| Martin Luther | |
 Luther in 1529 by Lucas Cranach
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| Born | November 10, 1483 Eisleben, Holy Roman Empire |
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| Died | February 18, 1546 (aged 62) Eisleben, Holy Roman Empire |
| Occupation | Theologian, priest |
| Religious beliefs | Lutheran formerly Roman Catholic |
| Spouse | Katharina von Bora |
| Children | Hans, Elizabeth, Magdalena, Martin, Paul, Margarethe |
| Parents | Hans and Margarethe Luther (née Lindemann) |
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Martin Luther (November 10, 1483–February 18, 1546) was a German monk, theologian, university professor and church reformer[1] whose ideas inspired the Protestant Reformation and changed the course of Western civilization. Lucas Cranach the Elder ( Lucas Cranach der Ältere, 4 October 1472 &ndash 16 October 1553) was a German painter Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw Eisleben is a town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is famous as the hometown of Martin Luther, hence its official name is Lutherstadt Eisleben The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy Eisleben is a town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is famous as the hometown of Martin Luther, hence its official name is Lutherstadt Eisleben The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Katharina (Katherine Luther born Katharina von Bora ( January 29, 1499 – December 20, 1552) was a German Catholic Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy MONK is a Monte Carlo software package for simulating nuclear processes particularly for the purpose of determining the neutron multiplication factor or k-effective Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects The meaning of the word professor ( Latin: professor, person who professes to be an expert in some art or science teacher of highest rank) varies The Protestant Reformers were those Theologians churchmen, and Statesmen whose careers works and actions brought about the Protestant Reformation of the The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time [2]
Luther's theology challenged the authority of the papacy by holding that the Bible is the only infallible source of religious authority[3] and that all baptized Christians under Jesus are a universal priesthood. Christian Theology is discourse concerning Christian faith Christian theologians use biblical Exegesis, rational analysis and argument History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin In Christianity, baptism ( Greek, "immersing" "performing Ablutions " is the ritual act with the use of water by which one is admitted Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The universal priesthood or the priesthood of all believers, as it would come to be known in the present day is a Christian doctrine believed to be derived from several [4] According to Luther, salvation was a free gift of God, received only by true repentance and faith in Jesus as the Messiah, a faith given by God and unmediated by the church. In Theology, salvation can mean three related things being saved from or Liberation from something such as Suffering or the punishment of Repentance is a change of thought and action to correct a wrong and gain Forgiveness from the one wronged Faith is a Belief in the trustworthiness of an Idea. Formal usage of the word "faith" is usually reserved for concepts of Religion, as in Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) This article is about the concept of a Messiah in religion notably in the Christian Islamic and Jewish traditions
Luther's confrontation with Charles V at the Diet of Worms over freedom of conscience in 1521 and his refusal to submit to the authority of the Emperor resulted in his being declared an outlaw of the state as he had been excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church. Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was The Diet of Worms (Reichstag zu Worms was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Emperor that took place in Worms, a small town The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states
He translated the Bible into the vernacular, making it more accessible to ordinary people, had a tremendous political impact on the church and on German culture. German translations of the Bible existed already in the Middle Ages. Vernacular refers to the Native language of a country or a locality It furthered the development of a standard version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation,[5] and influenced the translation of the English King James Bible. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. [6] His hymns inspired the development of congregational singing within Christianity. A hymn is a type of Song, usually religious specifically written for the purpose of praise adoration or Prayer, and typically addressed to a deity/deities [7] His marriage to Katharina von Bora set a model for the practice of clerical marriage within Protestantism. Katharina (Katherine Luther born Katharina von Bora ( January 29, 1499 – December 20, 1552) was a German Catholic Clerical marriage is the practice of allowing Clergy to marry. [8]
Much scholarly debate has concentrated on Luther's writings about the Jews. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ His statements that Jews' homes should be destroyed, their synagogues burned, money confiscated and liberty curtailed were revived and used in propaganda by the Nazis in 1933–45. A synagogue (from Greek: grc συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, "assembly" he בית כנסת beit knesset, "house of The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 [9] As a result of this and his revolutionary theological views, his legacy remains controversial. [10]
Early life and the development of his ideas
Birth and education
Luther was born to Hans Luder (or Ludher, later Luther)[11] and his wife Margarethe (née Lindemann) on November 10, 1483 in Eisleben, Germany, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer Lucas Cranach the Elder ( Lucas Cranach der Ältere, 4 October 1472 &ndash 16 October 1553) was a German painter Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer Lucas Cranach may refer to Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472&ndash1553 Lucas Cranach the Younger (1515&ndash1586 Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw Eisleben is a town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is famous as the hometown of Martin Luther, hence its official name is Lutherstadt Eisleben The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in He was baptized the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours. Saint Martin of Tours (Martinus (316/317 Savaria, Pannonia &ndash November 8, 317, Candes, Gaul; buried November His family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters,[12] and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council. Mansfeld is a town in the Mansfeld-Südharz district in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. [11] Martin Marty describes Luther's mother as a hard-working woman of "trading-class stock and middling means," and notes that Luther's enemies would later wrongly describe her as a whore and bath attendant. Martin Emil Marty (b February 5, 1928, West Point Nebraska) is an American Lutheran religious scholar who has written extensively [11] He had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have been close to one of them, Jacob. [13]
Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, and Eisenach in 1498. Magdeburg ( Low Saxon: Meideborg ˈmaˑɪdebɔɐx the Capital city of the Bundesland of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany In religious organizations the laity comprises all persons who are not Clergy. The Brethren of the Common Life was a Roman Catholic religious community founded in the 14th century by Gerard Groote, formerly a successful and worldly Eisenach is a city in Thuringia, Germany. It is situated between the northern foothills of the Thuringian Forest and the Hainich National Park [14] The three schools focused on the so-called "trivium": grammar, rhetoric, and logic. In medieval universities, the trivium comprised the three subjects taught first Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell. See also Intermediate state Limbo|Heaven|Sheol|Hades in Christianity|Hell in Christianity Purgatory, in the original sense is the condition or process of purification [15]
At the age of seventeen in 1501, he entered the University of Erfurt — which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse,[16] — which saw him awakened at four every morning for what has been described as "a day of rote learning and often wearying spiritual exercises. The University of Erfurt is a German University History The University of Erfurt was founded in 1392 as the third university in the territory "[16] He received his master's degree in 1505. [17]
In accordance with his father's wishes, he enrolled in law school at the same university that year, but dropped out almost immediately, believing that law represented uncertainty. [17] Luther sought assurances about life, and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, and Gabriel Biel. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. William of Ockham (also Occam, Hockham, or any of several other spellings ˈɒkəm (c [17] He was deeply influenced by two tutors, Bartholomäus Arnoldi von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter, who taught him to be suspicious of even the greatest thinkers,[17] and to test everything himself by experience. [18] Philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason, but none about the importance, for Luther, of loving God. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, and he developed a love-hate relationship with Aristotle over the latter's emphasis on reason. [18] For Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed, and Scripture therefore became increasingly important to him. Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication [18]
He decided to leave his studies and become a monk, later attributing his decision to an experience during a thunderstorm on July 2, 1505. Events 310 - Pope Miltiades is elected 626 - In fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushes and kills his rival A lightning bolt struck near him as he was returning to university after a trip home. Lightning is an atmospheric discharge of Electricity, which typically occurs during Thunderstorms and sometimes during volcanic eruptions or Later telling his father he was terrified of death and divine judgment, he cried out, "Help! Saint Anna, I will become a monk!"[19] He came to view his cry for help as a vow he could never break. Saint Anne (also Ann or Anna of David's house and line was the mother of the Virgin Mary, according to Christian tradition
He left law school, sold his books, and entered a closed Augustinian friary in Erfurt on July 17, 1505. The Hermits of St Augustine (Ordo Sancti Augustini OSA generally called Augustinians but not to be confused with the Augustinian Canons, are a Roman Catholic Erfurt (ˈɛɐ̯fʊɐ̯t is a City in central Germany. It is the Capital of the state of Thuringia with a population of 202619 (2006 Events 180 - Twelve inhabitants of Scillium in North Africa are executed for being Christians [20] One friend blamed the decision on Luther's sadness over the deaths of two friends. Luther himself seemed saddened by the move, telling those who attended a farewell supper then walked him to the door of the Black Cloister, "This day you see me, and then, not ever again. "[18] His father was furious over what he saw as a waste of Luther's education. [21]
Monastic and academic life
Luther dedicated himself to monastic life, devoting himself to fasts, long hours in prayer, pilgrimage, and frequent confession. Fasting is primarily the act of willingly abstaining from some or all Food, Drink, or both for a period of time Prayer is the act of attempting to communicate with a Deity or spirit In Religion and Spirituality, a pilgrimage is a long journey or Search of great Moral significance The confession of one's Sins is a religious practice important to many faiths e Luther tried to please God through this dedication, but it only increased his awareness of his own sinfulness. [22] He would later remark, "If anyone could have gained heaven as a monk, then I would indeed have been among them. "[23] Luther described this period of his life as one of deep spiritual despair. He said, "I lost touch with Christ the Savior and Comforter, and made of him the jailor and hangman of my poor soul. "[24]
Johann von Staupitz, his superior, concluded that Luther needed more work to distract him from excessive introspection and ordered him to pursue an academic career. Johann von Staupitz (1460 &ndash December 28 1524) was a Theologian, university preacher Vicar-General of the Augustinian Order in Germany In 1507, he was ordained to the priesthood, and in 1508 began teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg. Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective The Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg (Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg also referred to as MLU, is a public University in the cities of [25] He received a Bachelor's degree in Biblical studies on March 9, 1508, and another Bachelor's degree in the Sentences by Peter Lombard in 1509. Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia. The Four Books of Sentences ( Libri Quattuor Sententiarum) is a book of theology written by Peter Lombard in the twelfth century Peter Lombard or Petrus Lombardus; (c 1100 — July 20, 1160 in Paris) was a scholastic theologian and Bishop and author [26] On October 19, 1512, he was awarded his Doctor of Theology and, on October 21, 1512, was received into the senate of the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg, having been called to the position of Doctor in Bible. Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal. Doctor of Theology (in Latin Theologiae Doctor, abbreviated Th Events 1512 - Martin Luther joins the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg. [27] He spent the rest of his career in this position at the University of Wittenberg.
