugene Paul "EP" Wigner ( Hungarian Wigner Pál Jenő) ( November 17, 1902 &ndash January 1, 1995) was a [38] [39] [40] Walter Heitler became an assistant to Born in 1928 and under Born completed his Habilitation in 1929. Walter Heinrich Heitler ( 2 January 1904 &ndash 15 November 1981) was a German physicist who made contributions to Quantum electrodynamics Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a person can achieve by their own pursuit in certain European and Asian countries [41] Born not only recognized talent to work with him, but he let his “superstars stretch past him. ” [42] His Ph. D. student Delbrück, and six of his assistants (Fermi, Heisenberg, Goeppert-Mayer, Herzberg, Pauli, Wigner) went on to win Nobel Prizes. The Nobel Prize (Nobelpriset (Nobelprisen is a Swedish prize established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Peace, Literature

In a letter to Born in 1926, Einstein made his famous remark regarding quantum mechanics, often paraphrased as "The Old One does not play dice. "[43]

In 1933 Born emigrated from Germany. He had strong and public pacifist opinions; moreover, though Born was a Lutheran, he was classified as a "Jew" by the Nazi racial laws due to his ancestry, and was thus stripped of his professorship. The Nuremberg Laws ( German: Nürnberger Gesetze) of 1935 were denaturalization laws passed in Nazi Germany. He took up a position as Stokes Lecturer at the University of Cambridge. The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University) located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the From 1936 to 1953 he was Tait Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh. For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from The University of Edinburgh (Oilthigh Dhùn Èideann founded in 1582 is a renowned centre for teaching and research in Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. He became a British subject and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1939. In British nationality law, the term British subject has at different times had different meanings The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 [44]

Born had a dislike for nuclear weapons research, but he still acknowledged “it might be the only way out. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. ”[45] Much of the theoretical power behind the development of the first atomic bomb was due to many of those surrounding him at Göttingen and working on atomic physics and quantum mechanics: three of his Ph. Atomic physics (or atom physics) is the field of Physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of Electrons and an atomic nucleus. D. students (Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Oppenheimer and Weisskopf), three of his assistants (Fermi, Teller, and Wigner), the Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics (James Franck), and David Hilbert’s assistant (John von Neumann). David Hilbert ( January 23, 1862 &ndash February 14, 1943) was a German Mathematician, recognized as one of the most [46]

Max and Hedwig Born retired to Bad Pyrmont (10 km south of Hamelin (Hameln)) in Germany, in 1954. Bad Pyrmont is a city in the district of Hamelin-Pyrmont, in Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen Germany, with a population of 22000 (2003 Hamelin (German Hameln) is a town on the river Weser in Lower Saxony, Germany. [47]

Born was one of the 11 signatories to the Russell-Einstein Manifesto. The Russell-Einstein Manifesto was issued in London on July 9, 1955 by Bertrand Russell in the midst of the Cold War.

Born died in Göttingen, Germany. Göttingen ( ˈgœtɪŋən, Low German: Chöttingen is a College town in Lower Saxony, Germany. He is buried there in the same cemetery as Walther Nernst, Wilhelm Weber, Max von Laue, Max Planck, and David Hilbert. Walther Hermann Nernst ( June 25, 1864 &ndash November 18, 1941) was a German Physicist who is known for his theories Wilhelm Eduard Weber ( October 24, 1804 &ndash June 23, 1891) was a German Physicist. Max Theodor Felix von Laue ( October 9, 1879 &ndash April 24, 1960) was a German physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics David Hilbert ( January 23, 1862 &ndash February 14, 1943) was a German Mathematician, recognized as one of the most

Max-Born-Prize

In memory of his important contributions, a Max-Born-Prize was created by the German Physical Society and the British Institute of Physics. The Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft ( DPG, German Physical Society is the world's largest organization of physicists The Institute of Physics (IOP is the UK and Ireland 's main professional body for Physicists It was founded as the Physical Society It is awarded annually.

Published works

During his life, Born wrote several semi-popular and technical books. His volumes on topics like atomic physics and optics were very well-received and are considered classics in their fields which are still in print. Atomic physics (or atom physics) is the field of Physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of Electrons and an atomic nucleus. The following is a listing of his major works:

Selected Journal Literature

While links have been provided in this article to journal publications by Born, a few of his papers are worth highlighting here along with citations to translations in English.

