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This article is about the Judean fortress. For other uses, see Masada (disambiguation).
Siege of Masada
Part of First Jewish-Roman War

Masada National Park
Date Late 72 – early 73
Location Masada in modern-day eastern Israel
31°18′55″N, 35°21′13″E
Result Roman victory
Belligerents
Jewish Sicarii Roman Empire
Commanders
Eleazar ben Yair Lucius Flavius Silva
Strength
960 Legion Tenth Fretensis 4,800
Auxiliaries and slaves 4,000 - 10,000
Casualties and losses
953 Unknown
Masada*
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Dovecote at Masada, where ashes were probably stored — the openings have been shown to be too small for pigeons to fit.
Type Cultural
Criteria iii, iv, vi
Reference 1040
Region† Europe and North America
Inscription history
Inscription 2001  (25th Session)
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List.
† Region as classified by UNESCO.

Masada (a romanisation of the Hebrew מצדה, Metzada, from מצודה, metzuda, "fortress") is the name for a site of ancient palaces and fortifications in the South District of Israel on top of an isolated rock plateau, or large mesa, on the eastern edge of the Judean Desert overlooking the Dead Sea. Year 72 was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 73 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Sicarii (Latin plural of Sicarius 'dagger-' or later contract- killer is a term applied in the decades immediately preceding the destruction of Jerusalem in The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Lucius Flavius Silva was a late- 1st century Roman general governor of the province of Iudaea and consul. A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex This is a list of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Europe. Asia Minor, Cyprus, all of the Aegean Islands, the Canaries A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex In Linguistics, romanization (or latinization, also spelled romanisation or latinisation) is the representation of a Word or A palace is a grand residence especially the home of a Head of state or some other high-ranking Public figure. Fortifications are Military Constructions and Buildings designed for defense in Warfare Humans have constructed defensive works for The South District (מחוז הדרום Mehoz HaDarom) is one of Israel 's six administrative districts, and is the largest in terms of land area as well For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. In Geology and Earth science, a plateau, also called a high plateau or tableland, is an area of highland, usually consisting A mesa ( Spanish, Portuguese and Arabic for "table" is an elevated area of land with a flat top and sides that are usually steep cliffs Judea or Judæa ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard Yəhuda Tiberian Yəhûḏāh, "praised The Dead Sea (יָם הַ‏‏מֶ‏ּ‏לַ‏ח, "Sea of Salt"البَحْر المَيّت, "Dead Sea" is a salt lake between Masada became famous after the First Jewish-Roman War (also known as the Great Jewish Revolt) when a siege of the fortress by troops of the Roman Empire may have led to a mass suicide of the site's Jewish Sicarii fugitives when defeat became imminent. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Mass suicide occurs when a number of people kill themselves together and/or for the same reason PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Sicarii (Latin plural of Sicarius 'dagger-' or later contract- killer is a term applied in the decades immediately preceding the destruction of Jerusalem in Since the sole source of information is Josephus, whose historical accuracy is suspect, this popular conception of mass suicide may not have occurred. Josephus (AD 37 – c 100 also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias and after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus Today, Masada is a very popular tourist destination.

Contents

Geography

The cliffs on the east edge of Masada are about 1,300 feet (400 m) high and the cliffs on the west are about 300 feet (90 m) high; the natural approaches to the cliff top are very difficult. The top of the plateau is flat and rhomboid-shaped, about 1,800 feet (550 m) by 900 feet (275 m). This article is about mathematics For Rhomboid muscles in anatomy see Rhomboid major muscle and Rhomboid minor muscle. There was a casemate wall around the top of the plateau totaling 4,300 feet (1. A casemate, sometimes rendered casement, is a fortified gun emplacement or armored structure from which guns are fired originally a vaulted chamber in a Fortress. 3 km) long and 12 feet (3. 7 m) thick, with many towers, and the fortress included storehouses, barracks, an armory, the palace, and cisterns that were refilled by rainwater. For cisterns in Neuroanatomy, see Cistern (neuroanatomy.For the village in England see Syston. Rain is Liquid precipitation. On Earth it is the condensation of atmospheric Water vapor into drops heavy enough to fall often making it to Three narrow, winding paths led from below up to fortified gates.

