Marcus Aurelius
Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Glyptothek, Munich
Reign	March 8, 161–169 (with Lucius Verus); 169–177 (alone); 177–17 March 180 (with Commodus)
Full name	(Caesar) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus
Born	26 April 121(121-04-26)
Birthplace	Rome[1]
Died	17 March 180 (aged 58)
Place of death	Vindobona or Sirmium[1]
Buried	Hadrian's Mausoleum
Predecessor	Antoninus Pius
Successor	Commodus (alone)
Consort to	Faustina the Younger
Dynasty	Antonine
Father	Marcus Annius Verus
Mother	Domitia Lucilla
Children	13, incl. The Glyptothek is a museum in Munich, Germany, which was commissioned by the Bavarian King Ludwig I to house his collection of Greek and Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. Events 1618 - Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion. Lucius Aurelius Verus ( December 15 130 &ndash 169 born as Lucius Ceionius Commodus, known simply as Lucius Verus, was Roman co-emperor Events By Place Roman Empire A systematic persecution of Christians begins in Rome under Marcus Aurelius. Events By Place Roman Empire A systematic persecution of Christians begins in Rome under Marcus Aurelius. Events 45 BC - In his last victory Julius Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Pompey the Younger Events By place Roman Empire The praetorian prefect Tarutenius Paternus achieved a decisive victory against the Quadi Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus ( August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 (also with Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Events 45 BC - In his last victory Julius Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Pompey the Younger Events By place Roman Empire The praetorian prefect Tarutenius Paternus achieved a decisive victory against the Quadi Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. Sirmium in Pannonia should not be confused with Sirmio on Lake Garda Sirmium (today Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) was an ancient For the town with the same name see Castel Sant'Angelo (RI The Mausoleum of Hadrian, usually known as the Castel Sant'Angelo, is a towering Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus ( September 19, 86 &ndash March 7 161) generally known in English as Antoninus Pius Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus ( August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 (also with Annia Galeria Faustina Minor ( Minor Latin for the younger) Faustina Minor or Faustina the Younger ( February 16 between 125 and This page is on the Roman imperial dynasty for Catholic clergy of the same name see Anthonians The Antonines most often referred to were two successive Domitia Lucilla, Lucilla or Domitia Calvilla (? - Died between 155-161 was a noble Roman woman who lived in the 2nd century Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus, Antoninus and Lucilla

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (called "the Wise") (April 26, 121^[2] – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor from 161 to his death in 180. Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus ( August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 (also with Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla ( March 7, 148 or 150-182 was the second Daughter and third Child of Roman Emperor Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy. Events 45 BC - In his last victory Julius Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Pompey the Younger Events By place Roman Empire The praetorian prefect Tarutenius Paternus achieved a decisive victory against the Quadi The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Events By place Roman Empire The praetorian prefect Tarutenius Paternus achieved a decisive victory against the Quadi He was the last of the "Five Good Emperors", and is also considered one of the most important Stoic philosophers. The Five Good Emperors is a term that refers to five consecutive emperors of the Roman Empire who represented a line of virtuous and just rule — Nerva, Trajan Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language

His tenure was marked by wars in Asia against a revitalized Parthian Empire, and with Germanic tribes along the Limes Germanicus into Gaul and across the Danube. The Roman province of Asia, also called Phrygia was an administrative unit added to the late Republic. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The Limes Germanicus ( Latin for Germanic frontier) was a remarkable line of frontier ( Limes) forts that bounded the ancient Roman Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj A revolt in the East, led by Avidius Cassius, failed. Gaius Avidius Cassius (ca 130&ndashJuly 175 was a Roman usurper who briefly ruled Egypt and Syria in 175

Marcus Aurelius' work Meditations, written on campaign between 170 and 180, is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty and has been praised for its "exquisite accent and its infinite tenderness. Meditations (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν Ta eis heauton, literally "thoughts/writings addressed to himself" is the title of a series of personal writings " ^[3]

Early life

Family

He was originally named Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, when he married he took the name Marcus Annius Verus. ^[4][5] When he was named Emperor, he was given the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.