Matrix Mechanics A trilogy of papers launched the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics:

Probability Density The now-standard interpretation of the probability density function for ψ*ψ in the Schrödinger equation of quantum mechanics was published by Born in the first of these two papers, and it is this for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1954. In Mathematics, a probability density function (pdf is a function that represents a Probability distribution in terms of Integrals Formally a probability The second paper is a continuation and extension of the analysis provided in the first paper.

Awards and honors

See also

Bibliography

References

  1. ^ His Ph. D. thesis in mathematics was defended at the University of Göttingen on June 13, 1906: Untersuchungen über die Stabilität der elastischen Linie in Ebene und Raum, unter verschiedenen Grenzbedingungen. The University of Göttingen ( German: Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) is a University in the city of Göttingen, Germany. Events 1525 - Martin Luther marries Katharina von Bora, against the Celibacy rule decreed by the Roman Catholic Church for Year 1906 ( MCMVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting It was awarded magna cum laude. Latin honors are Latin phrases used to indicate the level of academic distinction with which an Academic degree was earned See Greenspan, 2005, pp. 35-36 and Max Born’s Life.
  2. ^ The Habiliation was done at the University of Göttingen, on October 23, 1909: Über das Thomson'sche Atommodell Hablitations-Vortag (FAM, 1909). The University of Göttingen ( German: Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) is a University in the city of Göttingen, Germany. See Greenspan, 2005, pp. 49, 51, and 353.
  3. ^ Hilbert and Klein were colleagues at the University of Königsberg. The University of Königsberg (Albertus-Universität Königsberg was the University of Königsberg, East Prussia. Klein brought Hilbert to Göttingen. Then, Hilbert brought Minkowski.
  4. ^ Since the lectures were the creation of the lecturer and not take from a textbook, the scribe performed a very important function.
  5. ^ Greenspan, 2005, 26-34.
  6. ^ Greenspan, 2005, pp. 49, 53, and 353.
  7. ^ It was at the boarding house that Paul Peter Ewald met Ella Philipson, who was to become his wife. They had a daughter, Rose. Hans Bethe, who got his doctorate from Sommerfeld in 1928, met Rose at Duke University in 1937, and they were married in 1938. Hans Albrecht Bethe (/hans ˈalbʀɛçt ˈbeːtə/ ( July 2 1906 &ndash March 6, 2005) was a German - American Physicist Duke University is a private Research University located in Durham, North Carolina, United States. See Greenspan, 2005, p. 53. Also see Hans Bethe – New York Times.
  8. ^ Greenspan, 2005, p. 53.
  9. ^ James Franck took the dual position of ordinarius professor and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics at Göttingen. Within the field of Physics, experimental physics is the category of disciplines and sub-disciplines concerned with the Observation of physical Phenomena See Nobel Prize Biography.
  10. ^ Greenspan, 2005, pp. 96-97.
  11. ^ Max Born – Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1954: The statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics.
  12. ^ Max Born Zur Quantenmechanik der Stoßvorgänge, Zeitschrift für Physik 37 863-867 (1926). Received June 25, 1926. Published 10 July 1926.
  13. ^ Greenspan, 2005, pp. 113, 120, and 123.
  14. ^ Jungnickel, Christa and Russell McCormmach. Intellectual Mastery of Nature. Theoretical Physics from Ohm to Einstein, Volume 2: The Now Mighty Theoretical Physics, 1870 to 1925. University of Chicago Press, Paper cover, 1990. The University of Chicago Press is the largest University press in the United States ISBN 0-226-41585-6. pp. 274, and 281-285 and 350-354.
  15. ^ W. Heisenberg, Über quantentheoretishe Umdeutung kinematisher und mechanischer Beziehungen, Zeitschrift für Physik, 33, 879-893, 1925 (received July 29, 1925). [English translation in: B. L. van der Waerden, editor, Sources of Quantum Mechanics (Dover Publications, 1968) ISBN 0-486-61881-1 (English title: “Quantum-Theoretical Re-interpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations”). ]