History

According to Josephus, a first-century Jewish Roman historian, Herod the Great fortified Masada between 37 and 31 BCE as a refuge for himself in the event of a revolt. Josephus (AD 37 – c 100 also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias and after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Herod (הוֹרְדוֹס Horodos, Greek: Herōdes) also known as Herod I or Herod the Great (73 BC – 4 BC in Jericho In 66 CE, at the beginning of the First Jewish-Roman War against the Roman Empire, a group of Judaic extremist rebels called the Sicarii took Masada from the Roman garrison stationed there. Year 66 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Sicarii (Latin plural of Sicarius 'dagger-' or later contract- killer is a term applied in the decades immediately preceding the destruction of Jerusalem in Garrison (various spellings (from the French garnison, itself from the verb garnir, "to equip" is the collective term for a body of Troops

The accuracy of Josephus' account is key to whether a mass suicide ever took place. Since he was a Jew collaborating with the Romans, it is possible that by describing a mass suicide and murder of other Jews he was attempting to depict the Sicarii as a savage splinter group. [1] But nevertheless, as the sole record of events that took place then, according to Josephus, the Sicarii were an extremist group.

According to some modern interpretations of Josephus, the Sicarii are considered an extremist splinter group of the Zealots. [2] The Zealots (according to Josephus), in contrast to the Sicarii, carried the main burden of the rebellion, which opposed Roman rule of Judea (as the Roman province of Iudaea, its Latinized name). Judea or Judæa ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard Yəhuda Tiberian Yəhûḏāh, "praised In Ancient Rome, a province (Latin provincia, pl provinciae) was the basic and until the Tetrarchy (circa Kingdom of Judea redirects here For the 10th-6th century BCE kingdom see Kingdom of Judah Iudaea ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.

The Sicarii on Masada were commanded by Elazar ben Ya'ir (who may have been the same person as Eleazar ben Simon), and in 70 CE they were joined by additional Sicarii and their families that were expelled from Jerusalem by the Zealots with whom the Sicarii were in conflict shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple. Eleazar ben Simon (c 1st century AD - died c 70 was a Zealot leader in the First Jewish-Roman War against Roman leaders Vespasian and Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the The Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 AD It was a decisive event in the First Jewish-Roman War, followed by the fall of Masada in 73 The Second Temple (בית המקדש romanized 'Beit HaMikdash' meaning 'Holy House' was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem which stood between 516 BCE and 70 CE

Archaeology indicates that they modified some of the structures they found there; this includes a building which was modified to function as a synagogue facing Jerusalem, (in fact, the building may originally have been one), although it did not contain a mikvah or the benches found in other early synagogues. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the Mikvah (or mikveh) ( plural mikva'ot or mikves) is a ritual bath designed for the purpose of ritual immersion in Judaism. [3] Remains of two mikvahs were found elsewhere on Masada.

Remnants of one of several legionary camps at Masada, just outside the circumvallation wall which can be seen next to it.
Remnants of one of several legionary camps at Masada, just outside the circumvallation wall which can be seen next to it. Investment is the military tactic of surrounding an enemy Fort (or town with armed forces to prevent entry or escape

In 72, the Roman governor of Iudaea Lucius Flavius Silva marched against Masada with the Roman legion X Fretensis and laid siege to the fortress. Lucius Flavius Silva was a late- 1st century Roman general governor of the province of Iudaea and consul. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," Legio X Fretensis (Latin "Tenth legion of the sea strait " was a Roman legion levied by Augustus in 41 / 40 BC After failed attempts to breach the wall, they built a circumvallation wall and then a rampart against the western face of the plateau, using thousands of tons of stones and beaten earth. Investment is the military tactic of surrounding an enemy Fort (or town with armed forces to prevent entry or escape See also List of cities with defensive walls A defensive wall is a Fortification used to defend a city or settlement from potential aggressors

Josephus does not record any attempts by the Sicarii to counterattack the besiegers during this process, a significant difference from his accounts of other sieges against Jewish fortresses. He did record a raid on a nearby Jewish settlement called Ein-Gedi prior to the siege, where the Sicarii killed 700 of its Jewish inhabitants.