Marcus Aurelius was the only son to Marcus Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla. Domitia Lucilla, Lucilla or Domitia Calvilla (? - Died between 155-161 was a noble Roman woman who lived in the 2nd century His only natural sibling was his younger sister Annia Cornificia Faustina, who was about 2 years younger than he. Annia Cornificia Faustina (123-152 was the younger child and only daughter to Praetor Marcus Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla. Domitia Lucilla came from a wealthy family who were of consular rank. Marcus Aurelius' father was of Spanish origin, and served as a praetor and died when Marcus was three years old. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before Marcus Aurelius credits him with teaching him "manliness without ostentation". ^[6]

His father's maternal aunt was Vibia Sabina, wife of Roman Emperor Hadrian. Vibia Sabina ( c 86-136 or 137 was a Roman Empress wife and third cousin to Roman Emperor Hadrian. Publius Aelius Hadrianus (January 24 76 &ndash July 10 138 as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after Rupilia Faustina (Marcus Aurelius' paternal grandmother) and Vibia Sabina were half-sisters and were daughters of Salonina Matidia (niece of the Roman Emperor Trajan). Rupilia was the name of two Roman woman They were sisters and daughters to Salonina Matidia from her second marriage to Lucius Scribonius Libo Rupilio Frugi or Bonus consul Salonina Matidia (July 4 68-119 was a daughter and only child to Ulpia Marciana and wealthy Praetor Gaius Saloninus Matidius Patruinus Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who His father's sister was Faustina the Elder a Roman Empress who married the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. Annia Galeria Faustina, more familiarly referred to as Faustina the Elder ( Latin: Faustina Major; born September 21 about 100 died 141 was Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus ( September 19, 86 &ndash March 7 161) generally known in English as Antoninus Pius

After his father's death, Aurelius was adopted and raised by his mother and paternal grandfather Marcus Annius Verus. Marcus Annius Verus was a Roman man who lived in the first and second century His paternal grandfather died in 138; he was almost ninety years old.

Heir to the Empire

Bust of Marcus Aurelius as a young boy, Capitoline Museum, Rome. The Capitoline Museums ( Italian Musei Capitolini) are a group of art and archeological Museums in Piazza del Campidoglio Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2

In 136, Hadrian had announced that his eventual successor would be Lucius Ceionius Commodus, renamed L. Aelius Caesar. Lucius Aelius Verus Caesar ( January 13, 101 - January 1 138) became the adopted son and intended successor of Roman Emperor Hadrian Marcus had already attracted the attention of Hadrian (who had nicknamed him verissimus, which translates as "truest") and had been made a member of the equestrian order when he was six;^[7] he was subsequently engaged to Ceionia Fabia, Commodus' daughter. The engagement, however, was annulled later after the death of Commodus, as Marcus was betrothed to Antoninus' daughter.

Therefore, on the death of Hadrian's first adopted son L. Aelius Verus, Hadrian made it a precondition of making Antoninus his successor that Antoninus would adopt Marcus (then called Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus) and Lucius Ceionius Commodus (Lucius Aelius' son, ten years junior than Marcus, renamed Lucius Aurelius Verus), and arrange for them to be next in the line. Lucius Aelius Verus Caesar ( January 13, 101 - January 1 138) became the adopted son and intended successor of Roman Emperor Hadrian

This Antoninus did, adopting and designating them as his successors on February 25, 138, when Marcus was only seventeen years of age. Events 138 - The Emperor Hadrian adopts Antoninus Pius, effectively making him his successor He would become emperor at 40. It has been suggested that Commodus and Antoninus Pius were designed by Hadrian only as "place warmers" for the young Marcus and Verus.

