Mangroves (generally) are trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats in the tropics and subtropics. A tree is a perennial Woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or A shrub or Bush is a horticultural rather than strictly botanical category of Woody plant, distinguished from a Tree Saline water is a general term for Water that contains a significant concentration of dissolved Salts ( NaCl) The Tropics are centered on the Equator and limited in Latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere at approximately 23°26' (23 The subtropics are the zones of the Earth immediately north and south of the tropic zone which is bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of The word is used in at least three senses: (1) most broadly to refer to the habitat and entire plant assemblage or mangal ^[1], for which the terms mangrove swamp and mangrove forest are also used, (2) to refer to all trees and large shrubs in the mangal, and (3) narrowly to refer to the mangrove family of plants, the Rhizophoraceae, or even more specifically just to mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora. In Biological classification, family ( Latin Rhizophoraceae is a family constituted by Tropical or Subtropical Flowering plants Among the better known members are Mangrove Rhizophora is a Genus of tropical trees The most notable species is the Red mangrove ( Rhizophora mangle) but other species are known including Mangals are found in depositional coastal environments where fine sediments, often with high organic content, collect in areas protected from high energy wave action. In geology sedimentary depositional environment describes the combination of physical chemical and biological processes associated with the deposition of a particular type of sediment

Contents 1 Ecology 2 Biology 2.1 Adaptations to low oxygen 2.2 Limiting salt intake 2.3 Limiting water loss 2.4 Nutrient uptake 2.5 Increasing survival of offspring 3 Species 3.1 Major components 3.2 Minor components 4 Geographical regions 4.1 Africa 4.2 Americas 4.2.1 United States 4.2.2 Central America & Caribbean 4.2.3 South America 4.3 Asia 4.4 Australasia 4.5 Pacific islands 5 Growing mangroves 6 Preservation 7 In popular media 8 Notes 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

Ecology

A mangrove is a plant and mangal is a plant community and habitat where mangroves thrive^[2]. They are found in tropical and sub-tropical tidal areas, and as such have a high degree of salinity. Characteristics A tide is a repeated cycle of sea level changes in the following stages Over several hours the water rises or advances up a beach in the flood Areas where mangals occur include estuaries and marine shorelines. An estuary is a semi-enclosed Coastal body of Water with one or more Rivers or Streams flowing into it and with a free connection to the open

Plants in mangals are diverse but all are able to exploit their habitat (the intertidal zone) by developing physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of anoxia, high salinity and frequent tidal inundation. Salinity is the Saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of Water. A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land a deluge About 110 species have been identified as belonging to the mangal. ^[2] Each species has its own capabilities and solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Rhizophora is a Genus of tropical trees The most notable species is the Red mangrove ( Rhizophora mangle) but other species are known including Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods of coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species at any location within the intertidal zone is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, like tidal inundation and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors such as predation of plant seedlings by crabs.

Once established, roots of mangrove plants provide a habitat for oysters and help to impede water flow, thereby enhancing the deposition of sediment in areas where it is already occurring. For the city with the same name see Kannur. Kannur District ( Malayalam: കണ്ണൂര്‍ or Cannanore District is Kerala ( Malayalam: {{Kerala in Malayalam}}; India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Usually, the fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which are scavenged from the overlying seawater by colloidal particles in the sediments. Colloidal particle is a small amount of matter having size typical for Colloids and with a clear phase boundary ( phase colloids) In areas of the world where mangroves have been removed for development purposes, the disturbance of these underlying sediments often creates problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and biota. Biota is the total collection of Organisms of a geographic region or a time period from local geographic scales and instantaneous temporal scales all the way up to whole-planet

Mangroves protect the coast from erosion, surge storms (especially during hurricanes), and tsunamis. A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a low pressure center and numerous Thunderstorms that produce strong winds and Flooding ^[3][4] Their massive root system is efficient at dissipating wave energy. ^[5] Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough that its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in and is not re-suspended when the tide leaves, except for fine particles. ^[6] As a result, mangroves build their own environment. ^[3] Because of the uniqueness of the mangrove ecosystems and their protection against erosion, they are often the object of conservation programs including national Biodiversity Action Plans. This article is about a conservation biology topic For other uses of BAP see BAP (disambiguation. ^[4]

Despite their benefits, the protective value of mangroves is sometimes overstated. Wave energy is typically low in areas where mangroves grow,^[7] so their effect on erosion can only be measured in the long-term. ^[5] Their capacity to limit high-energy wave erosion is limited to events like storm surges and tsunamis. ^[8] Erosion often still occurs on the outer sides of bends in river channels that wind through mangroves, just as new stands of mangroves are appearing on the inner sides where sediment is accreting. Accretion is a process by which material is added to a Tectonic plate.