Justification by faith
From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, the books of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. Sola fide ( Latin: by Faith alone also historically known as the doctrine of justification by faith is a doctrine that distinguishes most As he studied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the use of terms such as penance and righteousness by the Roman Catholic Church in new ways. Penance is repentance of Sins as well as the proper name of the Catholic and Orthodox Christian Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation/Confession Righteousness in this article refers to the important theological concept in Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. He became convinced that the church was corrupt in their ways and had lost sight of what he saw as several of the central truths of Christianity, the most important of which, for Luther, was the doctrine of justification — God's act of declaring a sinner righteous — by faith alone through God's grace. In Christian theology, justification is God 's act of declaring or making a sinner righteous before God He began to teach that salvation or redemption is a gift of God's grace, attainable only through faith in Jesus as the messiah. In Theology, salvation can mean three related things being saved from or Liberation from something such as Suffering or the punishment of In Christianity, divine Grace refers to the sovereign favour of God for humankind — especially in regard to Salvation — irrespective of actions This article is about the concept of a Messiah in religion notably in the Christian Islamic and Jewish traditions [28]
This one and firm rock, which we call the doctrine of justification," he wrote, "is the chief article of the whole Christian doctrine, which comprehends the understanding of all godliness. [29]
Luther came to understand justification as entirely the work of God. Against the teaching of his day that the righteous acts of believers are performed in cooperation with God, Luther wrote that Christians receive such righteousness entirely from outside themselves; that righteousness not only comes from Christ but actually is the righteousness of Christ, imputed to Christians (rather than infused into them) through faith. [30] "That is why faith alone makes someone just and fulfills the law," he wrote. "Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit through the merits of Christ. In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is one of the three entities of the Holy Trinity which make up the single substance "[31] Faith, for Luther, was a gift from God. He explained his concept of "justification" in the Smalcald Articles:
The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification (Romans 3:24-25). The Smalcald Articles or Schmalkald Articles (Schmalkaldische Artikel are a summary of Lutheran doctrine written by Martin Luther in 1537 for a meeting He alone is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29), and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all (Isaiah 53:6). The Gospel of John (literally According to John; Greek, Κατὰ Ἰωάννην Kata Iōannēn) is the fourth Gospel in the canon The Book of Isaiah ( Hebrew: Sefer Y'sha'yah ספר ישעיה is a book of the Bible traditionally attributed to the Prophet Isaiah, who lived All have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23-25). This is necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise acquired or grasped by any work, law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us . . . Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven and earth and everything else falls (Mark 13:31). Content Authorship The gospel itself is anonymous but as early as Papias in the early 2nd century a text was attributed to Mark, a cousin [32]
Indulgences, controversy and the start of the Reformation
- Further information: History of Protestantism
In 1516-17, Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar and papal commissioner for indulgences, was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise money to rebuild St Peter's Basilica in Rome. John or Johann Tetzel (1465 – 11 August 1519) was a German Dominican Preacher remembered for selling Indulgences The Order of Preachers ( Latin: Ordo Praedicatorum) after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is An indulgence, in Roman Catholic Theology, is the full or partial Remission of temporal punishment due for Sins which have already been forgiven The Basilica of Saint Peter (Basilica Sancti Petri officially known in Italian as the Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano and commonly known as St [33] Roman Catholic theology stated that faith alone, whether fiduciary or dogmatic, cannot justify man[34]; and that only such faith as is active in charity and good works (fides caritate formata) can justify man. [35] These good works could be obtained by donating money to the church.
On October 31, 1517, Luther wrote to Albrecht, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg, protesting the sale of indulgences. Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse Cardinal Albert of Hohenzollern (German; June 28, 1490 &ndash September 24, 1545) was Elector and Archbishop of He enclosed in his letter a copy of his "Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences," which came to be known as The 95 Theses. The Ninety-Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences, commonly known as The Ninety-Five Theses, were written by Martin Luther in 1517 Hans Hillerbrand writes that Luther had no intention of confronting the church, but saw his disputation as a scholarly objection to church practices, and the tone of the writing is accordingly "searching, rather than doctrinaire. "[36] Hillerbrand writes that there is nevertheless an undercurrent of challenge in several of the theses, particularly in Thesis 86, which asks: "Why does the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build the basilica of St. Peter with the money of poor believers rather than with his own money?"[36]
Luther objected to a saying attributed to Johann Tetzel that "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs,"[37] insisting that, since forgiveness was God's alone to grant, those who claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances.
According to Philipp Melanchthon, writing in 1546, Luther nailed a copy of the 95 Theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg that same day — church doors acting as the bulletin boards of his time — an event now seen as sparking the Protestant Reformation,[38] and celebrated every October 31 as Reformation Day. Philipp Melanchthon (born Philipp Schwartzerd) ( February 16, 1497 &ndash April 19, 1560) was a German professor and theologian All Saints' Church, commonly referred to as Schlosskirche, meaning " Castle Church " — to distinguish it from the "town church" the Stadtkirche Wittenberg, officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg, is a Town in Germany in the Bundesland Saxony-Anhalt, on the Elbe The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Reformation Day is a religious holiday celebrated on October 31 in remembrance of the Reformation, particularly by Lutheran and some Reformed Some scholars have questioned the accuracy of Melanchthon's account, noting that no contemporaneous evidence exists for it. [39] Others have countered that no such evidence is necessary, because this was the customary way of advertising an event on a university campus in Luther's day. [40]
The 95 Theses were quickly translated from Latin into German, printed, and widely copied, making the controversy one of the first in history to be aided by the printing press. A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image [41] Within two weeks, the theses had spread throughout Germany; within two months throughout Europe.
Response of the papacy
In contrast to the speed with which the theses were distributed, the response of the papacy was painstakingly slow.
Cardinal Albrecht of Hohenzollern, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg, with the consent of Pope Leo X, was using part of the indulgence income to pay his bribery debts,[14] and did not reply to Luther’s letter; instead, he had the theses checked for heresy and forwarded to Rome. Cardinal Albert of Hohenzollern (German; June 28, 1490 &ndash September 24, 1545) was Elector and Archbishop of Pope Leo X, born Giovanni de' Medici (December 11 1475 – December 1 1521 was Pope from 1513 to his death [42]
Leo responded over the next three years, "with great care as is proper,"[43] by deploying a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther. Perhaps he hoped the matter would die down of its own accord, because in 1518 he dismissed Luther as "a drunken German" who "when sober will change his mind". [44]
Widening breach
Luther's writings circulated widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519, and students thronged to Wittenberg to hear him speak. He published a short commentary on Galatians and his Work on the Psalms. The Epistle to the Galatians is a book of the New Testament. It is a letter from Paul of Tarsus to a number of early Christian communities in the Roman province of At the same time, he received deputations from Italy and from the Utraquists of Bohemia; Ulrich von Hutten and Franz von Sickingen offered to place Luther under their protection. See " Utraquist school " for a kind of Bilingual schools Utraquism (from the Latin sub utraque specie, meaning Ulrich von Hutten ( April 21 1488 - August 29 1523) was an outspoken German critic of the Roman Catholic Church and adherent Franz von Sickingen ( March 2 1481 - May 7, 1523) was a German Knight, one of the most notable figures of the first period [45]
This period of Luther's career was one of his most creative and productive. [46] Three of his best known works were published in 1520: To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and On the Freedom of a Christian. To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation (An den christlichen Adel deutscher Nation is the first of three tracts written by Martin Luther in 1520 Prelude on the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (October 1520 was the second of the three major treatises published by Martin Luther in 1520 coming after the Address On the Freedom of a Christian sometimes also called "A Treatise on Christian Liberty" (German "Von der Freiheit eines Christenmenschen"
Finally on May 30th in 1519 when the Pope demanded an explanation, Luther wrote a summary and explanation of his theses to the Pope. While the Pope may have conceded some of the points, he did not like the challenge to his authority so he summoned Luther to Rome to answer these. At that point Frederick the Wise, the Saxon Elector, intervened. Frederick III Elector of Saxony ( 17 January 1463 &ndash 5 May 1525) also known as Frederick the Wise, was Elector He did not want one of his subjects to be sent to Rome to be judged by Italians so he prevailed on the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V who needed his support to arrange a compromise.
An arrangement was effected, however, whereby that summons was cancelled, and Luther went to Augsburg in October 1518 to meet the papal legate, Cardinal Cajetan. The argument was long but nothing was resolved. Cajetan said the practice of indulgences could not be wrong or else God Himself would have revealed the fraud. Luther however would have none of this sanctification of history.
Excommunication
On June 15, 1520, the Pope warned Luther with the papal bull (edict) Exsurge Domine that he risked excommunication unless he recanted 41 sentences drawn from his writings, including the 95 Theses, within 60 days. Events 763 BC - Assyrians record a Solar eclipse that will be used to fix the Chronology of Mesopotamian history A Papal bull is a particular type of Letters patent or charter issued by a Pope. Exsurge Domine is a Papal bull issued on June 15, 1520 by Pope Leo X in response to the teachings of Martin Luther in his Excommunication is a religious Censure used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community The Ninety-Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences, commonly known as The Ninety-Five Theses, were written by Martin Luther in 1517
That autumn, Johann Eck proclaimed the bull in Meissen and other towns. Johann Eck ( November 13, 1486 &ndash February 13, 1543) was a 16th century theologian and defender of Catholicism during Karl von Miltitz, a papal nuncio, attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sent the Pope a copy of On the Freedom of a Christian in October, publicly set fire to the bull and decretals at Wittenberg on December 10, 1520,[47] an act he defended in Why the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned and Assertions Concerning All Articles. Karl von Miltitz (c 1490 &ndash November 20, 1529) was a papal Nuncio and a Mainz Cathedral canon. Nuncio is an ecclesiastical Diplomatic title, derived from the ancient Latin word Nuntius, meaning "envoy Decretals ( Epistolae decretales) is the name that is given in Canon law to those letters of the Pope which formulate decisions in ecclesiastical law Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V
As a consequence, Luther was excommunicated by Leo X on January 3, 1521, in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem. Pope Leo X, born Giovanni de' Medici (December 11 1475 – December 1 1521 was Pope from 1513 to his death Events 1431 - Joan of Arc is handed over to the Bishop Pierre Cauchon. Not to be confused with Romanum decet pontificem. Decet Romanum Pontificem (1521 is the Papal bull excommunicating
Exile
Diet of Worms
The enforcement of the ban on the 41 sentences fell to the secular authorities. Anton Alexander von Werner ( May 9, 1843 &ndash January 4, 1915) was a German painter in the Kingdom of Prussia On April 18, 1521, Luther appeared as ordered before the Diet of Worms (Reichstag zu Worms). Events 1025 - Bolesław Chrobry is crowned in Gniezno, becoming the first King of Poland. The Diet of Worms (Reichstag zu Worms was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Emperor that took place in Worms, a small town This was a general assembly (a diet, pronounced dee-et) of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in Worms (pronounced with the W as a V: Vorms), a town on the Rhine. Worms (voɐms is a City in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, on the Rhine River The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge It was conducted from January 28 to May 25, 1521, with Emperor Charles V presiding. Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors. Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was Prince Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, obtained an agreement that Luther would be promised safe passage to and from the meeting. Frederick III Elector of Saxony ( 17 January 1463 &ndash 5 May 1525) also known as Frederick the Wise, was Elector
Johann Eck, speaking on behalf of the Empire as assistant of the Archbishop of Trier, presented Luther with copies of his writings laid out on a table, and asked him if the books were his, and whether he stood by their contents. He confirmed he was the author, but requested time to think about the answer to the second question. He prayed, consulted friends, and gave his response the next day: "Unless I shall be convinced by the testimonies of the Scriptures or by clear reason . . . I neither can nor will make any retraction, since it is neither safe nor honourable to act against conscience. "[48] He is also famously said to have added: "Hier stehe ich. Ich kann nicht anders. Gott helfe mir. Amen. " ("Here I stand. I can do no other. God help me. Amen. "). This description of the declaration may be apocryphal,[49] as only the last four words appear in contemporaneous accounts.