The years of Marcus' life during the reign of Antoninus are known through his correspondence with one of the teachers assigned him by Hadrian, Fronto, a relevant figure in the culture of the time. Marcus Cornelius Fronto ( c 100 - 170) Roman grammarian rhetorician and advocate was born at Cirta in Numidia. Through these letters Marcus appears as an intelligent, serious-minded and hardworking youth. They also show the growing importance of philosophy for the future emperor: showing impatience for the unending exercises with Greek and Latin declamations, he later became fond of the Diatribai ("Discourses") of Epictetus, an important moral philosopher of the Stoic school. Epictetus ( Greek:; ca 55&ndashca 135 was a Greek Stoic philosopher. Marcus also started to have an increasing public role at the side of Antoninus, holding the place of consul in 140, 145 and 161 and increasing collaboration in decisions. In 147 he received the proconsular imperium outside Rome and the tribunicia potestas, the main formal powers of emperorship. Imperium in a broad sense translates as power. In Ancient Rome the concept applied to People, and meant something like "power Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the In 145, Marcus married Annia Galeria Faustina or Faustina the Younger, who was Antoninus' daughter and his paternal cousin. Annia Galeria Faustina Minor ( Minor Latin for the younger) Faustina Minor or Faustina the Younger ( February 16 between 125 and

Emperor

Joint emperorship

Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius on Capitoline Hill. The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius is an ancient Roman statue in the Campidoglio, Rome, Italy. The Capitoline Hill, between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is one of the seven hills of Rome.

When Antoninus Pius died (March 7, 161), Marcus accepted the throne on the condition that he and Verus were made joint emperors (Augusti). Events 161 - Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius dies and is succeeded by co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Though formally equal from the constitutional point of view, Verus, younger and probably less popular, looks to have been subordinate in practice. ^[8]

Marcus' insistence to have Verus elected with him was motivated by his loyalty towards the will of their adoptive father. The joint succession may have also been motivated by military experiences, since, during his reign, Marcus Aurelius was almost constantly at war with various peoples outside the empire. A highly authoritative figure was needed to command the troops, yet the emperor himself could not defend both the German and Parthian fronts at the same time. Neither could he simply appoint a general to lead the legions; earlier popular military leaders like Julius Caesar and Vespasian had used the military to overthrow the existing government and install themselves as supreme leaders. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who Marcus Aurelius solved the problem by sending Verus to command the legions in the east. Verus was authoritative enough to command the full loyalty of the troops, but already powerful enough that he had little incentive to overthrow Marcus. Verus remained loyal until his death on campaign in 169.

This joint emperorship was reminiscent of the political system of the Roman Republic, which functioned according to the principle of collegiality and did not allow a single person to hold supreme power. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Collegiality is the relationship between colleagues Definition of collegiality Colleagues are those explicitly united in a common Purpose and respecting Joint rule was revived by Diocletian's establishment of the Tetrarchy in the late 3rd century. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals The 3rd century is the period from 201 to 300 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era.

Immediately at the beginning of his reign, Marcus continued on the path of his predecessors by issuing numerous law reforms, mainly to clear away abuses and anomalies in the civil jurisprudence. In particular he promoted favourable measures towards categories like slaves, widows and minors; recognition to blood relationships in the field of succession was given. In the criminal law a distinction of class, with different punishments, was made between honestiores and humiliores ("The more distinguished" and "the more lowly", respectively).

Under Marcus' reign, the status of Christians remained the same since the time of Trajan. They were legally punishable, though in fact rarely persecuted. In 177 a group of Christians were executed at Lyon, for example, but the act is mainly attributable to the initiative of the local governor. ||-||} Lyon, also known as Lyons in English is a city in east-central France.

Challenges faced

War with Parthia

Marcus Aurelius Arch in Tripoli, built to commemorate the emperor. Tripolis ( Arabic: طرابلس Ṭarābulus - also طرابلس الغرب Ṭarā-bu-lus al-Gharb Libyan vernacular:

In Asia, a revitalized Parthian Empire renewed its assault in 161, defeating two Roman armies and invading Armenia and Syria. The Roman province of Asia, also called Phrygia was an administrative unit added to the late Republic. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Marcus Aurelius sent his joint emperor Verus to command the legions in the east to face this threat. The war ended successfully in 166, although the merit must be mostly ascribed to subordinate generals like Gaius Avidius Cassius. Gaius Avidius Cassius (ca 130&ndashJuly 175 was a Roman usurper who briefly ruled Egypt and Syria in 175 On the return from the campaign, Verus was awarded with a triumph; the parade was unusual because it included the two emperors, their sons and unmarried daughters as a big family celebration. A Roman triumph ( la [[wikttriumphus triumphus]], Old Latin la triumpus, attested as the exclamation la TRIVMPE in the Carmen Arvale; via Marcus Aurelius' two sons, Commodus five years old and Annius Verus of three, were elevated to the status of Caesar for the occasion. Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus ( August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 (also with