Mangroves support unique ecosystems, especially on their intricate root systems. The mesh of mangrove roots produces a quiet marine region for many young organisms. ROOT is an object-oriented program and library developed by CERN. In areas where roots are permanently submerged, they may host a wide variety of organisms, including algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoans, which all require a hard substratum for anchoring while they filter feed. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms A barnacle is a type of Arthropod belonging to infraclass Cirripedia in the subphylum Crustacea, and is hence distantly related to The common name oyster is used for a number of different groups of Bivalve Mollusks most of which live in marine habitats or Brackish water. The sponges or poriferans (from Latin porus "pore" and ferre "to bear" are Animals Bryozoans are tiny colonial Animals that generally build stony Skeletons of Calcium carbonate, superficially similar to Coral (although some Shrimps and mud lobsters use the muddy bottom as their home^[9]. True shrimp are swimming decapod Crustaceans classified in the Infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh Thalassinidea is an Infraorder of decapod Crustaceans that live in Burrows in Muddy bottoms of the world's Oceans In Mangrove crabs improve the nutritional quality of the mangal muds for other bottom feeders by mulching the mangrove leaves. Mangrove crabs are Crabs that live among Mangroves and may belong to many different Species and even families. ^[10] In at least some cases, export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs. The habitats also host several commercially important species of fish and crustaceans. In Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines, and India, mangrove plantations are grown in coastal regions for the benefits they provide to coastal fisheries and other uses. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Despite replanting programs, over half of the world's mangroves have been lost in recent times.

Biology

A wide variety of plant species can be found in mangrove habitat, but of the recognized 110 species, only about 54 species in 20 genera from 16 families constitute the "true mangroves", species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove habitats and rarely elsewhere^[1]. In Biological classification, family ( Latin Convergent evolution has resulted in many species of these plants finding similar solutions to the problems of variable salinity, tidal ranges (inundation), anaerobic soils and intense sunlight that come from living in the tropics. Convergent evolution describes the acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages For other uses of the term "hypoxia" see Hypoxia. Hypoxia or oxygen depletion is a phenomenon that occurs in aquatic environments Plant biodiversity is generally low in a given mangal—more than twenty species are uncommon. ^[2] This is especially true in higher latitudes and in the Americas. The greatest biodiversity occurs in the mangal of New Guinea, Indonesia and Malaysia. New Guinea, located just north of Australia, is the world's second largest island, having become separated from the Australian mainland when the area now known The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and ^[11]

Adaptations to low oxygen

Red mangroves, which can live in the most inundated areas, prop themselves up above the water level with stilt roots and can then take in air through pores in their bark (lenticels). A lenticel is a spongy area present in the cork surfaces of the stems roots and other parts of vascular plants Black mangroves live on higher ground and make many pneumatophores (specialised root-like structures which stick up out of the soil like straws for breathing) which are covered in lenticels. "Pneumatophore" redirects here It is also a name for the air bladder of the Portuguese Man o' War. These "breathing tubes" typically reach heights of up to thirty centimeters, and in some species, over three meters. There are four types of pneumatophore—stilt or prop type, snorkel or peg type, knee type, and ribbon or plank type. Knee and ribbon types may be combined with buttress roots at the base of the tree. The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate oxygen transport within the plant. Aerenchyma is an airy tissue found in Roots of plants which allows exchange of gases between the shoot and the root

