The Master of Laws is an advanced academic degree, or research degree, and is commonly abbreviated LL. A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing M. (also LLM or LL. M) from its Latin name, Legum Magister. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. (For female students, the less common variant Legum Magistra may also be used. In Linguistics, grammatical genders, sometimes also called Noun classes are classes of nouns reflected in the behavior of associated words every noun must belong ) The LL. M. degree is a course of specialized research pursued after earning a first degree in law (such as a LL.B., B.C.L. or J.D.). The Bachelor of Laws (abbreviated LLB, LLB or rarely LlB) is an undergraduate or bachelor degree in law offered in most Common law Bachelor of Civil Law or BCL is the name of various degrees in Law conferred by English-language universities Juris Doctor (abbreviated JD or JD, from the Latin, Teacher of Law) is a first professional graduate degree and Professional
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Background on legal education in common law countries
In order to become a lawyer and practice law in most states and countries, a person must first obtain a first law degree. While in most common law countries a Bachelor of Laws (or LL. The Bachelor of Laws (abbreviated LLB, LLB or rarely LlB) is an undergraduate or bachelor degree in law offered in most Common law B. ) is required, the U. S. requires a graduate Juris Doctor degree to practice law. Juris Doctor (abbreviated JD or JD, from the Latin, Teacher of Law) is a first professional graduate degree and Professional
If a person wishes to gain specialized knowledge through research in a particular area of law, he or she can continue his or her studies after an LL. B or J. D. in an LL. M. program. The word legum is the genitive plural form of the Latin word lex, which means "of the law". When used in the plural, it signifies a specific body of laws, as opposed to the general collective concept embodied in the word jus, from which the words "juris" and "justice" derive.
The highest research degree in law is the J.S.D. (or S. Doctor of Laws ( Latin: Legum Doctor, LLD) is a Doctorate -level Academic degree in Law. J. D. , depending on the institution), and it is equivalent to the Doctorate of Philosophy in Law (PhD or DPhil depending on the law school in UK) or the Doktor in Rechtswissenschaft (Dr. iur. ) in Germany. There are also variant doctoral degrees, such as the D. C. L. (Doctor of Civil Law) degree bestowed by McGill University in Montreal. Most schools require an LLM before admission to a JSD or a PhD in law degree program. Like the PhD, the JSD degree generally requires a dissertation that is graded (often by two graders), orally defended (by an exam known as Viva) and then often published as a book or series of articles.
International situation
In most countries, lawyers are not required to hold an LL. M degree, and many choose not to obtain one. In fact, the education systems of most countries did not traditionally include LL. M. programs.
Historically, the LL. M. degree is an element particular to the education system of English speaking countries, which is based on a distinction between Bachelor's and Master's degrees. A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and Over the past years, however, specialized LL. M. programs have been introduced in many European countries, even where the Bologna process has not yet been fully implemented. The purpose of the Bologna process (or Bologna accords is to create the European higher education area by making Academic degree standards and quality assurance standards
Types of LL. M. degrees
There is a wide range of LL. M. programs available worldwide, allowing students to focus on almost any area of the law. Most universities offer only a small number of LL. M. programs. One of the most popular LL. M. degrees in the United States is tax law, sometimes referred to as an MLT (Master of Laws in Taxation). "Tax code" redirects here For the term as used in the United Kingdom PAYE system see Tax code (PAYE. Another developing area is bankruptcy law. Bankruptcy is a legally declared inability or impairment of ability of an individual or organization to pay their Creditors Creditors may file a bankruptcy petition against Other common programs include environmental law, human rights law, commercial law, intellectual property law, information technology law, estate planning (as a sub-specialty of tax), international law, maritime law, trial advocacy and insurance law. Environmental law is a complex and interlocking body of Statutes, Common law, Treaties, conventions Regulations and policies which very Human rights law is a system of laws both domestic and international designed to promote human rights Commercial law (sometimes known as business law) is the body of Law which governs Business and commercial transactions Intellectual property ( IP) is a legal field that refers to creations of the mind such as musical literary and artistic works inventions and symbols names Information Technology Law (or IT Law) is a set of recent legal enactments, currently in existence in several countries which governs the process and dissemination International law is the term commonly used for referring to the system of implicit and explicit agreements that bind together nation-states in adherence to recognized values and standards Admiralty law (also referred to as maritime law) is a distinct body of Law which governs maritime questions and offenses Some LL. M. programs, particularly in the United States, focus on teaching foreign lawyers the basic legal principles of the host country (a "comparative law" degree). Moreover, some programs are conducted in more than one language (e. g. LLM in Europa-Institut in Saarbruecken, Germany, were students have the possibility of undertaking courses in German and/ or English). Most LL. M. programs require a thesis.