The returning army carried with them a plague, afterwards known as the Antonine Plague, or the Plague of Galen, which spread through the Roman Empire between 165 and 180. The Antonine Plague, 165 - 180 AD  also known as the Plague of Galen, was an ancient Pandemic, either of Smallpox or Measles Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Events By place Roman Empire The praetorian prefect Tarutenius Paternus achieved a decisive victory against the Quadi The disease was a pandemic believed to be either of smallpox or measles, and would ultimately claim the lives of two Roman emperors—Lucius Verus, who died in 169, and Marcus Aurelius, whose family name, Antoninus, was given to the epidemic. A pandemic (from Greek παν pan all + δήμος demos people is an Epidemic of Infectious disease that spreads through Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Lucius Aurelius Verus ( December 15 130 &ndash 169 born as Lucius Ceionius Commodus, known simply as Lucius Verus, was Roman co-emperor The disease broke out again nine years later, according to the Roman historian Dio Cassius, and caused up to 2,000 deaths a day at Rome, one quarter of those infected. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was Total deaths have been estimated at five million.

Germania and the Danube

Main article: Marcomannic Wars

Bust of Marcus Aurelius, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The Marcomannic Wars (called by the Romans bellum Germanicum or expeditio Germanica) were a series of wars lasting over a dozen years from about AD 166 The Metropolitan Museum of Art is an art museum located on the eastern edge of Central Park, along what is known as Museum Mile in New York City, New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous

Starting from the 160s, Germanic tribes and other nomadic people launched raids along the Northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The Limes Germanicus ( Latin for Germanic frontier) was a remarkable line of frontier ( Limes) forts that bounded the ancient Roman Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes farther east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162. The Chatti (also Chatthi or Catti) were an ancient Germanic tribe whose homeland was near the upper Weser. Germania Superior ("Upper Germania " so called for the reason that it lay upstream of Germania Inferior, was a province of the Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other German tribes. Marcomanni were a Germanic tribe, probably related to the Buri, Suebi or Suevi Year 19 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Lombards ( Latin Langobardi, whence the alternative names Langobards and Longobards) were a Germanic people originally from At the same time, the Iranian Sarmatians attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers. The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες Theiss can refer to Brooke Theiss (born 1969 actress William Ware Theiss (1930-1992 costume designer See

Due to the situation in the East, only a punitive expedition could be launched in 167. Both Marcus and Verus led the troops. After the death of Verus (169), Marcus led personally the struggle against the Germans for the great part of his remaining life. The Romans suffered at least two serious defeats by the Quadi and Marcomanni, who could cross the Alps, ravage Opitergium (Oderzo) and besiege Aquileia, the Roman main city of north-east Italy. Quadi were a smaller Germanic tribe, about which little definitive information is known Oderzo (Opitergium is a town in the Province of Treviso, Veneto, Italy. Aquileia (also called Aquilegia, Friulian Acuilee/Aquilee, Slovene Oglej) is an ancient Roman city in what is At the same time the Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia and Greece. The Costoboci were a Dacian tribe which lived in the areas known today as Maramureş and south-western Ukraine. The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians (Carpaţi Czech, Polish and Slovak: Karpaty; Ukrainian: Карпати Moesia (Μοισία Moisía; Мизия Miziya; Moesia Мезија Mezija) was an ancient region and Roman province situated in the The Roman province of Macedonia was officially established in 146 BC, after the Roman general Quintus Caecilius Metellus defeated Andriscus of Macedon After a long struggle, Marcus Aurelius managed to push back the invaders. Numerous Germans settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany and Italy itself. Dacia, in ancient geography was the land of the Dacians. It was named by the ancient Hellenes ( Greeks) " Getae " Pannonia is an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Bohemia and Hungary.