Limiting salt intake

Red mangroves exclude salt by having rather impermeable roots which are highly suberised, acting as an ultra-filtration mechanism to exclude sodium salts from the rest of the plant. Rhizophora mangle, known as the red mangrove, is distributed in estuarine ecosystems throughout the tropics Suberin is a waxy substance found in higher Plants Suberin is a main constituent of cork, and is named after the Cork Oak, Quercus suber Sodium (ˈsoʊdiəm is an element which has the symbol Na( Latin natrium, from Arabic natrun) atomic number 11 atomic mass 22 A salt, in Chemistry, is defined as the product formed from the neutralisation reaction of Acids and bases. Water inside the plant shows that 90%, and in some cases of high salinity, up to 97%, of the salt has been excluded at the roots. Any salt which does accumulate in the shoot is concentrated in old leaves which are then shed, as well as stored away safely in cell vacuoles. In general vacuole functions include Removing unwanted structural debris Isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the cell Containing White (or grey) mangroves can secrete salts directly; they have two salt glands at each leaf base (hence their name—they are covered in white salt crystals).

Limiting water loss

Because of the limited availability of freshwater in the salty soils of the intertidal zone, mangrove plants have developed ways of limiting the amount of water that they lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their stomata (pores on the leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapour during photosynthesis). In Botany, a stoma (also stomate; plural stomata) is a tiny opening or pore found mostly on the underside of a Plant Leaf Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single They also vary the orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh midday sun and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. Anthony Calfo, a noted aquarium author, has observed anecdotally that a red mangrove in captivity only grows if its leaves are misted with fresh water several times a week, simulating the frequent rainstorms in the tropics. An aquarium (plural aquariums or aquaria) is a Vivarium consisting of at least one transparent side in which Water -dwelling Plants ^[12]

Nutrient uptake

The biggest problem that mangroves face is nutrient uptake. Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, there is little free oxygen. Thus anaerobic bacteria liberate nitrogen gas, soluble iron, inorganic phosphates, sulfides, and methane, which makes the soil much less nutritious and contributes to a mangrove's pungent odor. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 A phosphate, an Inorganic chemical, is a salt of Phosphoric acid. The term sulfide ( sulphide in British English) refers to several types of Chemical compounds containing Sulfur in its lowest Oxidation Methane is a Chemical compound with the molecular formula. It is the simplest Alkane, and the principal component of Natural gas. Prop root systems allow mangroves to take up gasses directly from the atmosphere, and various other nutrients, like iron, from the inhospitable soil. Gases are quite often stored directly inside the roots and processed even when the roots are submerged during high tide.

Increasing survival of offspring

In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their offspring survive. All mangroves have buoyant seeds suited to dispersal in water. A seed (in some plants referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic Plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat usually with some stored Unlike most plants, whose seeds germinate in soil, many mangrove plants (e. g. Red Mangrove) are viviparous, i. e. , their seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows either within the fruit (e. g. Aegialitis, Acanthus, Avicennia and Aegiceras), or out through the fruit (e. g. Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera and Nypa) to form a propagule (a seedling ready to go), which can produce its own food via photosynthesis. A propagule is any Plant material used for the purpose of Plant propagation. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. When the propagule is mature it drops into the water where it can then be transported great distances. Propagules can survive desiccation and remain dormant for weeks, months, or even over a year until they arrive in a suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, it will change its density so that the elongated shape now floats vertically rather than horizontally. In this position, it is more likely to become lodged in the mud and root. If it does not root, it can alter its density so that it floats off again in search of more favorable conditions.

Species

The following listing (modified from Tomlinson, 1986) gives the number of species of mangroves in each listed plant genus and family.

Major components

Family	Genus, number of species	Common name
Acanthaceae, Avicenniaceae or Verbenaceae (family allocation disputed)	Avicennia, 9	Black mangrove
Combretaceae	Conocarpus, 1; Laguncularia, 11; Lumnitzera, 2	Buttonwood, White mangrove
Arecaceae	Nypa, 1	Mangrove palm
Rhizophoraceae	Bruguiera, 6; Ceriops, 2; Kandelia, 1; Rhizophora, 8	Red mangrove
Lythraceae	Sonneratia, 5	Mangrove apple