Over the next five days, private conferences were held to determine Luther's fate. The Emperor presented the final draft of the Edict of Worms on May 25, 1521, declaring Luther an outlaw, banning his literature, and requiring his arrest: "We want him to be apprehended and punished as a notorious heretic". The Diet of Worms (Reichstag zu Worms was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Emperor that took place in Worms, a small town Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors. An outlaw or bandit is a person living the lifestyle of outlawry; the word literally means "outside the Law " by folk-etymology from the original [50] It also made it a crime for anyone in Germany to give Luther food or shelter. It permitted anyone to kill Luther without legal consequence. The Edict was a divisive move that distressed more moderate men, in particular Desiderius Erasmus.
Exile at Wartburg Castle
The apprehension of Luther was the last thing Frederick III, Elector of Saxony wanted, so he had him discreetly intercepted on his way home by masked horsemen and escorted to the security of the Wartburg Castle at Eisenach, where Luther grew a beard and lived incognito for nearly eleven months, pretending to be a knight called Junker Jörg. Frederick III Elector of Saxony ( 17 January 1463 &ndash 5 May 1525) also known as Frederick the Wise, was Elector For other uses of Wartburg see Wartburg (disambiguation The Wartburg is a castle situated on a 1230-foot (410 m precipice to the [51]
During his stay at Wartburg (May 1521-March 1522), which he referred to as "my Patmos",[52] Luther translated the New Testament from Greek into German, and poured out doctrinal and polemical writings, including in October a renewed attack on Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz, whom he shamed into halting the sale of indulgences in his episcopates,[53] and a "Refutation of the argument of Latomus," in which he expounded the principle of justification to a philosopher from Louvain. Cardinal Albert of Hohenzollern (German; June 28, 1490 &ndash September 24, 1545) was Elector and Archbishop of [54] In a letter to Melanchthon of 1 August 1521, he wrote:
… let your sins be strong, but let your trust in Christ be stronger, and rejoice in Christ who is the victor over sin, death, and the world. Events 30 BC - Octavian (later known as Augustus enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman We will commit sins while we are here, for this life is not a place where justice resides. [55]
In On the Abrogation of the Private Mass, in the summer of 1521, Luther widened his target from individual pieties like indulgences and pilgrimages to doctrines at the heart of Church practices. His essay Concerning Confession rejected the Roman Catholic Church's requirement of confession, although he affirmed the value of private confession and absolution. The confession of one's Sins is a religious practice important to many faiths e In the introduction to his New Testament — published in September 1522 and selling 5,000 copies in two months — he explained that good works spring from faith; they do not produce it.
In Wittenberg, Andreas Karlstadt, later supported by the ex-Augustinian Gabriel Zwilling, enacted a divisive programme of reform which exceeded anything envisaged by Luther and provoked disturbances, including a revolt by the Augustinian monks against their prior, the smashing of statues and images in churches, and denunciations of the magistracy. Andreas Rudolph Bodenstein von Karlstadt (1486 &ndash December 24 1541) better known as Andreas Karlstadt or Andreas Carlstadt, was a Gabriel Zwilling (c 1487 &ndash 1 May 1558) was a German Lutheran and Protestant Reformer born near Annaberg, After secretly visiting Wittenberg in early December 1521, Luther wrote A Sincere Admonition by Martin Luther to All Christians to Guard Against Insurrection and Rebellion; but Wittenberg became more volatile after Christmas when a band of visionary zealots, the so-called Zwickau prophets, arrived preaching the equality of man, adult baptism, Christ’s imminent return, and other revolutionary doctrines. The Zwickau Prophets were early sixteenth century Anabaptists in Zwickau in Saxony. Anabaptists ( Greek ανα (again twice + βαπτιζω (baptize thus "re-baptizers" are Christians of the Radical Reformation [53] Luther decided it was time to act.
Return to Wittenberg
- See also: Radical Reformation
Around Christmas 1521, Anabaptists from Zwickau entered Wittenberg and caused considerable civil unrest. The Radical Reformation was a 16th century response to what was believed to be both the corruption in the Roman Catholic Church and the expanding Magisterial Anabaptists ( Greek ανα (again twice + βαπτιζω (baptize thus "re-baptizers" are Christians of the Radical Reformation Thoroughly opposed to their radical views and fearful of their results, Luther secretly returned to Wittenberg on March 6, 1522. Events 1079 - Omar Khayyám completes the Iranian calendar. 1454 - Thirteen Years' War: Delegates of "During my absence," he wrote to the Elector, "Satan has entered my sheepfold, and committed ravages which I cannot repair by writing, but only by my personal presence and living word. "[53] Years later, Luther named his first and only daughter - Jamie Wittenberg- after the city.
For eight days in Lent, beginning on March 9, Invocavit Sunday, and concluding the following Sunday, Luther preached eight sermons, which became known as the "Invocavit Sermons. Lent, in some Christian denominations, is the forty-day-long liturgical season of fasting and prayer before Easter. " In these sermons, he hammered home the primacy of core Christian values such as love, patience, charity, and freedom, and reminded the citizens to trust God's word rather than violence to bring about necessary change.
Do you know what the Devil thinks when he sees men use violence to propagate the gospel? He sits with folded arms behind the fire of hell, and says with malignant looks and frightful grin: "Ah, how wise these madmen are to play my game! Let them go on; I shall reap the benefit. I delight in it. " But when he sees the Word running and contending alone on the battle-field, then he shudders and shakes for fear. [53]
The effect of Luther’s intervention was instantaneous. After the sixth sermon, Jerome Schurf wrote to the elector: "Oh, what joy has Dr. Martin’s return spread among us! His words, through divine mercy, are bringing back every day misguided people into the way of the truth. "[53]
Luther next set about reversing or softening some of the new church practices and worked alongside the authorities to restore public order, signaling his reinvention as a conservative force within the Reformation. After banishing the Zwickau prophets, who abused him as a new pope, he now faced a battle not only against the corrupt and distorted practices of the established Church but against those on his own side who threatened the new order by fomenting social unrest and even violence. [53]
Marriage and family
On the evening of June 13, 1525, Luther married Katharina von Bora, one of a group of 12 nuns he had helped escape from the Nimbschen Cistercian convent in April 1523, arranging for them to be smuggled out in herring barrels. Katharina (Katherine Luther born Katharina von Bora ( January 29, 1499 – December 20, 1552) was a German Catholic Lucas Cranach the Elder ( Lucas Cranach der Ältere, 4 October 1472 &ndash 16 October 1553) was a German painter Events 1525 - Martin Luther marries Katharina von Bora, against the Celibacy rule decreed by the Roman Catholic Church for Katharina (Katherine Luther born Katharina von Bora ( January 29, 1499 – December 20, 1552) was a German Catholic "Suddenly, and while I was occupied with far different thoughts," he wrote to his friend Link, "the Lord has plunged me into marriage. "[56] Katharina was twenty-six years old, Luther forty-two.
A few priests and former monks had already married, including Andreas Karlstadt and Justus Jonas, but Luther’s marriage set the seal of approval on clerical marriage. Andreas Rudolph Bodenstein von Karlstadt (1486 &ndash December 24 1541) better known as Andreas Karlstadt or Andreas Carlstadt, was a Justus Jonas ( 5 June 1493 - 9 October 1555) was a German Protestant reformer He had long condemned vows of celibacy on biblical grounds, but his decision to marry surprised many, not least Melanchthon, who called it reckless. Celibacy refers to the lack of participation in Sexual intercourse. [57] Luther had written to Spalatin on November 30, 1524, "I shall never take a wife, as I feel at present. Events 1700 - Battle of Narva — A Swedish army of 8500 men under Charles XII defeats Not that I am insensible to my flesh or sex (for I am neither wood nor stone); but my mind is averse to wedlock because I daily expect the death of a heretic. " Melanchthon reveals in a letter that prior to his marriage, Luther had been living on the plainest food, and that his mildewed bed was not properly made for months at a time. [58]
Luther and Katharina moved into a former monastery "The Black Cloister," a wedding present from the new elector John Frederick, and embarked upon what appears to have been a happy and successful marriage. This article concerns the buildings occupied by monastics. For the life inside monasteries and its historical roots see Monasticism. John Frederick is the (English name of Johann Friedrich I "the Magnanimous" Elector of Saxony (1503–1554 John Frederick II Duke Between bearing six children, Katharina, whose judgement Luther respected, helped earn the couple a living by farming the land and taking in boarders. [59] Luther confided to Stiefel on August 11, 1526: "Catharina, my dear rib . Events 2492 BC - Traditional date of the defeat of Bel by Hayk, progenitor and founder of the Armenian nation . . is, thanks to God, gentle, obedient, compliant in all things, beyond my hopes. I would not exchange my poverty for the wealth of Croesus. "[58]
By the time of Katharina's death, the surviving Luther children were adults. Hans studied law and became a court advisor. Martin studied theology, but never had a regular pastoral call. Paul became a physician. He fathered six children, and the male line of the Luther family continued through him to John Ernest Luther, ending in 1759. Margareta Luther, born in Wittenberg on December 17, 1534, married into a noble and wealthy Prussian family, to Georg von Kunheim (Wehlau, July 1, 1523 – Mühlhausen, October 18, 1611, the son of Georg von Kunheim (1480 – 1543) and wife Margarethe, Truchsessin von Wetzhausen (1490 – 1527)) but died in Mühlhausen in 1570 at the age of thirty-six. Wittenberg, officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg, is a Town in Germany in the Bundesland Saxony-Anhalt, on the Elbe Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila Znamensk (; Vėluva Welawa is a settlement in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia. "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Mühlhausen (official Mühlhausen/Thüringen) is a City in the Federal state Thuringia, Germany. Events 1009 - The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, a Christian church in Jerusalem, is completely destroyed by the Fatimid Mühlhausen (official Mühlhausen/Thüringen) is a City in the Federal state Thuringia, Germany. However, her descendants have continued to the present, and include President Paul von Hindenburg, the Counts zu Eulenburg, and Princes zu Eulenburg und Hertefeld. Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg ( known universally as Paul von Hindenburg ( ( October 2, 1847 &ndash August 2
Peasants' War
Despite his victory in Wittenberg, Luther was unable to stifle radicalism further afield. For other conflicts referred to as peasant wars or revolts see Peasant revolt (disambiguation. Preachers such as Zwickau prophet Nicholas Storch and Thomas Müntzer — whose rallying cry was "let not your sword grow cold from blood" —[53] helped instigate the Peasants' War in 1524, during which many atrocities were committed, often in Luther's name. Nicholas Storch (d 1525 (also sp Stork, Storck) was a Radical reformation preacher and a |weaver by trade Thomas Müntzer (ca 1488 – 27 May 1525 was an early Reformation-era German theologian and Anabaptist For other conflicts referred to as peasant wars or revolts see Peasant revolt (disambiguation. This war was being pursued by the peasantry in order to establish a classless society with shared goods. In 1525, Müntzer eventually succeeded in establishing a short-lived communist theocracy.