The emperor's plans were, however, prevented by a revolt in East, led by Avidius Cassius, which was prompted by false news of the death of Marcus after an illness. Of the eastern provinces, only Cappadocia and Bithynia did not side with the rebels. Cappadocia (or Capadocia, Turkish Kapadokya, from Greek: Καππαδοκία / Kappadokía which in turn is from the Persian: Description Several major cities sat on the fertile shores of the Propontis (which is now known as Sea of Marmara) Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Cius When it became clear that Marcus Aurelius was still alive, Cassius' fortunes declined quickly and he was killed by his troops after only 100 days of power.

Together with his wife Faustina, Marcus Aurelius toured the eastern provinces until 173. He visited Athens, declaring himself a protector of philosophy. After a triumph in Rome, the following year he marched again to the Danubian frontier. After a decisive victory in 178, the plan to annex Bohemia seemed poised for success but was abandoned after Marcus Aurelius again fell ill with chickenpox in 180.

Death and succession

Marcus Aurelius died on March 17, 180, in the city of Vindobona (modern Vienna), his son and successor Commodus accompanying him. Events 45 BC - In his last victory Julius Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Pompey the Younger Events By place Roman Empire The praetorian prefect Tarutenius Paternus achieved a decisive victory against the Quadi Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus ( August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 (also with He was immediately deified and his ashes were returned to Rome, and rested in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo) until the Visigoth sack of the city in 410. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Publius Aelius Hadrianus (January 24 76 &ndash July 10 138 as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after A mausoleum ( plural: mausolea is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or persons For the town with the same name see Castel Sant'Angelo (RI The Mausoleum of Hadrian, usually known as the Castel Sant'Angelo, is a towering His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a column in Rome. The Column of Marcus Aurelius, (Columna Centenaria Divorum Marci et Faustinae is a Doric column, with a spiral relief built in honour of Roman emperor Marcus Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2

Marcus Aurelius was able to secure the succession for Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and made co-emperor in 177, though the choice may have been unknowingly unfortunate. Events By Place Roman Empire A systematic persecution of Christians begins in Rome under Marcus Aurelius. This decision, which put an end to the fortunate series of "adoptive emperors", was highly criticized by later historians since Commodus was a political and military outsider, as well as an extreme egotist with neurotic problems. For this reason, Marcus Aurelius' death is often held to have been the end of the Pax Romana. Pax Romana ( Latin for " Roman Peace " was the long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force It is possible that he chose Commodus simply in the absence of other candidates, or as a result of the fear of succession issues and the possibility of civil war.
Historian Michael Grant, in The Climax of Rome (1968), states about Commodus, "The youth turned out to be very erratic or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrous around future successions. " Therefore, it would be logical to assume that Marcus Aurelius stoically chose Commodus to prevent civil war.

Marriage and issue

Bust of Faustina the Younger, Louvre, Paris. The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre located in Paris is the world's most visited art museum a historic monument and a national museum of France Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city

Aurelius married Faustina the Younger in 145. Annia Galeria Faustina Minor ( Minor Latin for the younger) Faustina Minor or Faustina the Younger ( February 16 between 125 and During their 30-year marriage Faustina bore 13 children, only one son and four daughters of which outlived their father:

1. Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina (147-after 165)
2. Gemellus Lucillae (died around 150), twin brother of Lucilla
3. Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (148/50-182), twin sister of Gemellus, married her father's co-ruler Lucius Verus
4. Titus Aelius Antoninus (born after 150, died before 7 March 161)
5. Titus Aelius Aurelius (born after 150, died before 7 March 161)
6. Hadrianus (152-157)
7. Domitia Faustina (born after 150, died before 7 March 161)
8. Fadilla (159-after 211)
9. Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (160-after 211)
10. Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161-165), twin brother of Commodus
11. Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus(Commodus) (161-192), twin brother of Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, later emperor
12. Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (162-169)
13. Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170-died before 217)

