In science, matter is commonly defined as the substance of which physical objects are composed, not counting the contribution of various energy or force-fields, which are not usually considered to be matter per se (though they may contribute to the mass of objects). Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object Matter constitutes much of the observable universe, although again, light is not ordinarily considered matter. In Big Bang Cosmology, the observable universe is the region of space bounded by a Sphere, centered on the observer that is small enough that Unfortunately, for scientific purposes, "matter" is somewhat loosely defined. It is normally defined as anything that has mass and takes up space.

Matter can be in several different states, the most common being solids, liquids and gases. A solid' object is in the States of matter characterized by resistance to Deformation and changes of Volume. Liquid is one of the principal States of matter. A liquid is a Fluid that has the particles loose and can freely form a distinct surface at the boundaries of This page is about the physical properties of gas as a state of matter

Definition

Anything which occupies space and has mass is known as matter. Space is the extent within which Matter is physically extended and objects and Events have positions relative to one another Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object In physics, there is no broad consensus as to an exact definition of matter. Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Physicists generally do not use the saying when precision is needed, preferring instead to speak of the more clearly defined concepts of mass, energy, and particles. Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός

A possible definition of matter which at least some physicists use is that matter is everything that is composed of elementary fermions^[1]. In Particle physics, fermions are particles which obey Fermi-Dirac statistics; they are named after Enrico Fermi. These are the leptons, including the electron, and the quarks, including the up and down quarks of which protons and neutrons are made. Leptons are a family of fundamental Subatomic particles comprising the Electron, the Muon, and the Tauon (or tau particle as well as their The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J In Physics, a quark (kwɔrk kwɑːk or kwɑːrk is a type of Subatomic particle. In Physics, a quark (kwɔrk kwɑːk or kwɑːrk is a type of Subatomic particle. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. Since protons, neutrons and electrons combine to form atoms and molecules, thus they comprise the bulk substances which make up all ordinary matter. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by Matter also includes the various other baryons, but excludes the "true mesons". Baryons are the family of Subatomic particles with a Baryon number of 1 In Particle physics, a meson is a strongly interacting Boson &mdashthat is a Hadron with integer spin. The key relevant property of fermions is that they have half-integral spin (ie, 1/2, 3/2, 5/2,. . . ,etc. ) and thus, by the spin-statistics theorem of quantum field theory, obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle, which forbids two fermions from occupying the same quantum state. The spin-statistics theorem in Quantum mechanics relates the spin of a particle to the statistics obeyed by that particle In quantum field theory (QFT the forces between particles are mediated by other particles The Pauli exclusion principle is a quantum mechanical principle formulated by Wolfgang Pauli in 1925 This seems to correspond closely to the more primitive notion that matter is "impenetrable", and takes up space.

On this view, things which are not matter include light (photons), gravitons, mesons (except for the muon, a lepton which was misnamed a meson before the distinction became clear) and the other gauge bosons. Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 In Physics, the photon is the Elementary particle responsible for electromagnetic phenomena In Physics, the graviton is a hypothetical Elementary particle, a Boson to be exact that mediates the force of Gravity in the framework In Particle physics, a meson is a strongly interacting Boson &mdashthat is a Hadron with integer spin. The muon (from the letter mu (μ--used to represent it is an Elementary particle with negative Electric charge and a spin of 1/2 In Particle physics, bosons are particles which obey Bose-Einstein statistics; they are named after Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein These all have half-even spin (0,1,2,. . . ), do not respect the Exclusion Principle, and so do not occupy space in the same sense. These may all be regarded as field quanta, and may be exchanged freely by fermions without the fermions changing their own statistics, or thus their essential identity. In quantum field theory (QFT the forces between particles are mediated by other particles However, these bosons do always have energy and, (according to the mass-energy equivalence of special relativity) therefore mass, so that under this definition some particles have mass without being matter: W and Z bosons have rest mass, but are not elementary fermions. In Physics, mass–energy equivalence is the concept that for particles slower than light any Mass has an associated Energy and vice versa. Special relativity (SR (also known as the special theory of relativity or STR) is the Physical theory of Measurement in Inertial The W and Z bosons are the Elementary particles that mediate the Weak force. The W and Z bosons are the Elementary particles that mediate the Weak force. In Particle physics, bosons are particles which obey Bose-Einstein statistics; they are named after Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object In Particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle not known to have substructure that is it is not known to be made In Particle physics, fermions are particles which obey Fermi-Dirac statistics; they are named after Enrico Fermi. Also, any two photons which are not moving parallel to each other, taken as a system, have an invariant mass. In Physics, the photon is the Elementary particle responsible for electromagnetic phenomena Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object Glueballs have mass due to their binding energy, but contain no particle with rest mass, nor any elementary fermions. In Particle physics, a glueball is a strongly interacting particle containing no valence Quarks It is composed entirely of Gluons Such a state Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object Binding energy is the Mechanical energy required to disassemble a whole into separate parts Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object In Particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle not known to have substructure that is it is not known to be made In Particle physics, fermions are particles which obey Fermi-Dirac statistics; they are named after Enrico Fermi.