There had been revolts by the peasantry on a smaller scale since the 15th century;[53] many of the peasants now believed that Luther's attack on the Church and the hierarchy meant that the reformers would support an attack on the upper classes in general, because of the close ties between the secular princes and the princes of the Church. Popular revolts in late medieval Europe were uprisings and Rebellions by (typically Peasants in the countryside or the Bourgeois in towns against Revolts broke out in Swabia, Franconia, and Thuringia in 1524, gaining support from disaffected nobles too, many of whom were in debt. Swabia, Suabia, or Svebia ( German: Schwaben, Schwabenland or Ländle) is both a historic and linguistic Franconia (Franken is a historic region of Germany comprising the northern parts of the modern state of Bavaria and the area to its immediate west The Free State of Thuringia (Freistaat Thüringen is located in central Germany. Gaining momentum and a new leader in Thomas Müntzer, the revolts turned into war. Thomas Müntzer (ca 1488 – 27 May 1525 was an early Reformation-era German theologian and Anabaptist War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units [53]
Luther sympathized with the peasants' grievances, as he showed in his response to the Twelve Articles of the Black Forest in May 1525,[53] but he reminded them to obey the temporal authorities and became enraged at the widespread burning of convents, monasteries, bishops’ palaces, and libraries. The Twelve Articles of the Black Forest are part of the peasants' demands raised towards the Swabian League in the Peasants' War in Germany of 1525 In Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants (1525), he explained the Gospel teaching on wealth, condemned the violence as the devil's work, and called for the nobility to put down the rebels like mad dogs:
Therefore let everyone who can, smite, slay, and stab, secretly or openly, remembering that nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful, or devilish than a rebel . The German Peasants' War took place between 1524 and 1526 as a result of a tumultuous collection of grievances in many different spheres political economic social and theological . . For baptism does not make men free in body and property, but in soul; and the gospel does not make goods common, except in the case of those who, of their own free will, do what the apostles and disciples did in Acts 4 [:32–37]. They did not demand, as do our insane peasants in their raging, that the goods of others—of Pilate and Herod—should be common, but only their own goods. Our peasants, however, want to make the goods of other men common, and keep their own for themselves. Fine Christians they are! I think there is not a devil left in hell; they have all gone into the peasants. Their raving has gone beyond all measure. [60]
In Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants Luther opposed the peasant movement for three reasons. First, instead of conducting themselves appropriately by lawfully submitting to the secular government, the peasants chose to resort to violence, therefore failing to heed Christ's counsel to "Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's. " Second, due to the peasant's violent actions of rebelling, robbing, and plundering, Luther explained that they were "outside the law of God and Empire," therefore meriting "death in body and soul, if only as highwaymen and murderers. " Lastly, Luther presented how the peasants "cloak this terrible and horrible sin with the Gospel" and call themselves "Christian brethren," sins which Luther considered utter blasphemy. [61]
Without Luther's backing for the uprising, many rebels laid down their weapons; others felt betrayed. Their defeat by the Swabian League at the Battle of Frankenhausen on May 25, 1525, followed by Müntzer’s execution, brought the revolutionary stage of the Reformation to a close. The Swabian League was an association of German cities principalities and knights principally in the territory which had Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors. [53] Thereafter, radicalism found a refuge in the anabaptist movement, while Luther's Reformation flourished under the wing of the secular powers. Anabaptists ( Greek ανα (again twice + βαπτιζω (baptize thus "re-baptizers" are Christians of the Radical Reformation
Catechisms
In 1528, Luther visited parishes and schools in Saxony to determine the quality of pastoral care and Christian education. A catechism (ˈkætəkɪzəm κατηχισμός is a summary or exposition of Doctrine, traditionally used in Christian religious teaching from New Testament He wrote in the preface to The Small Catechism: "Mercy! Good God! what manifold misery I beheld! The common people, especially in the villages, have no knowledge whatever of Christian doctrine, and, alas! many pastors are altogether incapable and incompetent to teach. Luther's Small Catechism was written by Martin Luther and published in 1529 for the training of children "[62]
In response, he prepared the Small Catechism and Large Catechism, instructional and devotional material on the Ten Commandments, the Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer, baptism, confession and absolution, and the Lord's Supper. Luther's Large Catechism consisted of works written by Martin Luther and compiled Christian canonical texts, published in April of 1529. The Ten Commandments, or Decalogue, are a list of religious and moral imperatives that according to Judeo-Christian tradition were authored by God and given The Lord's Prayer, also known as the Our Father or Pater noster, is probably the best-known Prayer in Christianity. In Christianity, baptism ( Greek, "immersing" "performing Ablutions " is the ritual act with the use of water by which one is admitted The Small Catechism was supposed to be read by the people themselves, and the Large Catechism by the pastors; both remain popular instructional materials among Lutherans. Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Luther, who was modest about the publishing of his collected works, thought his catechisms were one of two works he would not be embarrassed to call his own: "Regarding the plan to collect my writings in volumes, I am quite cool and not at all eager about it because, roused by a Saturnian hunger, I would rather see them all devoured. For I acknowledge none of them to be really a book of mine, except perhaps the one Bondage of the Will and the Catechism. On the Bondage of the Will ( De Servo Arbitrio, literally "Concerning Bound Choice" by Martin Luther, was published in December 1525 "[63]
Luther's translation of the Bible
Luther translated the Bible from Greek into German to make it more accessible to ordinary people, a task he began alone in 1521 during his stay in the Wartburg castle. The Luther Bible is a German Bible translation by Martin Luther, first printed with both testaments in 1534 Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin For other uses of Wartburg see Wartburg (disambiguation The Wartburg is a castle situated on a 1230-foot (410 m precipice to the He was not the first translator of it into German, but he was by far the greatest, according to Philip Shaff, who writes that, had Luther done nothing but this, he would remain one of the "greatest benefactors of the German-speaking race. "[64]
His translation of The New Testament was published in September 1522 and, in collaboration with Johannes Bugenhagen, Justus Jonas, Caspar Creuziger, Philipp Melanchthon, Matthäus Aurogallus, and George Rörer, the Old and New Testaments together in 1534. This article is about the German religious leader For the video game character see List of Final Fantasy VII characters. Justus Jonas ( 5 June 1493 - 9 October 1555) was a German Protestant reformer Caspar Creuziger or Caspar Cruciger the Elder ( January 1, 1504 - November 16, 1548) was a German humanist. Philipp Melanchthon (born Philipp Schwartzerd) ( February 16, 1497 &ndash April 19, 1560) was a German professor and theologian Matthäus Aurogallus, also known as Matthäus Goldhahn ( 1490 - November 10, 1543) was a German linguist Georg Rörer (Latin Rorarius) (1492 &ndash 1557 was a Lutheran reformer and pastor He worked on refining the translation for the rest of his life.
The Luther Bible contributed to the emergence of the modern German language and is regarded as a landmark in German literature. The Luther Bible is a German Bible translation by Martin Luther, first printed with both testaments in 1534 German literature comprises those literary texts written in the German language. The 1534 edition was influential on William Tyndale's translation,[65] a precursor of the King James Bible. Tyndale redirects here For the English family see Tyndall. For other uses see Tyndale (disambiguation. [66] Philip Schaff, the 19th century theologian, said of the work:
The richest fruit of Luther's leisure in the Wartburg, and the most important and useful work of his whole life, is the translation of the New Testament, by which he brought the teaching and example of Christ and the Apostles to the mind and heart of the Germans in life-like reproduction. Philip Schaff ( January 1, 1819 – October 20, 1893) was a Swiss -born German -educated Protestant It was a republication of the gospel. He made the Bible the people's book in the church, school and home. [67]
Liturgy and church government
Luther's German Mass of 1526 provided for weekday services and for catechetical instruction. Deutsche Messe, or The German Mass, ( Deutsche Messe und Ordnung des Gottesdiensts) was published by Martin Luther in 1526. He strongly objected to making a new law of the forms and urged the retention of other good liturgies. While advocating Christian liberty in liturgical matters, he also spoke out in favor of maintaining and establishing liturgical uniformity among those sharing the same faith in a given area. Adiaphoron (plural adiaphora from the Greek αδιάφορα "indifferent things" was a concept used in Stoic philosophy to indicate things [68]
He saw in liturgical uniformity a fitting outward expression of unity in the faith, while in liturgical variation, an indication of possible doctrinal variation. He did not consider liturgical change a virtue, especially when it might be made by individual Christians or congregations: he was content to conserve and reform what the Church had inherited from the past. He eliminated and condemned those parts of the Roman Catholic Mass that taught that the Eucharist was a propitiatory sacrifice and the body and blood of Christ by transubstantiation,[69] but retained the use of historic liturgical forms and customs. The Mass is the Eucharistic celebration in the Latin liturgical rites of the Roman Catholic Church. See also Eucharist (Catholic Church On the related belief that Christ is present in the Eucharist in body blood soul and divinity see Real Presence.
