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The name Marian exiles is given to English Calvinist Protestants who fled to the continent during the reign of Mary I. The English people (from the adjective in Englisc) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to England who predominantly speak English Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Continental Europe, also referred to as mainland Europe or simply the Continent, is the Continent of Europe, explicitly excluding European Mary I (18 February 1516 &ndash 17 November 1558 was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death

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Exile communities

According to English historian John Strype, more than 800 Protestants fled to the continent, predominantly the Low Countries, Germany, Switzerland, and France and joined with reformed churches there or formed their own congregations. John Strype ( November 1, 1643 - December 11, 1737) was an English Historian and Biographer. The Low Countries, the historical region of de Nederlanden, are the countries on low-lying land around the delta of the Rhine, Scheldt Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. A few exceptions are exiles who went to Scotland, Denmark, and other Scandinavian countries. Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well

Notable English exile communities were located in the cities of Emden, Strasbourg, Cologne, Wesel, Duisburg, Worms, Basel, Frankfurt, Aarau, Zürich, Geneva, Padua, and Venice. Emden is a City and Seaport in the northwest of Germany, on River Ems. Strasbourg (Strasbourg stʁazbuʁ Alsatian: Strossburi,; Straßburg) is the capital and principal City of the Alsace région Wesel (ˈveːzəl is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Duisburg (ˈdyːsbʊɐ̯k is a German city in the western part of the Ruhr Area ( Ruhrgebiet) in North Rhine-Westphalia. Worms (voɐms is a City in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, on the Rhine River "Basilia" redirects here For the Fly Genus, see Basilia (fly. Aarau is the capital of the northern Swiss canton of Aargau. The city is also the capital of the district of Aarau. Zürich (, Zürich German: Züri, Zurich, Zurigo; in English generally Zurich) is the largest city in Switzerland and capital of the Geneva (Genève is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and is the most populous city of Romandy (the French -speaking Padua ( Padova 'padova Latin: Patavium, Padoa) is a city in the Veneto, northern Italy. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the The exiles did not plan to remain on the continent any longer than was necessary; indeed there was considerable controversy and anxiety among them and those who remained in England over the legitimacy of fleeing, rather than facing, religious persecution. Undoubtedly this concern was an important motivation for the attention and authority given to those who remained in England and were martyred, as in the work of one of the most famous exiles, John Foxe. John Foxe (1517 &ndash April 18, 1587) martyrologist is remembered as the author of what is popularly known as Foxe's Book of Martyrs

During their continental sojourn, few of the exiles became very economically and politically integrated into their new homes. With the exception of the exile community in Aarau, the majority of exiles were clergy (67) or theological students (119). The next largest group was composed of gentry (166) who, with others back in England, financed the exiles. This group included Sir John Cheke, Sir Richard Morrison, Sir Francis Knollys, Sir Anthony Cook, Sir Peter Carew, Sir Thomas Wroth, Dame Dorothy Stafford, and Dame Elizabeth Berkeley. Sir John Cheke ( 16 June 1514 &ndash 13 September 1557) was an English Classical scholar and statesman notable as the Richard Morrison is the name of several persons Richard Morrison (ambassador (16th century Edward VI 's ambassador to Charles V Francis Knollys may refer to Francis Knollys (the elder Treasurer of the Royal Household to Queen Elizabeth I of England Francis Knollys Anthony Cook may refer to Anthony Cook (American football Anthony Cook (basketball Anthony Cook (footballer Sir Peter Carew (1514&ndash 27 November 1575) was a Devonshire adventurer who served during the reign of Queen Elizabeth of England and became Elizabeth Somerset Duchess of Beaufort née Berkeley (died 9 April 1799) was the mother of Henry Somerset 5th Duke of Beaufort and wife of Of about 500 known English exiles, there were only 40 merchants, 32 artisans, 7 printers, 3 lawyers, 3 physicians, 3 yeomen, 13 servants, and 19 men with no profession. Of the artisans 12-17 were weavers who settled in Aarau. Strype names London merchant and exile Thomas Eton as the host-general of all the exiles. Financial backers for the exiles but not in their communities included London merchants like Richard Springham and John Abel. Support also came from the King of Denmark, the Prince Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Württemberg, the Duke of Bipont, and many continental reformed leaders: Heinrich Bullinger, Konrad Pelikan, Bibliander, Josias Simmler, Wolphius, Ludwig Lavater, and Zwingli. Württemberg, formerly known as Wirtemberg, is an area and a former state in Swabia, a region in southwestern Germany. Heinrich Bullinger ( July 18, 1504 - September 17, 1575) was a Swiss reformer, the successor of Huldrych Zwingli Conrad Pellicanus (1478&ndash1556 was a German theologian and humanist. Theodore (or Theodorus) Bibliander ( 1506 - September 26 1564) Swiss Orientalist publisher and linguist Josias Simmler (Josias Simler Simlerus ( November 6 1530 &ndash July 2 1576) was a Swiss theologian and classicist author of the Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli (1 January 1484 &ndash 11 October 1531 was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland.