Most of the mass of protons and neutrons comes from the binding energy between the quarks, not the masses of the quarks themselves. Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. Binding energy is the Mechanical energy required to disassemble a whole into separate parts In Physics, a quark (kwɔrk kwɑːk or kwɑːrk is a type of Subatomic particle. In Physics, a quark (kwɔrk kwɑːk or kwɑːrk is a type of Subatomic particle. One of the three types of neutrinos may be massless. Neutrinos are Elementary particles that travel close to the Speed of light, lack an Electric charge, are able to pass through ordinary matter almost

Properties of matter

Quarks combine to form hadrons. In Physics, a quark (kwɔrk kwɑːk or kwɑːrk is a type of Subatomic particle. In Particle physics, a hadron ( from the ἁδρός hadrós, " stout, thick " ( Because of the principle of color confinement which occurs in the strong interaction, quarks never exist unbound from other quarks. Color confinement, often called just confinement, is the Physics phenomenon that Color charged particles (such as Quarks cannot be isolated singularly In particle physics the strong interaction, or strong force, or color force, holds Quarks and Gluons together to form Protons and Among the hadrons are the proton and the neutron. Usually these nuclei are surrounded by a cloud of electrons. A nucleus with as many electrons as protons is thus electrically neutral and is called an atom, otherwise it is an ion. History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge

Leptons do not feel the strong force and so can exist unbound from other particles. On Earth, electrons are generally bound in atoms, but it is easy to free them, a fact which is exploited in the cathode ray tube. The cathode ray tube (CRT is a Vacuum tube containing an Electron gun (a source of electrons and a Fluorescent screen with internal or Muons may briefly form bound states known as muonic atoms. Muonium particles are Exotic atoms made up of an Antimuon and an Electron, and are given the chemical symbol. Neutrinos feel neither the strong nor the electromagnetic interactions. In Physics, the electromagnetic force is the force that the Electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles They are never bound to other particles. ^[1]

Homogeneous matter has a uniform composition and properties. It may be a mixture, such as brass, a chemical compound like water, or elemental, like pure iron. Brass is any Alloy of Copper and Zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Heterogeneous matter, such as granite, does not have a definite composition. Granite (ˈɡrænɪt is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, Felsic, igneous rock.

Phases

In bulk, matter can exist in several different phases, according to pressure and temperature. In the Physical sciences a phase is a Set of states of a macroscopic physical system that have relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties Pressure (symbol 'p' is the force per unit Area applied to an object in a direction perpendicular to the surface Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold something that is hotter generally has the greater temperature A phase is a state of a macroscopic physical system that has relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties (i. e. density, crystal structure, index of refraction, and so forth). The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different In Mineralogy and Crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of Atoms in a Crystal. The refractive index (or index of Refraction) of a medium is a measure for how much the speed of light (or other waves such as sound waves is reduced inside the medium These phases include the three familiar ones — solids, liquids, and gases — as well as plasmas, superfluids, supersolids, Bose-Einstein condensates, fermionic condensates, liquid crystals, strange matter and quark-gluon plasmas. A solid' object is in the States of matter characterized by resistance to Deformation and changes of Volume. Liquid is one of the principal States of matter. A liquid is a Fluid that has the particles loose and can freely form a distinct surface at the boundaries of This page is about the physical properties of gas as a state of matter In Physics and Chemistry, plasma is an Ionized Gas, in which a certain proportion of Electrons are free rather than being bound Superfluidity is a phase of matter or description of Heat capacity in which unusual effects are observed when Liquids, typically of Helium-4 A supersolid is a spatially ordered material (that is a Solid or Crystal) with Superfluid properties A Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC is a State of matter of Bosons confined in an external Potential and cooled to Temperatures very near to A fermionic condensate is a Superfluid phase formed by Fermionic particles at low Temperatures It is closely related to the Bose-Einstein Liquid crystals are substances that exhibit a phase of matter that has properties between those of a conventional Liquid, and those of a Solid For the physics concept see Strange matter. Strange Matter is a Children's book series created by Marty M A quark-gluon plasma (QGP is a phase of Quantum chromodynamics (QCD which exists at extremely high Temperature and/or Density. There are also the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism which occurs only in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as Iron) form Permanent magnets and/or exhibit strong interactions with Magnets it A magnet (from Greek grc μαγνήτης λίθος " Magnesian stone" is a material or object that produces a Magnetic field. As conditions change, matter may change from one phase into another. These phenomena are called phase transitions, and their energetics are studied in the field of thermodynamics. In Thermodynamics, phase transition or phase change is the transformation of a thermodynamic system from one phase to another In Physics, thermodynamics (from the Greek θερμη therme meaning " Heat " and δυναμις dynamis meaning "

In small quantities, matter can exhibit properties that are entirely different from those of bulk material and may not be well described by any phase.

Phases are sometimes called states of matter, but this term can lead to confusion with thermodynamic states. In Physics, thermodynamics (from the Greek θερμη therme meaning " Heat " and δυναμις dynamis meaning " For example, two gases maintained at different pressures are in different thermodynamic states, but the same "state of matter".