Eucharist controversy
Luther's views on the Eucharist — the sacrament of the Lord's Supper — were put to the test in October 1529 at the Marburg Colloquy, an assembly of Protestant theologians gathered by Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, to establish doctrinal unity in the emerging Protestant states. Sacramental union ( Latin, unio sacramentalis; German, sakramentliche Einigkeit) is the Lutheran theological Doctrine The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion or Lord's Supper and other names is a Christian Sacrament by which in a common interpretation those A sacrament, as defined in Hexam's Concise Dictionary of Religion is "a Rite in which God is uniquely active The Marburg Colloquy was a meeting at Marburg Castle Marburg, Hesse, Germany which attempted to solve a dispute between Martin Luther and Philip I of Hesse, ( 13 November 1504 - 31 March 1567) nicknamed der Großmütige (the " Magnanimous " was a leading Agreement was achieved on most points, the exception being the nature of the Eucharist, an issue crucial to Luther. [70]
The theologians, including Zwingli, Andreas Karlstadt, Leo Jud, and Johannes Oecolampadius, differed on the significance of the words spoken by Jesus at the Last Supper: "This is my body which is for you," "This cup is the new covenant in my blood" (1 Corinthians 11:23–26). Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli (1 January 1484 &ndash 11 October 1531 was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Andreas Rudolph Bodenstein von Karlstadt (1486 &ndash December 24 1541) better known as Andreas Karlstadt or Andreas Carlstadt, was a Leo Jud, (also Leo Juda, Leo Judä, Leo Judas, Leonis Judae, Ionnes Iuda, Leo Keller) ( 1482 - June 19 Johannes Œcolampadius or Œkolampad ( 1482 - November 24 1531) was a German religious reformer whose real name was Hussgen In the Christian Gospels the Last Supper (also called the Lord's Supper or Mystical Supper) was the last meal Jesus shared with his Eleventh chapter of the First Epistle to the Corinthians. Paul of Tarsus writes on the conduct of Christians while worshipping together Luther insisted on the Real Presence of the body and blood of Christ in the consecrated bread and wine, but the other theologians believed God to be only symbolically present: Zwingli, for example, denied Jesus's ability to be in more than one place at a time. The Real Presence is the term various Christian traditions use to express their belief that in the Eucharist, Jesus Christ is really present in what was But Luther, who affirmed the doctrine of Hypostatic Union, that Jesus is both man and God, was clear:
For I do not want to deny in any way that God’s power is able to make a body be simultaneously in many places, even in a corporeal and circumscribed manner. Hypostatic union (from the Greek, "hypostasis" translated reality or person) is a technical term in Christian Theology employed For who wants to try to prove that God is unable to do that? Who has seen the limits of his power?[71]
Even more forcefully, Luther expresses his belief in the real presence in a letter to the Christians in Strassburg, Dec. 15, 1524:
If five years ago D. Carlstadt, or anybody else, had been able to persuade me that there is nothing but bread and wine in the Sacrament, he would, I confess, have rendered me a great service. Andreas Rudolph Bodenstein von Karlstadt (1486 &ndash December 24 1541) better known as Andreas Karlstadt or Andreas Carlstadt, was a I have undergone severe struggles and have twisted and turned to over it (belief in the Real Presence), because I was fully aware that it would have been the most severe blow which I could have dealt against Popery. . . . But I am in prison. I cannot escape, the text (‘this is my body') is too powerful, and no words can make it mean anything else. [72]
Despite these disagreements on the Eucharist, the Marburg Colloquy paved the way for the signing in 1530 of the Augsburg Confession, and for the formation of the Schmalkaldic League the following year by leading Protestant nobles such as Philip of Hesse, John Frederick of Saxony, and Georg, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. The Augsburg Confession, also known as the "Augustana" from its Latin name Confessio Augustana is the primary confession of faith of the Lutheran The Schmalkaldic League (Schmalkaldischer Bund was a defensive alliance of Lutheran princes within the Holy Roman Empire during the mid- 16th George the Pious (Georg der Fromme 4 March 1484 &ndash 27 December 1543) was a Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach from the According to Luther, agreement in the faith was not necessary prior to entering political alliances. Nevertheless, interpretations of the Eucharist differ among Protestants to this day.
Augsburg Confession
- Further information: Augsburg Confession and Apology of the Augsburg Confession
Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, convened an Imperial Diet in Augsburg in 1530 with the goal of uniting the empire against the Ottoman Turks, who had besieged Vienna the previous autumn. Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states Augsburg is an independent City in the south-west of Bavaria. The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Siege of Vienna in 1529, as distinct from the Battle of Vienna in 1683, was the first attempt of the Muslim Ottoman Empire, led by
To achieve unity, Charles required a resolution of the religious controversies in his realm. Luther, still under the Imperial Ban, was left behind at the Coburg fortress while his elector and colleagues from Wittenberg attended the diet. Coburg is a town located on the Itz River in Bavaria, Germany The Augsburg Confession, a summary of the Lutheran faith authored by Philipp Melanchthon but influenced by Luther,[70] was read aloud to the emperor. The Augsburg Confession, also known as the "Augustana" from its Latin name Confessio Augustana is the primary confession of faith of the Lutheran Philipp Melanchthon (born Philipp Schwartzerd) ( February 16, 1497 &ndash April 19, 1560) was a German professor and theologian It was the first Lutheran confession included in the Book of Concord of 1580, and is regarded as the principal confession of the Lutheran Church. The Book of Concord or Concordia (1580 is the historic doctrinal standard of the Lutheran Church, consisting of ten credal
Philip of Hesse controversy
In 1539, Luther became involved in controversy surrounding the bigamy of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, who wanted to marry one of his wife's ladies-in-waiting. The term polygamy (a Greek word meaning "the practice of multiple marriage" is used in related ways in Social anthropology, Sociobiology, and Philip I of Hesse, ( 13 November 1504 - 31 March 1567) nicknamed der Großmütige (the " Magnanimous " was a leading Luther ruled that polygamy was acceptable, noting that the patriarchs of the Old Testament had had more than one wife, and so Philip entered into the second marriage in secret. The term polygamy (a Greek word meaning "the practice of multiple marriage" is used in related ways in Social anthropology, Sociobiology, and The Patriarchs (also known as the Avot in Hebrew) according to the Judeo-Christian Old Testament are Abraham, his Son In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. Philip's sister made news of the marriage public a few weeks later, scandalizing Germany. [2]
Luther and antisemitism
Historian Robert Michael writes that Luther was concerned with the Jewish question all his life, despite devoting only a small proportion of his work to it. Dr Robert Michael is an American Historian. He currently is Professor Emeritus of European History at the University of Massachusetts [73] As a Christian pastor and theologian Luther was concerned that people have faith in Jesus as the messiah for salvation. In rejecting that view of Jesus, the Jews became the "quintessential other,"[74] a model of the opposition to the Christian view of God. In an early work, That Jesus Christ was born a Jew, Luther advocated kindness toward the Jews, but only with the aim of converting them to Christianity: what was called Judenmission. [75] When his efforts at conversion failed, he became increasingly bitter toward them. [76] His main works on the Jews were his 60,000-word treatise Von den Juden und Ihren Lügen (On the Jews and Their Lies), and Vom Schem Hamphoras und vom Geschlecht Christi (On the Holy Name and the Lineage of Christ) — reprinted five times within his lifetime — both written in 1543, three years before his death. On the Jews and Their Lies (Von den Jüden und iren Lügen in modern spelling de ''Von den Juden und ihren Lügen'' is a 65000-word treatise written by German Reformation [77] He argued that the Jews were no longer the chosen people, but were "the devil's people. " They were "base, whoring people, that is, no people of God, and their boast of lineage, circumcision, and law must be accounted as filth. "[78] The synagogue was a "defiled bride, yes, an incorrigible whore and an evil slut . . . "[79] and Jews were full of the "devil's feces . . . which they wallow in like swine. "[80] He advocated setting synagogues on fire, destroying Jewish prayerbooks, forbidding rabbis from preaching, seizing Jews' property and money, smashing up their homes, and ensuring that these "poisonous envenomed worms" be forced into labor or expelled "for all time. A siddur ( Hebrew: סידור plural siddurim) is a Jewish Prayer book, containing a set order of daily prayers. "[81] He also seemed to sanction their murder,[82] writing "We are at fault in not slaying them. "[83]
Luther successfully campaigned against the Jews in Saxony, Brandenburg, and Silesia. Josel of Rosheim (1480-1554), who tried to help the Jews of Saxony, wrote in his memoir that their situation was "due to that priest whose name was Martin Luther — may his body and soul be bound up in hell!! — who wrote and issued many heretical books in which he said that whoever would help the Jews was doomed to perdition. Josel of Rosheim (alternatively Joselmann Joselin Yoselmann Josel von Rosheim יוסף בן גרשון מרוסהים Joseph ben Gershon mi-Rosheim or Joseph ben Gershon "[84] Michael writes that Josel asked the city of Strasbourg to forbid the sale of Luther's anti-Jewish works; they refused initially, but relented when a Lutheran pastor in Hochfelden argued in a sermon that his parishioners should murder Jews. Hochfelden is a Village and commune in the Bas-Rhin département of north-eastern France. [85] Luther's influence persisted after his death. Throughout the 1580s, riots saw the expulsion of Jews from several German Lutheran states. [85][86]
According to Michael, Luther's work acquired the status of Scripture within Germany, and he became the most widely read author of his generation, in part because of the coarse and passionate nature of the writing. [85] The prevailing view[87] among historians is that his anti-Jewish rhetoric contributed significantly to the development of antisemitism in Germany,[88] and in the 1930s and 1940s provided an ideal foundation for the National Socialist's attacks on Jews. [89] Reinhold Lewin writes that "whoever wrote against the Jews for whatever reason believed he had the right to justify himself by triumphantly referring to Luther. " According to Michael, just about every anti-Jewish book printed in the Third Reich contained references to and quotations from Luther. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Heinrich Himmler wrote admiringly of his writings and sermons on the Jews in 1940. Heinrich Luitpold Himmler ( 7 October 1900 – 23 May 1945 was a Nazi German politician and head of the Schutzstaffel (SS. [90] The city of Nuremberg presented a first edition of On the Jews and their Lies to Julius Streicher, editor of the Nazi newspaper Der Stürmer, on his birthday in 1937; the newspaper described it as the most radically anti-Semitic tract ever published. Julius Streicher ( February 12, 1885 &ndash October 16, 1946) was a prominent Nazi prior to World War II. Der Stürmer (literally "The Stormer" more accurately "The Attacker" was a weekly Nazi Newspaper published by Julius Streicher [91] It was publicly exhibited in a glass case at the Nuremberg rallies and quoted in a 54-page explanation of the Aryan Law by Dr. The Nuremberg Rally (officially Reichsparteitag, meaning national party convention was the annual rally of the NSDAP (Nazi Party in the years 1923 to 1938 in E. H. Schulz and Dr. R. Frercks. [76] On December 17, 1941, seven Lutheran regional church confederations issued a statement agreeing with the policy of forcing Jews to wear the yellow badge, "since after his bitter experience Luther had already suggested preventive measures against the Jews and their expulsion from German territory. Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The yellow badge (or yellow patch) also referred to as a Jewish badge, was a cloth patch that Jews were ordered to sew on their outer garments in order "