Requirements
LL. M. programs are usually only open to those students who have first obtained a first degree in law . There are exceptions to this but an undergraduate degree or extensive experience in a related field is still required. Full-time LL. M. programs usually last one year and vary in their graduation requirements. Most programs require students to write a thesis, some do not. Some programs are research oriented with little classroom time (similar to a M. Phil. ), while others require students to take a set number of classes (similar to a taught degree or M. Sc. ).
LL. M. degrees are often earned by students wishing to develop more concentrated expertise in a particular area of law. Pursuing an LL. M. degree may also allow law students to build a professional network. Some associations provide LL. M. degree holders with structures designed to strengthen their connections among peers and to access a competitive business environment.
Australian approach
In Australia, the LLM is open to law graduates. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. However, while the majority who enroll are legal practitioners, this is not a pre-requisite for entry. The shortage of graduate program/articles places has resulted in some LLB graduates proceeding directly to an LLM course prior to seeking graduate employment.
United Kingdom approach
In the United Kingdom, an LLM programme is open to those holding a recognised legal qualification, generally an undergraduate degree in Laws or a CPE. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Common Professional Examination ( CPE) is a postgraduate law course in England and Wales that is taken by non- Law graduates They do not have to be or intend to be legal practitioners. An LLM is not always a sufficient qualification in itself to practice as a solicitor or barrister but is an opportunity to gain specialist knowledge of a particular area of law and/or an understanding of the legal systems of other nations. A "solicitor" is a term used in many Common law jurisdictions for a lawyer who offers legal services outside of the courts A barrister is a Lawyer found in many Common law Jurisdictions that employ a split profession (as opposed to a Fused profession) in relation As with other degrees, an LLM can be studied on a part-time basis at many institutions and in some circumstances by distance learning. Distance education, or distance learning, is a field of education that focuses on the Pedagogy and Andragogy, technology and instructional systems design
Some institutions allow those without legal qualifications onto their LLM programme although there are still minimum educational requirements, such as an undergraduate degree, or evidence of substantial professional experience in a related field. Examples of such institutions include the University of London External System which has been offering LLM studies to both LLB and non-law graduates since 1925 [1], the University of Edinburgh (LLM degree by distance learning [2]) and the University of Leicester [3]. The University of London External System (until recently the University of London External Programme) is the External degree granting division of the University Year 1925 ( MCMXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The University of Edinburgh (Oilthigh Dhùn Èideann founded in 1582 is a renowned centre for teaching and research in Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. In addition, Queen's University offers an LLM suite, accessible to legal and social science graduates, leading to specialisms in sustainable development, corporate governance, devolution or human rights. Queen's University Belfast is a university in Belfast, Northern Ireland.
Indian approach
In India, the thrust of legal education is on the undergraduate law degrees with most of those opting for the undergraduate law degree either going forward to enroll themselves with the Bar Council of India and start practicing as Advocates or giving legal advice without being eligible to appear in courts (a consequence of non-enrollment). India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Legal education is the education of individuals who intend to become legal professionals or those who simply intend to use their law degree to some end either related to law The Bachelor of Laws (abbreviated LLB, LLB or rarely LlB) is an undergraduate or bachelor degree in law offered in most Common law The Bachelor of Laws (abbreviated LLB, LLB or rarely LlB) is an undergraduate or bachelor degree in law offered in most Common law The Bar Council of India is an autonomous body in India which governs the legal/law institutions in India The Bachelor of Laws (abbreviated LLB, LLB or rarely LlB) is an undergraduate or bachelor degree in law offered in most Common law Similar to the United Kingdom, a Masters degree in Law in India is basically opted by those looking forward to either join the academia and teaching profession or to specialize in particular areas of law. In Education, a teacher is one who helps Students or pupils often in a School, as well as in a Family, religious or Traditionally the most popular areas of specialization in these Masters degrees in law in India have been constitutional law, family law and taxation law. Constitutional law is the study of foundational or basic Laws of nation states and other political organizations Family law is an area of the Law that deals with family-related issues and Domestic relations including but not limited to the nature of "Tax code" redirects here For the term as used in the United Kingdom PAYE system see Tax code (PAYE. However with the established of specialized law Universities in India since 1987, much emphasis is being given at the Masters level of legal education in India. The term Autonomous law schools in India refers to the law schools founded in India pursuant to the second-generation reforms for legal education sought to be implemented by the India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The National Law School of India University (NLSIU or NLS is the premier institution for under-graduate and graduate legal education in India With the establishment of these universities, focus in specialization has been shifted to newer areas such as intellectual property law, international trade law etc. Intellectual property ( IP) is a legal field that refers to creations of the mind such as musical literary and artistic works inventions and symbols names International trade law includes the appropriate rules and customs for handling trade between countries or between private companies across borders
United States approach
In the United States of America, the LL. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the M. is a "master's" degree for persons who are already lawyers. A lawyer, according to Black's Law Dictionary, is "a person learned in the law as an attorney, Counsel or Solicitor; a person Historically, the J. D. ("juris doctor") has been seen, and is in most cases, the only professional degree needed for those who wish to "practice" within the law; the LL. M. is seen as an advanced degree which while being more oriented towards academia, is increasingly becoming a useful tool in the specialized legal profession.