Writings

Original bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius, now preserved in the Capitoline Museums, Rome. Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina (147-after 165 was a daughter and eldest child to Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius and Roman Empress Faustina the Younger. Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla ( March 7, 148 or 150-182 was the second Daughter and third Child of Roman Emperor Events By place Roman Empire Commodus exiles his sister Lucilla to Capreae. Lucius Aurelius Verus ( December 15 130 &ndash 169 born as Lucius Ceionius Commodus, known simply as Lucius Verus, was Roman co-emperor Fadilla or Aurelia Fadilla (159-died after 192 was a daughter of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius and Roman Empress Faustina the Younger, a sister to Roman For the N11 code see 2-1-1. Events By Place Roman Empire Septimus Severus dies in Britain Annia Aurelia Cornificia Faustina or Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor or Cornificia the Younger (160-212 was a daughter of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius For the N11 code see 2-1-1. Events By Place Roman Empire Septimus Severus dies in Britain Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus ( August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 (also with Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus ( August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 (also with Events By Place Roman Empire Commodus is assassinated by a wrestler named Narcissus, at the behest of Commodus' Concubine Marcus Annius Verus Caesar ( 162 - 10 September, 169) was one of the thirteen children born to Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius and Roman Empress Events By Place Roman Empire April 8 — Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian Guard

While on campaign between 170 and 180, Aurelius wrote his Meditations as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. Meditations (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν Ta eis heauton, literally "thoughts/writings addressed to himself" is the title of a series of personal writings He had been a priest at the sacrificial altars of Roman service and was an eager patriot. He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Meditations is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. Meditations (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν Ta eis heauton, literally "thoughts/writings addressed to himself" is the title of a series of personal writings It has been praised for its "exquisite accent and its infinite tenderness" and "saintliness", and has also been called the "gospel of his life. " John Stuart Mill, in his Utility of Religion, compared the Meditations to the Sermon on the Mount. John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential In the Gospel of St Matthew, the Sermon on the Mount is a compilation of Jesus' sayings epitomizing his moral teaching.

The book itself was first published in 1558 in Zurich, from a manuscript copy that is now lost. The only other surviving complete copy of the manuscript is in the Vatican library. The Vatican Museums (Musei Vaticani in Viale Vaticano in Rome, inside the Vatican City, are one of the greatest museums in the world since they display works

Marcus Aurelius wrote Meditations in Greek at his base in Sirmium in modern-day Serbia and also while positioned at Aquincum on campaign in Pannonia in modern-day Hungary. Meditations (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν Ta eis heauton, literally "thoughts/writings addressed to himself" is the title of a series of personal writings Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Sirmium in Pannonia should not be confused with Sirmio on Lake Garda Sirmium (today Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) was an ancient Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country The ancient city of Aquincum was situated on the North-Eastern borders of the Pannonia province within the Roman Empire. Pannonia is an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic

The significance of death was very important in the philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. He didn't believe in the afterlife. He wrote: 'We live for an instant, only to be swallowed in "complete forgetfulness and the void of infinite time on this side of us. " "Think how many ere now, after passing their life in implacable enmity, suspicion, hatred. . . are now dead and burnt to ashes. " According to Marcus Aurelius everything will be turned in absolute oblivion, even legends. "Of the life of man the duration is but a point, its substance streaming away, its perception dim, the fabric of the entire body prone to decay, and the soul a vortex, and fortune incalculable, and fame uncertain. In a word all things of the body are as a river, and the things of the soul as a dream and a vapour; and life is a warfare and a pilgrim's sojourn, and fame after death is only forgetfulness. " 'Everything existing "is already disintegrating and changing. . . everything is by nature made but to die. " 'The length of one's life is irrelevant, "for look at the yawning gulf of time behind thee and before thee at another infinity to come. In this eternity the life of a baby of three days and the life of a Nestor of three centuries are as one. " 'To desire is to be permanently disappointed and disturbed, since everything we desire in this world is "empty and corrupt and paltry. " For Marcus Aurelius, death was desirable, because it would make an end to all desires. ^[9]