At the heart of the debate about Luther's influence is whether it is anachronistic to view his work as a precursor of the racial antisemitism of the National Socialists. An anachronism (from the Greek "ana" " ανά " "against anti-" and "chronos" " χρόνος " Some scholars see Luther's influence as limited, and the Nazis' use of his work as opportunistic. Martin Brecht argues that there is a world of difference between Luther's belief in salvation, which depended on a faith in Jesus as the messiah — a belief Luther criticized the Jews for rejecting — and the Nazis' ideology of racial antisemitism. D Dr Martin Brecht DD (USA ( March 6, 1932 -) Church historian professor emeritus of the University of Münster, [92] Johannes Wallmann argues that Luther's writings against the Jews were largely ignored in the 18th and 19th centuries, and that there is no continuity between Luther's thought and Nazi ideology. [93] Uwe Siemon-Netto agrees, arguing that it was because the Nazis were already anti-Semites that they revived Luther's work. Uwe Siemon-Netto (born October 25, 1936) the former religion editor of United Press International, is an international columnist a Lutheran [94][95] Hans J. Hillerbrand agrees that to focus on Luther is to adopt an essentially ahistorical perspective of Nazi antisemitism that ignores other contributory factors in German history. [96][97] Other scholars argue that, even if his views were merely anti-Judaic, their violence lent a new element to the standard Christian suspicion of Judaism. Anti-Judaism has been called "a total or partial opposition to Judaism &mdashand to Jews as adherents of it&mdashby persons who accept a competing system Ronald Berger writes that Luther is credited with "Germanizing the Christian critique of Judaism and establishing anti-Semitism as a key element of German culture and national identity. "[98] Paul Rose argues that he caused a "hysterical and demonizing mentality" about Jews to enter German thought and discourse, a mentality that might otherwise have been absent. Paul Lawrence Rose is the Professor of European History and Mitrani Professor of Jewish Studies at Pennsylvania State University. [99]
Final years and death
Luther had been suffering from ill health for years, including constipation, hemorrhoids, Ménière's disease (vertigo, fainting, and tinnitus), and a cataract in one eye[100]. Constipation, costiveness, or irregularity, is a condition of the Digestive system in which a person (or animal experiences hard Feces that Hemorrhoids ( AmE) haemorrhoids ( BrE) emerods, or piles are varicosities or swelling and Inflammation Ménière's disease (meɪnˈyɛərz is a disorder of the Inner ear that can affect hearing and Balance. Vertigo (from the Latin vertere, to turn and the suffix -igo, a condition i Tinnitus (tɪˈnaɪtəs or /ˈtɪnɪtəs/ from the Latin word for " Ringing " is the perception of sound within the human ear in the absence of corresponding A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the Eye or in its envelope varying in degree from slight to complete opacity From 1531–1546, his health deteriorated further. The years of struggle with Rome, the antagonisms with and among his fellow reformers, and the scandal which ensued from the bigamy of the Philip of Hesse incident, in which Luther had played a leading role, all may have contributed. The term polygamy (a Greek word meaning "the practice of multiple marriage" is used in related ways in Social anthropology, Sociobiology, and Philip I of Hesse, ( 13 November 1504 - 31 March 1567) nicknamed der Großmütige (the " Magnanimous " was a leading In 1536, he began to suffer from kidney and bladder stones, and arthritis, and an ear infection ruptured an ear drum. Kidney stones, also called renal calculi, are solid concretions (crystal aggregations of dissolved minerals in Urine; calculi typically form Arthritis (from Greek arthro-, joint + -itis, inflammation plural arthritides is a group of conditions involving damage to the Joints of the body In December 1544, he began to feel the effects of angina. Angina pectoris, commonly known as angina, is severe Chest pain due to Ischemia (a lack of blood and hence Oxygen supply of the heart [101]
His physical health made him short-tempered and even harsher in his writings and comments. His wife Katie was overheard saying, "Dear husband, you are too rude," and he responded, "They are teaching me to be rude. "[102]
His last sermon was delivered at Eisleben, his place of birth, on February 15, 1546, three days before his death. Eisleben is a town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is famous as the hometown of Martin Luther, hence its official name is Lutherstadt Eisleben Events 590 - Khosrau II is crowned as king of Persia 1637 - Ferdinand III becomes Holy Roman Emperor [103] It was "entirely devoted to the obdurate Jews, whom it was a matter of great urgency to expel from all German territory," according to Léon Poliakov. [104] James Mackinnon writes that it concluded with a "fiery summons to drive the Jews bag and baggage from their midst, unless they desisted from their calumny and their usury and became Christians. "[105] Luther said, "we want to practice Christian love toward them and pray that they convert," but also that they are "our public enemies . . . and if they could kill us all, they would gladly do so. And so often they do. "[106]
Luther's final journey, to Mansfeld, was taken due to his concern for his siblings' families continuing in their father Hans Luther's copper mining trade. Their livelihood was threatened by Count Albrecht of Mansfeld bringing the industry under his own control. The controversy that ensued involved all four Mansfeld counts: Albrecht, Philip, John George, and Gerhard. Luther journeyed to Mansfeld twice in late 1545 to participate in the negotiations for a settlement, and a third visit was needed in early 1546 for their completion.
The negotiations were successfully concluded on February 17, 1546. Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori After 8:00 p. m. , he experienced chest pains. When he went to his bed, he prayed, "Into your hand I commit my spirit; you have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God" (Ps. 31:5), the common prayer of the dying. At 1:00 a. m. he awoke with more chest pain and was warmed with hot towels. He thanked God for revealing his son to him in whom he had believed. His companions, Justus Jonas and Michael Coelius, shouted loudly, "Reverend father, are you ready to die trusting in your Lord Jesus Christ and to confess the doctrine which you have taught in his name?" A distinct "Yes" was Luther's reply. (It was believed at the time that sudden cardiac arrest or stroke was a sign that Satan had taken a man's soul; Luther's companions stressed that he had gradually weakened and commended himself into God's hands. A cardiac arrest, also known as cardiorespiratory arrest, cardiopulmonary arrest or circulatory arrest, is the abrupt cessation of normal circulation of A stroke is the rapidly developing loss of brain functions due to a disturbance in the blood vessels supplying blood to the brain Satan, ( Standard Hebrew Satan'el, English accuser) is a term that originates from the Abrahamic faiths, being traditionally God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. [107])
An apoplectic stroke deprived him of his speech, and he died shortly afterwards at 2:45 a. m. , February 18, 1546, aged 62, in Eisleben, the city of his birth. Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy He was buried in the Castle Church in Wittenberg, beneath the pulpit. [108]
A piece of paper was later found on which he had written his last statement. The statement was in Latin, apart from "We are beggars," which was in German.
1. No one can understand Vergil's Bucolics unless he has been a shepherd for five years. No one can understand Vergil's Georgics, unless he has been a farmer for five years. 2. No one can understand Cicero's Letters (or so I teach), unless he has busied himself in the affairs of some prominent state for twenty years. 3. Know that no one can have indulged in the Holy Writers sufficiently, unless he has governed churches for a hundred years with the prophets, such as Elijah and Elisha, John the Baptist, Christ and the apostles. Do not assail this divine Aeneid; nay, rather prostrate revere the ground that it treads. We are beggars: this is true. [109][110]
Recent trends in research
Modern Luther scholarship has presented a more diverse view of Luther. Research lead by Tuomo Mannermaa at the University of Helsinki has led to the development of the The New Finnish Interpretation of Luther that describes Luther's views on salvation in terms much closer to Eastern Orthodox notions of theosis rather than established interpretations of German Luther scholarship. The University of Helsinki (Helsingin yliopisto Helsingfors universitet is a University located in Helsinki, Finland since 1829 but founded In Theology, salvation can mean three related things being saved from or Liberation from something such as Suffering or the punishment of The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world In Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy and Eastern Catholic theology theosis (written also theiosis, theopoiesis, theōsis [111] This research has recently been presented in English in an anthology of papers edited by Carl E. Braaten and Robert W. Jenson in a work entitled, Union with Christ: The New Finnish Interpretation of Luther. Carl E Braaten ( January 3, 1929 Saint Paul Minnesota -) is a Lutheran theologian Robert W Jenson is a leading American Lutheran and Ecumenical theologian Mannermaa states, "the external impulse for this new wave of Luther studies in Helsinki came surprisingly from outside the boundaries of Luther research. T is the twentieth letter in the modern Latin alphabet. Its name in English is spelled tee or occasionally te (tiː It came from the ecumenical dialogue between the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland and the Russian Orthodox Church that was initiated by Archbishop Martti Simojoki at the beginning of the nineteen-seventies. The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland (in Finnish Suomen evankelis-luterilainen kirkko; in Swedish Evangelisk-lutherska kyrkan This article is about the Decade 1970-1979 For the Year 1970 see 1970. "[112] This research has been called into question because it ignores Luther's roots and theological development in Western Christendom, and it characterizes Luther's teaching on Justification as based on Jesus' righteousness which indwells the believer rather than Jesus' righteousness as imputed to the believer. [113]
Beginning in 1955, a new English translation of Luther's major works was carried out as a joint venture of Concordia Publishing House and Fortress, now Augsburg Fortress Press. Concordia Publishing House ( CPH) founded in 1869 is the official publisher of The Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod. Augsburg Fortress is the official publishing house of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA and also publishes for the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada Known as the "American Edition of Luther's Works,"[114] it has led to the rediscovery of some of Luther's most controversial writings, and a more complete picture has emerged of this prolific writer and his complex personality.
The "American Edition" translation of On the Jews and Their Lies in 1971, possibly the first complete English version,[115] revealed to many readers a side of Luther they had not previously known. On the Jews and Their Lies (Von den Jüden und iren Lügen in modern spelling de ''Von den Juden und ihren Lügen'' is a 65000-word treatise written by German Reformation Another of Luther's works, Vom Schem Hamphoras, was translated and published independently as part of The Jew In Christian Theology by Gerhard Falk in 1992. Vom Schem Hamphoras, full title Vom Schem Hamphoras und vom Geschlecht Christi ( Of the Unknowable Name and the Generations of Christ) [116] Luther's Vom Schem Hamphoras continues his graphic and polemical satire against and his castigation of the Jews, but it does not exceed the harshness of On the Jews and Their Lies.
The "American Edition" also brought to English readers Against the Papacy at Rome Founded by the Devil (1545),[117] which has been described as "one of Luther's most coarse and vehement works. " It is said to contain scatological satires of the Pope, with illustrations by Cranach, who is known for painting Luther’s portrait. For the Coil album see Scatology (album. In Medicine and Biology, scatology or coprology is the study of [118] These "were so inexpressibly vile that a common impulse of decency demanded their summary suppression by his friends. "[119]
Against Hanswurst (1541) was also translated as part of the "American Edition"[120] and is described as "rivaling his anti-Jewish treatises for vulgarity and violence of expression. "[121]
Literary treatments
- The Nightingale of Wittenburg by August Strindberg (German title, Luther)
See also
- Theology of Martin Luther
- Role of the printing press in the Reformation
- Christianity and anti-Semitism
- Consubstantiation
- Erasmus' Correspondents
- John Wycliffe
- Jan Hus
- John Calvin
- Luther's Seal
- Martin Luther's views on Mary
References
- ^ Plass, Ewald M. ( January 22, 1849 &ndash May 14, 1912) was a Swedish Writer, Playwright, and painter. The theology of Martin Luther was fairly instrumental in influencing the Protestant Reformation, specifically topics dealing with Justification by The role of the printing press in the Reformation was fundamental to its success in Europe Although Christian antisemitism is considered to have started around the 12th century its roots are attributed by some scholars to anti-Jewish attitudes and polemic beginning Consubstantiation is a theological doctrine that (like Transubstantiation) attempts to describe the nature of the Christian Eucharist in concrete metaphysical One of the best sources for the world of European Renaissance Humanism in the early 16th century is the correspondence of Erasmus. John Wycliffe (ˈwɪklɪf also spelled Wyclif, Wycliff, Wiclef, Wicliffe, or Wickliffe) (mid-1320s – 31 December Jan Hus ( (ˈjan ˈɦus alternative spellings John Hus, Jan Huss, John Huss) (c John Calvin (or Jean Calvin) (10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564 was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and The Luther seal or Luther rose is a widely-recognized symbol for Lutheranism. Martin Luther 's views of Jesus ' mother Mary developed out of the deep and pervasive medieval Christian Marian devotion on which he was reared and "Monasticism," in What Luther Says: An Anthology. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1959, 2:964.