  16. ^ Emilio Segrè, From X-Rays to Quarks: Modern Physicists and their Discoveries (W. Emilio Gino Segrè ( February 1, 1905 – April 22, 1989) was an Italian Physicist and Nobel laureate in H. Freeman and Company, 1980) ISBN 0-7167-1147-8, pp 153 - 157.
  17. ^ Abraham Pais, Niels Bohr’s Times in Physics, Philosophy, and Polity (Clarendon Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-852049-2, pp 275 - 279. Abraham (Bram Pais (May 19 1918 Amsterdam, The Netherlands &mdash July 28 2000 Copenhagen, Denmark) was a Dutch -born American
  18. ^ Max Born – Nobel Lecture (1954)
  19. ^ M. Born and P. Jordan, Zur Quantenmechanik, Zeitschrift für Physik, 34, 858-888, 1925 (received September 27, 1925). [English translation in: B. L. van der Waerden, editor, Sources of Quantum Mechanics (Dover Publications, 1968) ISBN 0-486-61881-1]
  20. ^ M. Born, W. Heisenberg, and P. Jordan, Zur Quantenmechanik II, Zeitschrift für Physik, 35, 557-615, 1925 (received November 16, 1925). [English translation in: B. L. van der Waerden, editor, Sources of Quantum Mechanics (Dover Publications, 1968) ISBN 0-486-61881-1]
  21. ^ Jeremy Bernstein Max Born and the Quantum Theory, Am. J. Phys. 73 (11) 999-1008 (2005)
  22. ^ Mehra, Volume 3 (Springer, 2001)
  23. ^ Jammer, 1966, pp. 206-207.
  24. ^ van der Waerden, 1968, p. Bartel Leendert van der Waerden ( February 2 1903, Amsterdam, Netherlands – January 12 1996, Zürich, 51.
  25. ^ The citation by Born was in Born and Jordan's paper, the second paper in the trilogy which launched the matrix mechanics formulation. See van der Waerden, 1968, p. 351.
  26. ^ Constance Ried Courant (Springer, 1996) p. 93.
  27. ^ John von Neumann Allgemeine Eigenwerttheorie Hermitescher Funktionaloperatoren, Mathematische Annalen 102 49–131 (1929)
  28. ^ When von Neumann left Göttingen in 1932, his book on the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics, based on Hilbert’s mathematics, was published under the title Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik. See: Norman Macrae, John von Neumann: The Scientific Genius Who Pioneered the Modern Computer, Game Theory, Nuclear Deterrence, and Much More (Reprinted by the American Mathematical Society, 1999) and Constance Reid, Hilbert (Springer-Verlag, 1996) ISBN 0-387-94674-8. Norman Macrae is a British Author, born in 1923 Considered one of the world's best Forecasters when it came to Economics and Society The American Mathematical Society (AMS is an association of professional Mathematicians dedicated to the interests of mathematical research and scholarship which Constance Bowman Reid (born January 3, 1918 in St Louis Missouri)is the author of several biographies of mathematicians and popular books about mathematics
  29. ^ Bernstein, 2004, p. 1004.
  30. ^ Greenspan, 2005, p. 190.
  31. ^ Nobel Prize in Physics and 1933 – Nobel Prize Presentation Speech. The Nobel Prize in Physics (Nobelpriset i fysik is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
  32. ^ Nobel Prize in Physics and 1933 – Nobel Prize Presentation Speech. The Nobel Prize in Physics (Nobelpriset i fysik is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
  33. ^ Bernstein, 2005, p. 1004.
  34. ^ Bernstein, 2005, p. 1006.
  35. ^ Greenspan, 2005, p. 191.
  36. ^ Greenspan, 2005, pp. 285-286.
  37. ^ Sources for History of Quantum Physics
  38. ^ Sources for History of Quantum Physics
  39. ^ Greenspan, 2005, pp. 178 and 262.
  40. ^ Biography on Gerhard Herzberg - National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
  41. ^ Author Catalog: Heitler – American Philosophical Society
  42. ^ Greenspan, 2005, p. 143.
  43. ^ Letter from A. Einstein to M. Born dated December 12, 1926 [Max Born, Physics in my generation, Springer-Verlag, New York (1969), p. 113]. Also: ". . . Even the great initial success of the quantum theory does not make me believe in the fundamental dice-game. . . " --Albert Einstein, 7 September, 1944 (p. 149). The Correspondence between Albert Einstein and Max and Hedwig Born 1916-1955 with commentaries by Max Born, ISBN 0-8027-0326-7