Despite these thoughts on life and death, Marcus Aurelius was an advocate of rational virtue. According to Jonathan Dollimore, Marcus Aurelius had a kind of indifference towards the brutalities in life. As an emperor, he persecuted Christians and went frequently on military campaigns. He justified his deeds by pointing at the insignificance of worldly affairs. ^[10]

Marcus Aurelius in later arts

Literature

• John Steinbeck in East of Eden has the character Lee read often from Meditations as a sage-like character. John Steinbeck III (February 27 1902—December 20 1968 was one of the best-known and most widely read American writers of the 20th century East of Eden is a Novel by Nobel Prize winner John Steinbeck, published in September 1952 Meditations (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν Ta eis heauton, literally "thoughts/writings addressed to himself" is the title of a series of personal writings
• A Man in Full, a 1998 novel by Tom Wolfe. A Man in Full is a Novel by Tom Wolfe, published in 1998 by Farrar Straus & Giroux. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Thomas Kennerly Wolfe Jr (born March 2, 1931 in Richmond, Virginia) known as Tom Wolfe, is a Best-selling One of the characters reads Marcus Aurelius while in jail and is heavily influenced by his Stoicism. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC It helps him deal with his suffering and the injustice of his incarceration. However, Wolfe more strongly uses Epictetus. Epictetus ( Greek:; ca 55&ndashca 135 was a Greek Stoic philosopher.
• Mémoires d'Hadrien (1951), a fictitious but plausible autobiography (in form of a series of letters directed to his adoptive grandson "Marcus") of one of his predecessors, Hadrian, by Marguerite Yourcenar. Memoirs of Hadrian is a Novel by the French Writer Marguerite Yourcenar about the life and death of Roman Emperor Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January An autobiography, from the Greek αὐτός autos "self" βίος bios "life" and γράφειν graphein "to write" Publius Aelius Hadrianus (January 24 76 &ndash July 10 138 as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after Marguerite Yourcenar was the Pseudonym of French Novelist Marguerite Antoinette Jeanne Marie Ghislaine Cleenewerck de Crayencour ( Brussels It is one of the best-selling European novels of the 20th century. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on
• Household Gods, a 1999 novel by Judith Tarr and Harry Turtledove. Household Gods is a Science fiction /time-travel Novel written by Harry Turtledove and Judith Tarr. Judith Tarr (born 1955) is an American Author, best known for her Fantasy books Harry Norman Turtledove (born June 14 1949) is an American historian and novelist who has written Historical fiction, Fantasy, and
• John Irving in "The World According to Garp" has the character Garp reflect on a quote of Marcus Aurelius from "Meditations". John Winslow Irving (born March 2, 1942 as John Wallace Blunt Jr Meditations (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν Ta eis heauton, literally "thoughts/writings addressed to himself" is the title of a series of personal writings

Film

• The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964), played by Alec Guinness
• Gladiator (2000), played by Richard Harris

See also

• Epictetus
• Stoicism
• Socrates
• Zeno

Notes

External links

Primary sources

• Cassius Dio, Roman History. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was See original text on LacusCurtius.
• Marcus Aurelius, Meditations. Meditations (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν Ta eis heauton, literally "thoughts/writings addressed to himself" is the title of a series of personal writings
• Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Augustan History. The Augustan History ( Lat Historia Augusta) is a late Roman collection of biographies in Latin of the Roman Emperors their junior See original text on LacusCurtius.
• Works by Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius at Project Gutenberg
• Online Greek Text of the Meditations
• English Translation by George Long (1862)
• Latin Version by J. M. Schulz (1802)
• Henry Dwight Sedgwick, Life of Marcus Aurelius, Yale University Press, 1922. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works

Secondary material

• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
• Marcus Aurelius entry at De Imperatoribus Romanis
• Marcus Aurelius entry at livius. org
• A Man in Full: The Teachings of Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus A discussion and comparison of Meditations and its influence on Tom Wolfe and modern culture.
• Marcus Aurelius: The Philosopher-Emperor of Rome — Essay looking at Marcus Aurelius from the perspective of his leadership.
• Filmed academic lectures on Marcus Aurelius