Some historians also believe that Romans may have used Jewish slaves to build the rampart, whom the Zealots (these historians see them as Zealots rather than Sicarii) were reluctant to kill because of their beliefs; however, as sicarii believed that Jews who did not belong to their sect could be robbed and killed with impunity this is disputed. The institution of Slavery in ancient Rome increased those held to a condition of more than persons under their legal system. According to Dan Gill,[4] geological observations in the early 1990s revealed that the 375 foot high assault ramp consisted mostly of a natural spur of bedrock that required a ramp only 30 feet high built atop it in order to reach the Masada defenses. This discovery would diminish both the scope of the construction and of the conflict between the Sicarii and Romans, relative to the previous perspective in which the ramp was an epic feat of construction.

The ramp seen from the top.
The ramp seen from the top.

The rampart was complete in the spring of 73, after approximately two to three months of siege, allowing the Romans to finally breach the wall of the fortress with a battering ram on April 16. A battering ram is a Siege engine originating in ancient times to break open Fortification walls or doors Events 1178 BC - A Solar eclipse may have marked the return of Odysseus, legendary King of Ithaca, to his kingdom When they entered the fortress, however, the Romans discovered that its 936 inhabitants had set all the buildings but the food storerooms ablaze and committed mass suicide rather than face certain capture, defeat, slavery or execution by their enemies.

The account of the siege of Masada was related to Josephus by two women who survived the suicide by hiding inside a cistern along with five children, and repeated Elazar ben Yair's exhortations to his followers, prior to the mass suicide, verbatim to the Romans. Because Judaism strongly discourages suicide, Josephus reported that the defenders had drawn lots and killed each other in turn, down to the last man, who would be the only one to actually take his own life. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut This account, too, may be at issue, however, since Judaism also discourages murder and some historians believe the suicide account to be an invention by Josephus. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Murder is the unlawful killing of another human person with Malice aforethought, as defined in Common Law countries They claim suicide is unlikely as the defenders had neither the opportunity nor the unanimity required. Josephus says that Eleazar ordered his men to destroy everything except the foodstuffs to show that the defenders retained the ability to live, and so chose the time of their death over slavery but archaeological excavations have shown that storerooms which contained their provisions were burnt. Josephus also reported that the Romans found arms sufficient for ten thousand men as well as iron, brass and lead which casts further doubt on the account. Historians also point out the parallels between the incidents at Jotapata and Masada such as Eleazar's second speech corresponding to the speech which Josephus himself delivered at Jotapata under similar circumstances and the transference of the lottery motif from the former to the latter. Jotapata (also Yodfat Yodefat Tel Yodfat Iotapata Jodeptah Yotvah Tell Jafat Yotapatha or Jotbah was an ancient fortified Jewish village in the Galilee, north of [5]

There is significant disagreement among historians as to the veracity of the Josephus story. Josephus had only claimed to have heard the story second-hand himself. There is also considerable controversy in the archaeological reporting. The primary archeologist, Yigael Yadin, has recently come under charges of professional misconduct. [2] After extensively studying Yadin's work documents, transcripts, and conversations, Ben-Yehuda concluded that Yadin conducted "a scheme of distortion which was aimed at providing Israelis with a spurious historical narrative of heroism" The actual record shows evidence of "different factions of Jews fighting and killing each other, of collective suicide by a group of terrorists and assassins whose "fighting spirit" was questionable. [2] In addition to the work of Ben-Yehuda, there are the admissions of falsification by Yadin himself. While Yadin had put the number of human remains at 25 and claimed "they can only be those of the defenders of Masada," he later admitted he was pressured by the Israeli government to make that connection, even though the cave contained pig bones among the skeletons, a common sacrificial burial practice for Roman dead. This admission, in light of the undisputed fact that a Roman garrison was stationed on the Masada summit for some thirty years after its conquest, strongly suggest that the Romans would have disposed of the bodies in one way or another, and likely used the cave for burial of their own.