  44. ^ Born was elected to the Royal Society in March and received his Certificate of Naturalization on August 31, 1939, one day before World War II broke out in Europe. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including See Greenspan, 2005, p. 226.
  45. ^ Greenspan, 2005, p. 239.
  46. ^ Students, assistants, and colleagues of Born at Göttingen who worked on the Manhattan Project:
    • Maria Goeppert-Mayer – Worked on the Manhattan Project with Harold Urey at Columbia University on isotope separation. The World War II Manhattan Project developed the first Nuclear weapon (atomic bomb Harold Clayton Urey ( April 29, 1893 &ndash January 5, 1981) was an American Physical chemist whose pioneering work Columbia University is a private University in the United States and a member of the Ivy League. Isotope separation is the process of concentrating specific Isotopes of a Chemical element by removing other isotopes for example separating Natural uranium
    • Robert Oppenheimer – Director of Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) - One of the four major sites of the Manhattan Engineering District. Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL (previously known at various times as Site Y, Los Alamos Laboratory, and Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory) is a The World War II Manhattan Project developed the first Nuclear weapon (atomic bomb
    • Victor Weisskopf – Head of T-3 Group, Experiments, Efficiency Calculations, and Radiation Hydrodynamics, LASL
    • Enrico Fermi – Director of Research, Met Lab of the University of Chicago - One of the four major sites of the Manhattan Engineering District. The Metallurgical Laboratory or "Met Lab" at the University of Chicago was part of the World War II –era Manhattan Project, created by the The University of Chicago is a Private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago.
    • Edward Teller – Head of T-1 Group, Hydrodynamics of Implosion and Super, LASL
    • Eugene Wigner – Director of Theoretical Studies, Met Lab
    • James Franck – Director of the Chemistry Division, Met Lab, and Chairman of the Committee on Political and Social Problems
    • John von Neumann – LASL consultant on implosion mechanism for the plutonium bomb. (Neumann was assistant to David Hilbert at Göttingen and was greatly influenced by both David Hilbert’s and Max Born’s work. David Hilbert ( January 23, 1862 &ndash February 14, 1943) was a German Mathematician, recognized as one of the most Neumann applied the mathematics of Hilbert space to Born’s quantum mechanics, and, in 1932, his foundational book on the mathematical underpinnings of quantum mechanics, Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik, was published. This article assumes some familiarity with Analytic geometry and the concept of a limit. )
  47. ^ Biographical Sketch from the German Historical Museum
  48. ^ Greenspan, 2005, pp. 49, 51, and 353.
  49. ^ Greenspan, 2005, p. 352.
  50. ^ Greenspan, 2005, pp. 66, 110, and 115.
  51. ^ A new edition of Dynamical Theory of Crystal Lattices is available from Oxford University Press in hard cover ISBN 978-0-19-850369-9 and in soft cover ISBN 0-19-850369-5.
  52. ^ Greenspan, 2005, p. 100.
  53. ^ Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, Dover Publications, 1962 edition, ISBN 0-486-60769-0. Dover Publications is an American book Publisher founded in 1941 by Hayward Cirker and his wife Blanche
  54. ^ Greenspan, 2005, p. 352.
  55. ^ AIP Niels Bohr Library and AbeBooks: Search on Mechanics of the Atom.
  56. ^ Greenspan, 2005, p. 132.
  57. ^ Problems of Atomic Dynamics is available from MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-52019-2, and Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-43873-2.
  58. ^ Greenspan, 2005, pp. 159-160.
  59. ^ Jungnickel, Volume 2, 1990, p. 378.
  60. ^ Principles of Optics is now in its 7th revised printing, ISBN 0-521-64222-1. The first 5 revised editions were done by Pergamon Press (1959 - 1975). The last 2 were done by Cambridge University Press in 1980 and 1999. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534