Internationally, the LL. M. from selected law schools in the United States can have high status. A law school (also known as a school of law or college of law) is an institution specializing in Legal education. However, since no U. S. state requires an LL. M. to practice law in any area, well over 98% of U. S. lawyers, including those that practice in areas of taxation and international law, do not have LL. M. degrees. As a consequence, the LL. M. degree generally lacks high status among U. S. -schooled lawyers. The LL. M. in the U. S. is most often seen as a way for foreign-schooled lawyers to obtain education requirements to sit for certain Bar exams. On that note, few ABA accredited law schools even offer structured LL. M. programs. Alternatively, an LL. M. is used to obtain a designation other countries will more readily recognize, especially for attorneys who practice international law and international taxation. Sometimes other professional degree-holders, such as accountants, seek an LL. M. , such as in the specialization of tax law.
As a comparison of the degrees, the J. D. requires, according to the rules of the American Bar Association (ABA), the accrual of 90 credits in law beyond an undergraduate diploma and contains a year-long legal writing component and additional seminar with a thesis-type article. The American Bar Association ( ABA) founded August 21 1878 is a voluntary Bar association of Lawyers and law students which is not specific In contrast, an LL. M. requires the accrual of 24 credits in upper-level law courses, with or without a writing component or thesis.
An LL. M. degree is also seen as part of the path for those who wish to become law professors. While the LL. M. is not a requirement for becoming a tenured professor, since the LL. M. provides the opportunity for a focused academic study of law, many professors hold an LL. M.
An LL. M. degree from an ABA-approved law school also allows a foreign lawyer to become eligible to apply for admission to practice in certain states, such as New York. With regard to admitting foreign-educated lawyers to state bars, the United States has disparate rules. The two major states for legal practice, New York and California, take different paths. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. New York allows foreign lawyers to sit for the New York bar exam once they have completed a minimum of twenty credit hours (generally, within an LL. M. program, but not necessarily) at an ABA approved law school involving at least two basic subjects tested on the New York bar exam. In addition, foreign lawyers from civil law countries have to present that they attended at least three years of law studies in their home countries. Lawyers from common law countries face more lenient restrictions. California, on the other hand, allows students who have not completed a three-year legal degree program in American law (or, in very rare circumstances, an apprenticeship) to sit for its bar exam after completing an LL. M. in Comparative Law from an ABA approved law school. The culmination of the two must equal four years of legal study. Other states are similar to California in requiring an LL. M. to be taken by foreign lawyers in order to take the bar exam.
Persons in the United States who obtain an LL. M. do so after they have received their first law degree, thus U. S. law students receive a doctorate degree (or J.D.) first and their Master of Laws degree second. Juris Doctor (abbreviated JD or JD, from the Latin, Teacher of Law) is a first professional graduate degree and Professional This is due to the fact that the professional law degree in the United States was originally called the Bachelor of Laws, abbreviated as LL. B. Although some United States law schools had granted a Juris Doctor degree to graduates holding a bachelor's degree, it wasn't until the late 1960s that the American Bar Association approved the change for all of its affiliated law schools to better represent the academic standing of those holding law degrees. Juris Doctor (abbreviated JD or JD, from the Latin, Teacher of Law) is a first professional graduate degree and Professional The American Bar Association ( ABA) founded August 21 1878 is a voluntary Bar association of Lawyers and law students which is not specific However, the LL. M. name was never changed. Nonetheless, it must be kept in mind that the J. D. and LL. M. differ in that the J. D. program is professionally focused, while the LL. M. program is academic.
Beginning in the summer of 2007, Chapman University School of Law, in Orange, California, began offering an LL. Chapman University School of Law, commonly referred to as Chapman Law, is a private non-profit Law school located in Orange California. M. in Prosecutorial Sciences. Open only to active prosecutors with at least five years experience, the ABA certified program is the first of its kind in the United States. The prosecutor is the chief legal representative of the prosecution in countries with either the Common law Adversarial system, or the civil law
As of 2008, there is also an LL. M. in international law offered by a non-law school, namely the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy.
See also
External links
- American Bar Association (ABA): Overview of Post-J.D. Programs in the U.S.
- LLM-Guide: LLM Programs worldwide. A Master of Studies in Law ( MSL) is a Master's degree offered by some Law schools to students who wish to study the law but do not want to become attorneys
- LLM.uniiks: LLM global database.
- Candidate of Law
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