The Marian exiles included many important or soon-to-be important English Protestant leaders. Former and future bishops among them included John Aylmer, Miles Coverdale, John Ponet, John Scory, Richard Cox, Edmund Grindal (future archbishop of York, then Canterbury), Edwin Sandys (future archbishop of York), John Bale, John Jewel, James Pilkington, and Thomas Bentham. John Aylmer can refer to John Aylmer (English constitutionalist John Aylmer (classicist, Greek and Latin poet Myles Coverdale (also Miles Coverdale) (c 1488 &ndash 20 January 1569) was a 16th-century Bible translator who produced the John Ponet (c 1514 &ndash August 1556 was the Bishop of Winchester, also Bishop of Rochester and a controversial Protestant religious leader John Scory (died 1585 was a Cambridge Dominican order friar. He was Bishop of Rochester from 1551 to 1552 Bishop of Chichester Richard Cox may refer to Richard Cox (actor (b 1948 American actor Richard Cox (bishop (c Edmund Grindal (c 1519 &ndash 6 July, 1583) was an English church leader who successively held the posts of Bishop of London, Archbishop The Archbishop of York is a high-ranking cleric in the Church of England, second only to the Archbishop of Canterbury. For the American baseball player use John Bale (baseball John Bale ( 21 November, 1495 &ndashNovember 1563 was an John Jewel (sometimes spelled Jewell) ( May 24, 1522 - September 23, 1571) was an English Bishop of Salisbury. Thomas Bentham (1513-1578 Bishop of Coventry was a Protestant minister one of the Marian exiles, who continued secretly ministering to an underground congregation in London The conflicts that broke out between the exiles over church organization, discipline, and forms of worship presaged the religious politics of the reign of Elizabeth I and the emergence of Puritanism and Presbyterianism. A Puritan of 16th and 17th century England was an associate of any number of religious groups advocating for more "purity" of Worship and Doctrine, Presbyterianism is a family of Christian denominations within the Reformed branch of Protestant Western Christianity

Strasbourg

The English congregation in Strasbourg organised its services in conformity with the 1552 Book of Common Prayer. The Book of Common Prayer is the common title of a number of prayer books of the Church of England and used throughout the Anglican Communion. Its leaders and membership included at times the former and future bishops Ponet, Scory, Cox, Grindal, Sandys, Aylmer, and Bale. Others there included Cheke, Morison, Cook, Carew, Wroth, James Haddon, John Huntington, John Geoffrey, John Pedder, Michael Renniger, Augustin Bradbridge, Thomas Steward, Humphrey Alcocson, Thomas Lakin, Thomas Crafton, Guido and Thomas Eton, Alexander Nowell, Arthur Saule, William Cole, Christopher Goodman, Richard Hilles, Richard Chambers, and one or both of the Hales brothers. Alexander Nowell (c 1507 - February 13, 1602) was an English Puritan theologian and clergyman who served as Dean of St Paul's during William Cole may refer to William Cole 3rd Earl of Enniskillen (1807-1886 known as Viscount Cole William Cole (Puritan, Dean of Lincoln Coverdale apparently made several visits to the Strasbourg community.