Chemical matter

Chemical matter is the part of the universe which is made of chemical atoms. History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny This part of the universe does not include dark energy, dark matter, black holes or various forms of degenerate matter, such as compose white dwarf stars and neutron stars. In Physical cosmology, dark energy is a hypothetical exotic form of Energy that permeates all of space and tends to increase the rate of expansion of the universe In Physics and cosmology, dark matter is hypothetical Matter that does not interact with the electromagnetic force but whose presence can be inferred from A black hole is a theoretical region of space in which the Gravitational field is so powerful that nothing not even Electromagnetic radiation (e A white dwarf, also called a degenerate dwarf, is a small Star composed mostly of Electron-degenerate matter. A neutron star is a type of remnant that can result from the Gravitational collapse of a massive Star during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Recent data from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), suggests that only about 4% of the total mass of the part of the universe which is within range of the best theoretical telescopes (i. e. , which may be visible, because light has reached us from it), is made of chemical matter. About 22% is dark matter, and about 74% is dark energy. ^[2]

Antimatter

Main article: Antimatter

In particle physics and quantum chemistry, antimatter is matter that is composed of the antiparticles of those that constitute normal matter. In Particle physics and Quantum chemistry, antimatter is the extension of the concept of the Antiparticle to Matter, where antimatter is composed Particle physics is a branch of Physics that studies the elementary constituents of Matter and Radiation, and the interactions between them Quantum chemistry is a branch of Theoretical chemistry, which applies Quantum mechanics and Quantum field theory to address issues and problems in to most kinds of particles, there is an associated antiparticle with the same Mass and opposite Electric charge. If a particle and its antiparticle come into contact with each other, the two annihilate; that is, they may both be converted into other particles with equal energy in accordance with Einstein's equation E = mc². Annihilation is defined as "total destruction" or "complete obliteration" of an object having its root in the Latin nihil (nothing In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical In Physics, mass–energy equivalence is the concept that for particles slower than light any Mass has an associated Energy and vice versa. These new particles may be high-energy photons (gamma rays) or other particle–antiparticle pairs. In Physics, the photon is the Elementary particle responsible for electromagnetic phenomena Gamma rays (denoted as &gamma) are a form of Electromagnetic radiation or light emission of frequencies produced by sub-atomic particle interactions The resulting particles are endowed with an amount of kinetic energy equal to the difference between the rest mass of the products of the annihilation and the rest mass of the original particle-antiparticle pair, which is often quite large.

Antimatter is not found naturally on Earth, except very briefly and in vanishingly small quantities (as the result of radioactive decay or cosmic rays). Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. For the 1962 Bruce Conner film see Cosmic Ray (film Cosmic rays are energetic particles originating from space that impinge on This is because antimatter which came to exist on Earth outside the confines of a suitable physics laboratory would almost instantly meet the ordinary matter that Earth is made of, and be annihilated. Antiparticles and some stable antimatter (such as antihydrogen) can be made in tiny amounts, but not in enough quantity to do more than test a few of its theoretical properties. Antihydrogen is the Antimatter counterpart of Hydrogen. Whereas the common hydrogen Atom is composed of an Electron and Proton

There is considerable speculation both in science and science fiction as to why the observable universe is apparently almost entirely matter, whether other places are almost entirely antimatter instead, and what might be possible if antimatter could be harnessed, but at this time the apparent asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great unsolved problems in physics. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Asymmetry is the absence of or a violation of a Symmetry. In organisms Due to how cells divide in Organisms asymmetry in organisms is This is a list of some of the major unsolved problems in Physics. Possible processes by which it came about are explored in more detail under baryogenesis. In Physical cosmology, baryogenesis is the generic term for hypothetical physical processes that produced an asymmetry between Baryons and anti-baryons in

Dark matter

Main article: Dark matter

In cosmology, effects at the largest scales seem to indicate the presence of incredible amounts of dark matter which is not associated with electromagnetic radiation. In Physics and cosmology, dark matter is hypothetical Matter that does not interact with the electromagnetic force but whose presence can be inferred from Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study Observational evidence of the early universe and big bang require that this matter have energy and mass, but is not composed of either elementary fermions (as above) OR gauge bosons. The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the Universe that is best supported by all lines of scientific evidence and Observation. As such, it is composed of particles as yet unobserved in the laboratory (perhaps supersymmetric particles). In Particle physics, supersymmetry (often abbreviated SUSY) is a Symmetry that relates elementary particles of one spin to another particle that

Exotic matter

Main article: Exotic matter

See also

• Particle physics

References

1. ^ ^{a b} Povh, Rith, Scholz, Zetche, Reigthinger Particles and Nuclei, 1999, ISBN 3540438238
2. ^ Five Year Results on the Oldest Light in the Universe. Exotic matter is a hypothetical concept of Particle physics. It covers any material which violates one or more classical conditions or is not made of known baryonic particles Particle physics is a branch of Physics that studies the elementary constituents of Matter and Radiation, and the interactions between them NASA (2008). Retrieved on May 2, 2008.

External links

• Visionlearning Module on Matter