- ^ a b Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther: Significance," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007.
- ^ Ewald M. Plass, What Luther Says, 3 vols. , (St. Louis: CPH, 1959), 88, no. 269; M. Reu, Luther and the Scriptures, Columbus, Ohio: Wartburg Press, 1944), 23.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Concerning the Ministry (1523), tr. Conrad Bergendoff, in Bergendoff, Conrad (ed. ) Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1958, 40:18 ff.
- ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin and Bromiley, Geoffrey William. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999–2003, 1:244.
- ^ Tyndale's New Testament, trans. from the Greek by William Tyndale in 1534 in a modern-spelling edition and with an introduction by David Daniell. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989, ix–x.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Roland Herbert Bainton (1894-1984 was an English church historian Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 269.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 223.
- ^ McKim, Donald K. (ed. ) The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 58; Berenbaum, Michael. Michael Berenbaum (born 1945 is an American scholar professor writer and film-maker who specializes in the study of the memorialization of the Holocaust. "Anti-Semitism," Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed January 2, 2007. For Luther's own words, see Luther, Martin. "On the Jews and Their Lies," tr. Martin H. Bertram, in Sherman, Franklin. (ed. ) Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971, 47:268–72.
- ^ Hendrix, Scott H. "The Controversial Luther", Word & World 3/4 (1983), Luther Seminary, St. Paul, MN, p. 393: "And, finally, after the Holocaust and the use of his anti-Jewish statements by National Socialists, Luther's anti-semitic outbursts are now unmentionable, though they were already repulsive in the sixteenth century. As a result, Luther has become as controversial in the twentieth century as he was in the sixteenth. " Also see Hillerbrand, Hans. "The legacy of Martin Luther", in Hillerbrand, Hans & McKim, Donald K. (eds. ) The Cambridge Companion to Luther. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
- ^ a b c Marty, Martin. Martin Emil Marty (b February 5, 1928, West Point Nebraska) is an American Lutheran religious scholar who has written extensively Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 1.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. D Dr Martin Brecht DD (USA ( March 6, 1932 -) Church historian professor emeritus of the University of Münster, Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:3–5.
- ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Emil Marty (b February 5, 1928, West Point Nebraska) is an American Lutheran religious scholar who has written extensively Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 3.
- ^ a b c Rupp, Ernst Gordon. Ernest Gordon Rupp, (January 7 1910 in London – December 19 1986 in Cambridge England) "Martin Luther," Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 2006.
- ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Emil Marty (b February 5, 1928, West Point Nebraska) is an American Lutheran religious scholar who has written extensively Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 2-3.
- ^ a b Marty, Martin. Martin Emil Marty (b February 5, 1928, West Point Nebraska) is an American Lutheran religious scholar who has written extensively Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 4.
- ^ a b c d Marty, Martin. Martin Emil Marty (b February 5, 1928, West Point Nebraska) is an American Lutheran religious scholar who has written extensively Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 5.
- ^ a b c d Marty, Martin. Martin Emil Marty (b February 5, 1928, West Point Nebraska) is an American Lutheran religious scholar who has written extensively Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 6.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:48.
- ^ Schwiebert, E. G. Luther and His Times. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1950, 136.
- ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Emil Marty (b February 5, 1928, West Point Nebraska) is an American Lutheran religious scholar who has written extensively Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 7.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 40-42.
- ^ Kittelson, James. Luther The Reformer. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986), 53.
- ^ Kittelson, James. Luther The Reformer. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986, 79.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 44-45.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:93.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:12-27.
- ^ Wriedt, Markus. "Luther's Theology," in The Cambridge Companion to Luther. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 88–94.
- ^ Bouman, Herbert J. A. "The Doctrine of Justification in the Lutheran Confessions", Concordia Theological Monthly, November 26, 1955, No. 11:801.
- ^ Dorman, Ted M. , "Justification as Healing: The Little-Known Luther," Quodlibet Journal: Volume 2 Number 3, Summer 2000. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
- ^ Luther's Definition of Faith.
- ^ Luther, Martin. "The Smalcald Articles," in Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions. (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005, 289, Part two, Article 1.
- ^ "Johann Tetzel," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007: "Tetzel's experiences as a preacher of indulgences, especially between 1503 and 1510, led to his appointment as general commissioner by Albrecht, archbishop of Mainz, who, deeply in debt to pay for a large accumulation of benefices, had to contribute a considerable sum toward the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Albrecht obtained permission from Pope Leo X to conduct the sale of a special plenary indulgence (i. e. , remission of the temporal punishment of sin), half of the proceeds of which Albrecht was to claim to pay the fees of his benefices. In effect, Tetzel became a salesman whose product was to cause a scandal in Germany that evolved into the greatest crisis (the Reformation) in the history of the Western church. "
- ^ (Trent, l. c. , can. xii: "Si quis dixerit, fidem justificantem nihil aliud esse quam fiduciam divinae misericordiae, peccata remittentis propter Christum, vel eam fiduciam solam esse, qua justificamur, a. s. ")
- ^ (cf. Trent, Sess. VI, cap. iv, xiv)
- ^ a b Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther: Indulgences and salvation," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 60; Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:182; Kittelson, James. Luther The Reformer. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986),104.
- ^ "Luther's lavatory thrills experts", BBC News, October 22, 2004.
- ^ Iserloh, Erwin. The Theses Were Not Posted. Toronto: Saunders of Toronto, Ltd. , 1966.
- ^ Junghans, Helmer. "Luther's Wittenberg," in McKim, Donald K. (ed. ) The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 26.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:204-205.
- ^ Treu, Martin. Martin Luther in Wittenberg: A Biographical Tour. Wittenberg: Saxon-Anhalt Luther Memorial Foundation, 2003, 31.
- ^ Papal Bull Exsurge Domine.
- ^ Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910, 7:99; Polack, W. G. The Story of Luther. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1931, 45.
- ^ Macauley Jackson, Samuel and Gilmore, George William. (eds. ) "Martin Luther", The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, New York, London, Funk and Wagnalls Co. , 1908–1914; Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1951), 71.
- ^ Spitz, Lewis W. The Renaissance and Reformation Movements, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987, 338.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. (tr. Wolfgang Katenz) "Luther, Martin," in Hillerbrand, Hans J. (ed. ) Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, 2:463.
- ^ Macauley Jackson, Samuel and Gilmore, George William. (eds. ) "Martin Luther", The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, New York, London, Funk and Wagnalls Co. , 1908–1914; Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1951), 72.
- ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther: Diet of Worms," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007.
- ^ Bratcher, Dennis. "The Edict of Worms (1521)," in The Voice: Biblical and Theological Resources for Growing Christians. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
- ^ Schaff-Herzog, "Luther, Martin," 72.
- ^ Luther, Martin. "Letter 82," in Luther's Works. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald and Helmut T. Lehmann (eds), Vol. 48: Letters I, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1999, c1963, 48:246. John, author of Revelation, had been exiled on the island of Patmos. John of Patmos is the name given to the author of the Book of Revelation (or Book of the Apocalypse) in the New Testament. Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch IV.
- ^ Martin Brecht and James F. Schaaf, Martin Luther, Fortress Press, 1993, p. 7. ISBN 0800628144.
- ^ Martin Luther, "Let Your Sins Be Strong," a Letter From Luther to Melanchthon, August 1521, Project Wittenberg, retrieved 1 October 2006.
- ^ Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch V.
- ^ In a Greek letter to his friend Camerarius. The letter was published in the original Greek by W. Meyer, in the reports of the München Academy of Sciences, Nov. 4, 1876, pp. 601-604. The text is changed in the Corp. Reform . , I. 753. Melanchton calls Luther a very reckless man ( ἀνὴρ ὡς μάλιστα εὐχερής ), but hopes that he will become more solemn ( σεμνότερος).
- ^ a b Schaff, Philip. "Luther’s Marriage. 1525.", History of the Christian Church, Volume VII. Modern Christianity. The German Reformation. § 77.
- ^ "Martin Luther", Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911.
- ^ Jaroslav J. Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, Luther's Works, 55 vols. (St. Louis and Philadelphia: Concordia Pub. House and Fortress Press, 1955-1986), 46: 50-51.
- ^ Ibid. , 46: 47-55
- ^ Luther, Martin. "Preface", Small Catechism.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971, 50:172-173. The remark indicates that he saw himself as the mythological Saturn, who devoured his children; Luther wanted to get rid of many of his writings except for the two mentioned. Saturn ( Latin: Saturnus) was a major Roman God of agriculture and harvest The Large and Small Catechisms are spoken of as one work by Luther in this letter.
- ^ Shaff, Philip. "Luther's Translation of the Bible", History of the Christian Church, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910. Schaff quotes Hegel's Philosophie der Geschichte, p. 503: "Luther hat die Autorität der Kirche verworfen und an ihre Stelle die Bibel und das Zeugniss des menschlichen Geistes gesetzt. Dass nun die Bibel selbst die Grundlage der christlichen Kirche geworden ist, ist von der grössten Wichtigkeit; jeder soll sich nun selbst daraus belehren, jeder sein Gewissen daraus bestimmen können. Diess ist die ungeheure Veränderung im Principe: die ganze Tradition und das Gebäude der Kirche wird problematisch und das Princip der Autorität der Kirche umgestossen. Die Uebersetzung, welche Luther von der Bibel gemacht hat, ist von unschätzbarem Werthe für das deutsche Volk gewesen. Dieses hat dadurch ein Volksbuch erhalten, wie keine Nation der katholischen Welt ein solches hat; sie haben wohl eine Unzahl von Gebetbüchlein, aber kein Grundbuch zur Belehrung des Volks. Trotz dem hat man in neueren Zeiten Streit deshalb erhoben, ob es zweckmässig sei, dem Volke die Bibel indie Hand zu geben; die wenigen Nachtheile, die dieses hat, werden doch bei weitem von den ungeheuren Vortheilen überwogen; die äusserlichen Geschichten, die dem Herzen und Verstande anstössig sein können, weiss der religiöse Sinn sehr wohl zu unterscheiden, und sich an das Substantielle haltend überwindet er sie. "
- ^ Tyndale's New Testament, xv, xxvii.
- ^ Tyndale's New Testament, ix–x.
- ^ Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church, 8 vols. , New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910.
- ^ A Christian Exhortation to the Livonians concerning Public Worship and Concord (June 17, 1525) in Luther's Works, 53:47. Translated from Weimar Ausgabe 18:417-421.
- ^ Schaff-Herzog, "Luther, Martin", 73.
- ^ a b Schaff-Herzog, "Luther, Martin", 74.
- ^ Luther's Works, 37:223–224.