Frankfurt

The first English exile group in Frankfurt arrived on 27 June 1554. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden With the help of a local magistrate, they secured the use of a vacant church building. They held their first service on 29 July using a reformed liturgy drawn up by William Whittingham. Events 1014 - Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars: Battle of Kleidion: Byzantine emperor Basil II inflicts a decisive defeat William Whittingham (c 1524-1579 was an English Biblical scholar and religious reformer The congregation adopted a semi-presbyterian system where deacons were expected to preach. Presbyterianism is a family of Christian denominations within the Reformed branch of Protestant Western Christianity Deacon is a role in the Christian Church that is generally associated with service of some kind but which varies among theological and denominational traditions

At the request of local authorities in this Lutheran city, the English church order had been made to conform to the newly established French reformed church in Frankfurt. The French church included a number of Walloon weavers who had been brought to England by Protector Somerset. Walloons (Wallons Walons are a Romance people living in Belgium principally in Wallonia. } Edward Seymour 1st Duke of Somerset (c 1506 &ndash 22nd January 1552 was Lord Protector of England in the period between the death of Henry VIII in Since then they had been under the supervision of Valerand Poullain, formerly John Calvin's successor as minister of the French congregation in Strasbourg. John Calvin (or Jean Calvin) (10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564 was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and In England, Poullain's congregation had as much autonomy as the London Stranger churches and, like them, based their church order on the models of Zwingli and Calvin. Stranger church was a term (similar in meaning to the French étranger) used by English-speaking people for independent Protestant churches established in foreign lands

Following this continental reformed precedent, the English exiles in Frankfurt offered themselves as the model church for all the English in exile and put out a call for ministers from the other congregations. However, they had gone further than many of their countrymen would follow, particularly those in Strasbourg and Zürich who wanted to retain use of the second (1552) Edwardian Book of Common Prayer. The Book of Common Prayer is the common title of a number of prayer books of the Church of England and used throughout the Anglican Communion. For that reason the English Church at Frankfurt became preoccupied with disputes over the use of the prayerbook and church order in general.

The chief members of the Frankfurt congregation during its existence were David Whitehead, Sandys, Nowell, Foxe, Bale, Horne, Whittingham, Knox, Aylmer, Bentham, Sampson, Kelke, Chambers, Isaac, both Knollyses, John and Christopher Hales, Richard Hilles, Bartholomew Traheron, Robert Crowley, Thomas Cole, William Turner, Robert Wisdome. Robert Crowley may refer to Robert Crowley (printer (c 1517 &ndash 1588 English Protestant printer editor chronicler social critic poet polemicist Thomas Cole ( February 1, 1801 - February 11, 1848) was a 19th century American artist William Turner (c 1508 – 7 July, 1568) was a British ornithologist and botanist. An informal university established by the congregation had Horne teaching Hebrew, John Mullins (who came from Zurich after Knox left) teaching Greek, and Traheron teaching theology.

All records of the group were destroyed in World War II with the Frankfurt city archives, and only partial transcripts from prior scholarship remain. These records disclose that native Frankfurters distrusted the English and suspected they were being used by members of the nobility to diminish the privileges of the burghers. The English were also accused of unfair commercial practices and of competing with local artisans--accusations which led to detailed censuses of the immigrants.

Troubles at Frankfurt

The organizational and liturgical differences between the English churches in exile soon led to protracted conflicts concentrated in Frankfurt. These conflicts are documented in a single printed source: the narrative and reprinted correspondence that comprise A Brieff discours off the troubles begonne at Franckford . . . A. D. 1554. This book was printed anonymously in 1575 (though one extant copy is dated 1574) and reprinted in 1642, 1707-08, 1846, and 1907. It may have been issued in response to a sermon delivered at St. Paul's Cross on the subject of the Genevan form of church discipline then advocated by John Field. St Paul's Cross (alternative spellings - "Powles Crosse" was a Preaching cross and open air Pulpit in the grounds of Old St Paul's Cathedral, John Field is the name of John Field (composer, 19th century Irish composer John Field (Puritan, 16th century British Puritan Though it remains uncertain, the book's editor is commonly identified as William Whittingham. Patrick Collinson has made a case for Thomas Wood as the editor, and M. A. Simpson has questioned the assumption that there was a single author behind A Brief Discourse who was part of the debates it concerns. Much of its material must have come to its compiler/s from other hands, the letters it contains vary in apparent authenticity, and the documentary sources behind it are no longer extant except, in adapted form, parts of John Knox's account of his time in Frankfurt. Noting these things, Simpson conjectures that A Brief Discourse was the product of several editors, the last of whom he believes to have been John Field. John Field is the name of John Field (composer, 19th century Irish composer John Field (Puritan, 16th century British Puritan The title page advertises A Brief Discourse as an explanation of the nature and origins of the conflicts in the Church of England then taking place and the emergence of separatism and Presbyterianism. The vestments controversy arose in the English Reformation, ostensibly concerning Vestments but more fundamentally concerned with English Protestant identity It should by no means be taken as an "objective" history.