Masada today

View from the top of Masada
View from the top of Masada
Platform access to the fortress
Platform access to the fortress

The site of Masada was identified in 1842 and extensively excavated between 1963 and 1965 by an expedition led by Israeli archeologist Yigael Yadin. The archaeology of Israel is researched intensively in the universities of the region and also attracts considerable international interest on account of the region's Biblical Yigael Yadin (יגאל ידין born Yigal Sukenik (Hebrew יגאל סוקניק on 21 March 1917, died 28 June 1984) was A pair of cable cars now carry those visitors who do not wish to climb the ancient, now restored, Snake Path, on the eastern side of the mountain (access via the Dead Sea road). An aerial tramway is a type of Aerial lift in which a cabin is suspended from a cable and is pulled by another cable Due to the remoteness from human habitation and its arid environment, the site has remained largely untouched by humans or nature during the past two millennia. The Roman ramp still stands on the western side and can be climbed on foot. Many of the ancient buildings have been restored from their remains, as have the wall-paintings of Herod's two main palaces, and the Roman-style bathhouses that he built. Public baths originated from a communal need for cleanliness Often the term public is misleading to some people as they will have restrictions based upon who can use the facility The synagogue, storehouses, and houses of the Jewish rebels have also been identified and restored. A synagogue (from Greek: grc συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, "assembly" he בית כנסת beit knesset, "house of The meter-high circumvallation wall that the Romans built around Masada can be seen, together with eleven barracks for the Roman soldiers just outside this wall. Barracks are living quarters for personnel on a Military post Water cisterns two-thirds of the way up the cliff drain the nearby wadis by an elaborate system of channels, which explains how the rebels managed to have enough water for such a long time. Wadi (وادي) (also Vadi) is traditionally a valley In some cases it can refer to a dry riverbed that contains water only during times of heavy rain

Inside the synagogue, an ostracon bearing the inscription me'aser kohen (tithe for the priest) was found, as were fragments of two scrolls; parts of Deuteronomy and Ezekiel 37 (including the vision of the "dry bones"), found hidden in pits dug under the floor of a small room built inside the synagogue. Deuteronomy (Greek deuteronomion, Δευτερονόμιον "second law" is the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible and of the Old Testament The Book of Ezekiel is a book of the Hebrew Bible (of the Books of the Bible) named after the prophet Ezekiel. Dem Bones, Dry Bones or Dem Dry Bones is a well-known traditional spiritual, often used to teach basic anatomy to children (although its description is

In the area in front of the northern palace, eleven small ostraca were recovered, each bearing a single name. One reads "ben Yair" and could be short for Eleazar ben Yair, the commander of the fortress. It has been suggested that the other ten names are those of the men chosen by lot to kill the others and then themselves, as recounted by Josephus.

Archaeologist Yigael Yadin's excavations have so far uncovered the remains of 28 people at Masada. The remains of three people, a male 20-22 years of age, a female 17-18 and a child approximately 12 years old, were found in the palace and the remains of 25 people were found in a cave at the base of the cliff. Carbon dating of textiles found with the remains in the cave indicate they are contemporaneous with the period of the Revolt and the remains of pigs that were found with them, which Romans sacrificed at burials, could be an indication the grave is Roman. All the remains were reburied at Masada with full military honours on July 7, 1969. Events 1456 - A retrial verdict acquits Joan of Arc of heresy 25 years after her death Year 1969 ( MCMLXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

The remnants of a Byzantine church dating from the 5th and 6th centuries, have also been excavated on the top of Masada.