- ^ Luther's Own Statements Concerning His Teaching and Its Results: Taken Exclusively from the Earliest and Best Editions of Luther's German and Latin Works, by Henry O'Connor, S. J. , New York, Benzinger Brothers, 1884. second ed. pp. 39-40. Philip Schaff gives the German: "Das bekenne ich," he wrote, Dec. Philip Schaff ( January 1, 1819 – October 20, 1893) was a Swiss -born German -educated Protestant 15, 1524, to the Christians in Strassburg (De Wette, II. Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette ( January 12, 1780 - June 16, 1849) was a German theologian. 577), "wo D. Carlstadt oder jemand anders vor fünf Jahren mich hätte mögen berichten, dass im Sacrament nichts denn Brot und Wein wäre, der hätte mir einen grossen Dienst gethan. Ich habe wohl so harte Anfechtungen da erlitten und mich gerungen und gewunden, dass ich gern heraus gewesen wäre, weil ich wohl sah, dass ich damit dem Papstthum hätte den grössten Puff können geben. Ich hab auch zween gehabt, die geschickter davon zu mir geschrieben haben denn D. Carlstadt, und nicht also die Worte gemartert nach eigenem Dünken. Aber ich bin gefangen, kann nicht heraus: der Text ist zu gewaltig da, und will sich mit Worten nicht lassen ans dem Sinn reissen. " [1]
- ^ Stöhr, Martin. "Die Juden und Martin Luther," in Kremers, Heinz et al (eds. ) Die Juden und Martin Luther; Martin Luther und die Juden. Neukirchener publishing house, Neukirchen Vluyn 1985, 1987 (second edition). p. 90. Taken from Michael, Robert. Dr Robert Michael is an American Historian. He currently is Professor Emeritus of European History at the University of Massachusetts Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 109. See also Oberman, Heiko. Heiko Augustinus Oberman ( 15 October 1930 &ndash 22 April 2001) was a Historian and Theologian who specialized in the Luther: Between Man and Devil. New Haven, 1989.
- ^ Hsia, R. Po-chia. "Jews as Magicians in Reformation Germany," in Gilman, Sander L. and Katz, Steven T. Anti-Semitism in Times of Crisis, New York: New York University Press, 1991, pp. 119-120, cited in Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 109.
- ^ Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 109.
- ^ a b Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," History Review (2002) No. 42:1-2.
- ^ Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 110.
- ^ Luther, Martin. On the Jews and their Lies, 154, 167, 229, cited in Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 111.
- ^ Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 112.
- ^ Obermann, Heiko. Luthers Werke. Erlangen 1854, 32:282, 298, in Grisar, Hartmann. Luther. St. Louis 1915, 4:286 and 5:406, cited in Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 113.
- ^ Luther, Martin. "On the Jews and Their Lies," Luthers Werke. 47:268-271.
- ^ Michael, Robert. "Luther, Luther Scholars, and the Jews," Encounter, 46 (Autumn 1985) No. 4:343.
- ^ Luther, Martin. On the Jews and Their Lies, cited in Michael, Robert. "Luther, Luther Scholars, and the Jews," Encounter 46 (Autumn 1985) No. 4:343-344.
- ^ Marcus, Jacob Rader. The Jew in the Medieval World, p. 198, cited in Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 110.
- ^ a b c Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 117.
- ^ Vincent Fettmilch, a Calvinist, reprinted On the Jews and their Lies in 1612 to stir up hatred against the Jews of Frankfurt. Two years later, riots in Frankfurt saw the deaths of 3,000 Jews and the expulsion of the rest. Fettmilch was executed by the Lutheran city authorities, but Robert Michael writes that his execution was for attempting to overthrow the authorities, not for his offenses against the Jews.
- ^ "The assertion that Luther's expressions of anti-Jewish sentiment have been of major and persistent influence in the centuries after the Reformation, and that there exists a continuity between Protestant anti-Judaism and modern racially oriented anti-Semitism, is at present wide-spread in the literature; since the Second World War it has understandably become the prevailing opinion. Anti-Judaism has been called "a total or partial opposition to Judaism &mdashand to Jews as adherents of it&mdashby persons who accept a competing system " Johannes Wallmann, "The Reception of Luther's Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th century", Lutheran Quarterly, n. s. 1 (Spring 1987) 1:72-97.
- ^ For similar views, see:
- Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28.
- Rose, Paul Lawrence. Paul Lawrence Rose is the Professor of European History and Mitrani Professor of Jewish Studies at Pennsylvania State University. "Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner," (Princeton University Press, 1990), quoted in Berger, 28);
- Shirer, William. William Lawrence Shirer ( February 23, 1904 – December 28, 1993) was an American journalist and historian The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1960).
- Johnson, Paul. Paul Johnson (born Paul Bede Johnson on 2 November 1928 in Manchester, England) is a British Roman Catholic A History of the Jews (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 242.
- Poliakov, Leon. History of Anti-Semitism: From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews. (N. P. : University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 216.
- Berenbaum, Michael. Michael Berenbaum (born 1945 is an American scholar professor writer and film-maker who specializes in the study of the memorialization of the Holocaust. The World Must Know. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 1993, 2000), 8–9. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is a national institution located adjacent to The National Mall in Washington D
- ^ Grunberger, Richard. Richard Grunberger ( March 7 1924 - February 15 2005) was a British historian best known for his book A Social History of the The 12-Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi German 1933-1945 (NP:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 465.
- ^ Himmler wrote: "what Luther said and wrote about the Jews. No judgment could be sharper. "
- ^ Ellis, Marc H. Marc H Ellis was born in Miami Florida in 1952 He earned BA and M Hitler and the Holocaust, Christian Anti-Semitism", (NP: Baylor University Center for American and Jewish Studies, Spring 2004), Slide 14. [2]
- ^ Brecht 3:351. D Dr Martin Brecht DD (USA ( March 6, 1932 -) Church historian professor emeritus of the University of Münster,
- ^ Johannes Wallmann, "The Reception of Luther's Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th century", Lutheran Quarterly, n. s. 1 (Spring 1987) 1:72-97.
- ^ Siemon-Netto, The Fabricated Luther, 17-20. Uwe Siemon-Netto (born October 25, 1936) the former religion editor of United Press International, is an international columnist a Lutheran
- ^ Siemon-Netto, "Luther and the Jews," Lutheran Witness 123 (2004) No. Uwe Siemon-Netto (born October 25, 1936) the former religion editor of United Press International, is an international columnist a Lutheran 4:19, 21.
- ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Hillerbrand writes: "His strident pronouncements against the Jews, especially toward the end of his life, have raised the question of whether Luther significantly encouraged the development of German anti-Semitism. Although many scholars have taken this view, this perspective puts far too much emphasis on Luther and not enough on the larger peculiarities of German history. "
- ^ For similar views, see:
- Bainton, Roland, 297;
- Briese, Russell. "Martin Luther and the Jews," Lutheran Forum (Summer 2000):32;
- Brecht, Martin Luther, 3:351;
- Edwards, Mark U. Jr. Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics 1531-46. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983, 139;
- Gritsch, Eric. "Was Luther Anti-Semitic?", Christian History, No. 3:39, 12. ;
- Kittelson, James M. , Luther the Reformer, 274;
- Marius, Richard. Martin Luther, 377;
- Oberman, Heiko. The Roots of Anti-Semitism: In the Age of Renaissance and Reformation. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984, 102;
- Rupp, Gordon. Martin Luther, 75;
- Siemon-Netto, Uwe. Lutheran Witness, 19.
- ^ Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28.
- ^ Rose, Paul Lawrence. Paul Lawrence Rose is the Professor of European History and Mitrani Professor of Jewish Studies at Pennsylvania State University. Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner. Princeton University Press, 1990. Cited in Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach. New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002, 28.
- ^ Iversen OH (1996). "[Martin Luther's somatic diseases. A short life-history 450 years after his death]" (in Norwegian). Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen. 116 (30): 3643–6. PMID 9019884.
- ^ Edwards, 9.
- ^ Spitz, 354.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Sermon No. 8, "Predigt über Mat. 11:25, Eisleben gehalten," February 15, 1546, Luthers Werke, Weimar 1914, 51:196-197.
- ^ Poliakov, Léon. From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews, Vanguard Press, p. 220.
- ^ Mackinnon, James. Luther and the Reformation. Vol. IV, (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962, p. 204.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Admonition against the Jews, added to his final sermon, cited in Oberman, Heiko. Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New York: Image Books, 1989, p. 294.
- ^ Oberman, Heiko, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil. New York; Doubleday, 1990, 3-4
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:369-379.
- ^ Kellermann, James A. (translator) "The Last Written Words of Luther: Holy Ponderings of the Reverend Father Doctor Martin Luther". February 16, 1546.
- ^ Original German and Latin of Luther's last written words is: "Wir sein pettler. Hoc est verum. " Heinrich Bornkamm, Luther's World of Thought, tr. Martin H. Bertram (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1958), 291.
- ^ Dorman, Ted. Review of "Union With Christ: The New Finnish Interpretation of Luther". First Things, 1999. Retrieved 2007-05-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1279 BC - Rameses II (The Great (19th dynasty becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt.
- ^ Tuomo Mannermaa, "Why Is Luther So Fascinating? Modern Finnish Luther Research," Union with Christ, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 1.
- ^ William Wallace Schumacher, "'Who Do I Say That You Are?' Anthropology and the Theology of Theosis in the Finnish School of Tuomo Mannermaa" (Ph. D. diss. , Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, Missouri, 2003), 260 et passim. Cf. also the papers that constitute Union with Christ: The New Finish Interpretation of Luther by various authors.
- ^ Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann, general editors, Luther's Works, 55 vols. , (CPH: St. Louis, AF: Minneapolis, 1955-1986), 1:v.
- ^ Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann, general editors, Luther's Works, 55 vols. , (CPH: St. Louis, AF: Minneapolis, 1955-1986), 47:136, 137-306.
- ^ Falk, Gerhard, The Jew in Christian Theology: Martin Luther's Anti-Jewish Vom Schem Hamphoras, Previously Unpublished in English, and Other Milestones in Church Doctrine Concerning Judaism, McFarland: Jefferson, NC, 1992. ISBN 0899507166.
- ^ Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann, general editors, Luther's Works, 55 vols. , (CPH: St. Louis, AF: Minneapolis, 1955-1986), 41:257-376.
- ^ "Martin Luther", Onlineliterature. com, accessed May 2007.
- ^ Luther, The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 9, 1913.
- ^ Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann, general editors, Luther's Works, 55 vols. , (CPH: St. Louis, AF: Minneapolis, 1955-1986), 41:179-255.
- ^ Edwards, Mar U. "Luther's Last Battles", Concordia Theological Quarterly, Vol. 48, Nos. 2 & 3, April-July 1984.
Further reading
For works by and about Luther, see Martin Luther (resources). This is a list of works by and about Martin Luther, the German theologian
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| NAME | Luther, Martin |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES | |
| SHORT DESCRIPTION | German theologian |
| DATE OF BIRTH | November 10, 1483 |
| PLACE OF BIRTH | Eisleben, Germany |
| DATE OF DEATH | February 18, 1546 |
| PLACE OF DEATH | Eisleben, Germany |
Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw Eisleben is a town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is famous as the hometown of Martin Luther, hence its official name is Lutherstadt Eisleben Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy Eisleben is a town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is famous as the hometown of Martin Luther, hence its official name is Lutherstadt Eisleben Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.
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