According to A Brief Discourse, John Knox was sent as a minister to Frankfurt from Geneva by John Calvin in 1554; he led the opposition to the prayerbook faction. John Knox (c 1510 – 24 November 1572 was a Scottish clergyman and leader of the Protestant Reformation who is considered the founder of the Presbyterian John Calvin (or Jean Calvin) (10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564 was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and Their first conflict centered on the order of the communion service. Knox would not use the Genevan order since it would offend others, but neither would he allow the use of the English prayerbook form. Thomas Lever led an attempt to construct a compromise order. The prayerbook faction was led by Richard Cox, who had left Strasburg to correct the situation in Frankfurt. However, others in Strasbourg and some who had moved from there to Frankfurt, opposed the prayerbook, so both congregations were divided from within. Some people may have remained out of the fight, and others, like Lever, changed sides over time. (In Knox's own account, Lever--who was his co-preacher--failed to support him and thereby exacerbated the division. ) Knox found supporters in Whittingham (Cox's former student), Richard Chambers, Anthony Gilby, Thomas Cole, Edward Sutton, Thomas Wood, William Williams, John Staunton, William Hammon, Michael Gill, and others. Knox and Whittingham wrote a Latin summary of the English prayerbook and sent it to Calvin for his opinion which was that it contained "many tolerable foolish things. " Knox, Whittingham, Foxe, and Thomas Cole drafted what they thought would be an ideal order, but it was rejected by the prayerbook faction. It was later used at Geneva by the English congregation under Knox.

A compromise order, really a version of the prayerbook service that retained much of it, was nearly accepted by 13 March 1555, just as a new group of English refugees, including John Jewel, was brought in by Cox. Events 1138 - Cardinal Gregorio Conti is elected Antipope as Victor IV, succeeding Anacletus II. John Jewel (sometimes spelled Jewell) ( May 24, 1522 - September 23, 1571) was an English Bishop of Salisbury. The newcomers strongly objected to the compromise liturgy, which omitted the litany with the congregations' spoken responses. A litany, in Christian worship, is a form of Prayer used in Church services and Processions and consisting of a number of petitions Tensions increased since it was known that some of the new arrivals, like Jewell, had subscribed to Roman Catholic doctrines under Mary before they left England. Although Jewell preached a sermon in which he confessed his fault, his presence would not have sat well with the more zealous exiles who were also prone to dislike Cox, a considerable pluralist, as the holding of multiple benefices was something "hot gospellers" under Edward VI had preached against. In May 1555 Knox preached on precisely this topic in Cox's presence, attacking the prayerbook and the scandal of pluralities. Knox nevertheless defied his own supporters in pleading that Cox's group be admitted as members of the congregation, which gave the prayerbook faction a majority.

Despite these tensions, another settlement was in sight, but Knox's staunchest antagonists rendered it irrelevant by notifying the local magistrates about Knox's An Admonition to Christians (1554) which disparaged Phillip II, Mary I, and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, whom Knox compared to Nero. Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 Mary I (18 February 1516 &ndash 17 November 1558 was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was Some of Knox's detractors felt that such radical language offended even sympathetic rulers and encouraged Roman Catholic persecution of Protestants in England and elsewhere. Notably John Hooper had just been burned at the stake in February, and his wife and children were among the Frankfurt exile community. John Hooper (c1495-1500 &ndash February 9, 1555) was an English churchman Bishop of Gloucester and Worcester. (This was further ammunition for the pro-prayerbook faction, which also availed itself of the highly divisive argument that it was presumptuous to attempt to be liturgically purer than those who had accepted the prayerbook and were martyred back in England. ) Unsurprisingly, Knox was asked to leave Frankfurt, and he did so on March 26. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor. Sympathisers led by William Whittingham (Thomas Cole and John Foxe among them) left for Basel and Geneva. William Whittingham (c 1524-1579 was an English Biblical scholar and religious reformer John Foxe (1517 &ndash April 18, 1587) martyrologist is remembered as the author of what is popularly known as Foxe's Book of Martyrs Nevertheless, the struggle, which had preceded Knox's presence, continued.