The large bathhouse at the top of Masada. The holes in the left side of the wall are where the oven was located for heating the water to make steam.
The large bathhouse at the top of Masada. The holes in the left side of the wall are where the oven was located for heating the water to make steam.
A tram car heading down from Masada; on the right is one of the legionary camps below.
A tram car heading down from Masada; on the right is one of the legionary camps below.

The Masada story has been used in a similar context by the British Mandate of Palestine, which planned the Masada plan to man defensive positions on Mount Carmel with Palmach fighters, in order to stop Erwin Rommel's expected drive through the region in 1942. The Palestine Mandate, was a set of protocols or articles that formed a multilateral legal and administrative agreement Mount Carmel (הר הכרמל Karem El/Har Ha'Karmel; Arabic Kurmul/Jabal Mar Elyas) is a coastal Mountain range in northern Israel The Palmach ( Hebrew: פלמ"ח an acronym for Plugot Maḥatz (Hebrew פלוגות מחץ Strike Companies) was the regular fighting force Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel ( ( 15 November 1891 – 14 October 1944) (also known as the " Desert Fox " Wüstenfuchs The plan was abandoned following Rommel's defeat at El Alamein. El Alamein (or Al Alamayn) ( العلمين is a town in northern Egypt on the Mediterranean Sea coast in Matruh Governorate.

Inspired by the Sicarii resistance to the Romans at Masada, the Chief of Staff of the Israel Defence Forces (IDF) Moshe Dayan initiated the regular practice of the troops finishing their Tironut (IDF basic training) with a pilgrimage to and swearing-in ceremonies on Masada, where they swear the oath that "Masada shall never fall again. The Israel Defense Forces ( IDF) (צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל, lit Moshe Dayan, DSO (משה דיין born 20 May 1915 died 16 October 1981 was an Israeli military leader and politician Tironut (טירונות is the Hebrew name for the Recruit training of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF " Hundreds of Israeli soldiers have climbed at night in rows via the Snake Path, and then were sworn in with torches lighting the background. This was customary for troops of the Israeli Armor Corps, the Givati Brigade and others. The Israeli Armor Corps is a corps of the Israel Defense Forces, since 1998 subordinate to GOC Army Headquarters. "Givati" redirects here For the moshav see Giv'ati. The Givati Brigade (חטיבת גבעתי Functions as the amphibious force [6] Marches to Masada are still popular in the IDF, and a requirement for many units, such as Nahal. Nahal (נח"ל an acronym for Noar Halutzi Lohem, lit Fighting Pioneer Youth) is an Israel Defense Forces infantry brigade

Masada has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2001. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. An audio-visual light show is presented nightly on the western side of the mountain (access by car from the Arad road or by foot, down the mountain via the Roman ramp path). Arad (עֲרָד عراض is a city in the South District of Israel, on the border of the Negev and Judean Deserts Located west of the

In 2007, a new museum opened at the site in which archeological findings are displayed within a theatrical setting. [7]

Citations

  1. ^ Prof. James Gelvin, "Palestine, Zionism and the Arab-Israeli Conflict," 2001.
  2. ^ a b c Nachman Ben-Yehuda, The Masada Myth: Scholar presents evidence that the heroes of the Jewish Great Revolt were not heroes at all., The Bible and Interpretation
  3. ^ Kloppenborg, John. Voluntary Associations in the Graeco-Roman World. Routledge, 1996, p. 101.
  4. ^ A natural spur at Masada by Dan Gill. Nature 364, pp. 569-570 (12 August 1993); DOI 10. 1038/364569a0
  5. ^ The Credibility of Josephus Comparing Josephus' account with archaeological evidence.
  6. ^ Dan Bitan, Mesada the Symbol and the Legend, the Dead Sea and the Judean Desert, 1960, Yad Ben Zvi
  7. ^ A new museum at Masada. Ynetnews (2007-05-06). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance. Retrieved on 2007-05-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance.

References

Media

See also

External links

Coordinates: 31°18′55″N 35°21′13″E / 31.31528, 35.35361

A geographic coordinate system enables every location on the Earth to be specified in three coordinates using mainly a spherical coordinate system.
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