  61. ^ Paul Rosbaud, a former editor at Springer who remained in Germany during World War II and spied for the allies, was initially involved with Born and the endeavor to publish Optik in English, as Rosbaud was organizing a publishing company in England after the war. Paul Rosbaud ( November 18, 1896 &ndash January 28, 1963) was a chemist and scientific adviser for Springer Verlag in Germany and during The publishing company did not materialize, and Rosbaud eventually joined Pergamon Press. (Greenspan, 2005, pp. 292-294. )
  62. ^ Greenspan, 2005, pp. 174, 292-294.
  63. ^ Greenspan, 2005, p. 201.
  64. ^ The eighth edition was published in 1969, including revisions by R. J. Blin-Stoyle & J. M. Radcliffe. The 8th edition of Atomic Physics is available from Dover Publications in paper cover, ISBN 0-486-65984-4. Dover Publications is an American book Publisher founded in 1941 by Hayward Cirker and his wife Blanche
  65. ^ The Restless Universe was last published by Dover Publications, 1951, ISBN 0-486-20412-X, but it is no longer in print.
  66. ^ Greenspan, 2005, p. 201.
  67. ^ Greenspan, 2005, 245-246 and AbeBooks
  68. ^ Citations for Max Born Based on the Library of Congress - See the entry for Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance. Also see Greenspan, 2005, p. 352.
  69. ^ Physics in My Generation (Springer, 1969), ISBN 0-387-90008-X.
  70. ^ AIP Niels Bohr Library
  71. ^ AIP Niels Bohr Library
  72. ^ The Born-Einstein Letters, Macmillan Publishers, 2004, ISBN 1-4039-4496-2. Macmillan Publishers Ltd, also known as The Macmillan Group, is a privately-held International Publishing company owned by Georg von Holtzbrinck
  73. ^ My Life: Recollections of a Nobel Laureate was also published by Taylor and Francis/Charles Scribner's Sons, ISBN 0-85066-174-9. Taylor & Francis Group is an international company originating in the United Kingdom which publishes books and academic journals Charles Scribner's Sons is a publisher The firm published Scribner's Magazine for many years No longer in print.
  74. ^ Born Biographic Data
  75. ^ Born Biographic Data
  76. ^ The award was presented for research on quantum mechanics of fields and shared with Born's collaborator H. W. Peng. See Greenspan, 2005, p. 257 and Born Biographic Data.
  77. ^ Born Biographic Data
  78. ^ Born Biographic Data
  79. ^ Born Biographic Data
  80. ^ Born Biographic Data
  81. ^ Born Biographic Data
  82. ^ Born Biographic Data
  83. ^ Nobel Biographic Data
  84. ^ James Franck und Max Born in Göttingen: Reden zur akademischen Feier aus Anlass der 100. Wiederkehr ihres Geburtsjahres. (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983). Speeches by Norbert Kamp, Peter Haasen, Gerhart W. Rathenau, and Friedrich Hund. Friedrich Hund (4 February 1896 - 31 March 1997 was a German Physicist from Karlsruhe known for his work on atoms and molecules Franck was Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics at Göttingen, while Born was Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics.

External links



Persondata
NAME Born, Max
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION Physicist
DATE OF BIRTH December 11, 1882
PLACE OF BIRTH Breslau, Germany
DATE OF DEATH January 5, 1970
PLACE OF DEATH Göttingen, Germany
John L Heilbron ( J L Heilbron) is an American historian of science best known for his work in the History of physics and the History Paul Forman is an historian of science and a curator of the Division of Medicine and Science at the National Museum of American History. A physicist is a Scientist who studies or practices Physics. Physicists study a wide range of physical phenomena in many branches of physics spanning Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Year 1882 ( MDCCCLXXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Wrocław (Breslau Vratislav Vratislavia or Wratislavia Yiddish: ברעסלוי) is the chief City of the historical region of Lower Silesia Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Events 1477 - Battle of Nancy: Charles the Bold is killed and Burgundy becomes part of France. Year 1970 ( MCMLXX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Göttingen ( ˈgœtɪŋən, Low German: Chöttingen is a College town in Lower Saxony, Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.
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