In the process of the prayerbook dispute, John Calvin weighed in when consulted to promote unity and compromise, although he agreed with those who took a low view of the prayerbook. John Calvin (or Jean Calvin) (10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564 was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and Recalling the earlier Vestments controversy under Edward I, the concept of adiaphora or "things indifferent" was again a centrepoint of debate, rather than being a source of consensus-building. The vestments controversy arose in the English Reformation, ostensibly concerning Vestments but more fundamentally concerned with English Protestant identity The effect of this was that adiaphora was eventually abandoned as an arguing point on each side.

Geneva

Led mainly by Knox, the largest, most politically and theologically radical concentration of English exiles was at Geneva, reaching a peak of 233 people or about 140 households. (This was approximately 2% of the city's population. ) Names, dates of arrival, and other information is preserved in the Livre des Anglais (facsimile edition by A. F. Mitchell), a folio MS kept at the Hotel de Ville of Geneva. New members admitted to the church numbered 48 in 1555, 50 in 1556, 67 in 1557, 10 in 1558, and 2 in 1559. 7 marriages, 4 baptisms, and 18 deaths are recorded.

This was the first English congregation to adopt the wholly presbyterian form of discipline and worship that was resisted in Frankfurt. Presbyterianism is a family of Christian denominations within the Reformed branch of Protestant Western Christianity These forms and standards were printed in 1556 as the Book of Geneva which went through several editions after 1556 in Geneva and was in official use in the Church of Scotland from 1564 to 1645. Sometimes titled Book of Our Common Order, it is the basis for the modern Book of Common Order used by Presbyterian churches. The Book of Common Order is the name of several directories for public worship

The English church in Geneva was also, of course, the scene of the Geneva Bible's production, which was to be the most popular English version of the era and the most notorious for its annotations that supported Reformed theology and resistance theory. The Geneva Bible was a Protestant translation of the Bible into English. At Geneva Knox wrote his infamous First Blast of the Trumpet Blowen Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women during the winter of 1557-58. Published in Geneva in the spring 1558, it denounced all female rulers in the most strident language. This was opposed by many other English exiles, especially those seeking favor with Elizabeth I, such as John Aylmer, who published a retort to Knox called Harborowe for Faithful and True Subjects in 1559. Christopher Goodman took a more circumspect approach in a How superior powers ought to be obeyd of their subjects & wherein they may lawfully by Gods Worde be disobeyed & resisted for which Whittingham wrote the preface. Laurence Humphrey, working out of Strasbourg, claimed to be clarifying what Knox, Ponet, and Goodman really meant when he defended passive resistance only and supported the legitimacy of female rule in De religionis conservatione et reformatione vera (1559).

Members of the English church in Geneva included Sir William Stafford, Sir John Burtwick, John Bodley and the eldest of his five sons (Laurence, Thomas, and Josias who was later knighted), James Pilkington, John Scory, Thomas Bentham, William Cole, William Kethe, Thomas Sampson, Anthony Gilby, John Pullein, Perceval Wiburne, and Robert Fills. Sir Thomas Bodley ( March 2, 1545 &ndash January 28, 1613) was an English Diplomat and scholar founder of the John Scory (died 1585 was a Cambridge Dominican order friar. He was Bishop of Rochester from 1551 to 1552 Bishop of Chichester Thomas Bentham (1513-1578 Bishop of Coventry was a Protestant minister one of the Marian exiles, who continued secretly ministering to an underground congregation in London William Cole may refer to William Cole 3rd Earl of Enniskillen (1807-1886 known as Viscount Cole William Cole (Puritan, Dean of Lincoln William Kethe, also Keithe, (? - June 6, 1594) was a Bible translator especially of the psalms Thomas Sampson (c 1517-1589 was an English Puritan theologian

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