Minor components

Family	Genus, number of species
Acanthaceae	Acanthus, 1; Bravaisia, 2
Bombacaceae	Camptostemon, 2
Cyperaceae	Fimbristylis, 1
Euphorbiaceae	Excoecaria, 2
Lecythidaceae	Barringtonia, 6
Lythraceae	Pemphis, 1
Meliaceae	Xylocarpus, 2
Myrsinaceae	Aegiceras, 2
Myrtaceae	Osbornia, 1
Pellicieraceae	Pelliciera, 1
Plumbaginaceae	Aegialitis, 2
Pteridaceae	Acrostichum, 3
Rubiaceae	Scyphiphora, 1
Sterculiaceae	Heritiera, 3

Geographical regions

Mangroves occur in numerous areas worldwide. Avicennia is a Genus of Mangrove Tree. As with other mangroves it occurs in the intertidal zones of estuarine areas and has the characteristic Avicennia is a Genus of Mangrove Tree. As with other mangroves it occurs in the intertidal zones of estuarine areas and has the characteristic Combretaceae is a family of Flowering plants The family includes about 600 species of Trees Shrubs and Lianas in 20 genera Conocarpus erectus, one of two species in the genus Conocarpus, is a Mangrove Shrub and Tree in the family Combretaceae Laguncularia is a genus of plants in the family Combretaceae with ten species Laguncularia coccinea Gaudich Arecaceae or Palmae (also known by the name Palmaceae, which is taxonomically invalid or commonly palm tree) the palm family is a family of Flowering Nypa fruticans, known as the Attap Palm ( Singapore) Nipa Palm ( Philippines) and Mangrove Palm or Nipah palm Rhizophoraceae is a family constituted by Tropical or Subtropical Flowering plants Among the better known members are Mangrove Rhizophora is a Genus of tropical trees The most notable species is the Red mangrove ( Rhizophora mangle) but other species are known including Lythraceae is a family of Flowering plants It includes 500-600 Species of mostly Herbs with some Shrubs and Trees in Sonneratia is a Genus of Plants in the family Lythraceae. Formerly the Sonneratia were placed in a family called Sonneratiaceae The family Acanthaceae (or Acanthus family) is a taxon of Dicotyledonous Flowering plants containing almost 250 genera and about 2500 species Acanthus is a Genus of about 30 species of Flowering plants in the family Acanthaceae, native to tropical and warm temperate regions of the The name Bombacaceae is a Botanical name at the rank of family which is now widely considered obsolete The family Cyperaceae, or the sedges, is a taxon of monocot Flowering plants that superficially resemble grasses or rushes Fimbristylis is a genus of sedges. A plant in this genus may be known commonly as a fimbry, fimbristyle, or fringe-rush. The Spurge family ( Euphorbiaceae) is a large family of Flowering plants with 300 genera and around 7500 species Excoecaria is a Plant Genus of the family Euphorbiaceae, comprising about 40 Species. The Lecythidaceae comprise a family of about 20 genera and 250-300 species of Woody plants native to tropical South America and Madagascar Barringtonia is a genus of Flowering plants in the family Lecythidaceae. Lythraceae is a family of Flowering plants It includes 500-600 Species of mostly Herbs with some Shrubs and Trees in The Meliaceae, or the Mahogany family, is a Flowering plant family of mostly Trees and Shrubs (and a few Herbaceous plants in Xylocarpus is a Genus of plants in the mahogany family ( Meliaceae) Myrsinaceae, or the Myrsine family, is a rather large family from the order Ericales. Aegiceras is a Genus of Trees and Shrubs comprising two species from Southeast Asia, Malesia, Australia The Myrtaceae or Myrtle family are a family of Dicotyledon Plants placed within the order Myrtales. Plumbaginaceae is a family of Flowering plants, with a Cosmopolitan distribution. Pteridaceae is a large family of Ferns in the order Pteridales. Rubiaceae is a family of Flowering plants variously called the Madder family, Bedstraw family or coffee Sterculiaceae is a Botanical name for a group of Flowering plants at the rank of family which is now widely considered obsolete UserPolbot. --> Heritiera is a genus of Flowering plant in the Malvaceae family See List of mangrove ecoregions. This is a list of Mangrove Ecoregions ordered according to whether they lie in the Afrotropic, Australasian Indomalayan or Neotropic

Africa

There are important examples of mangrove swamps in Kenya and Madagascar, the latter even admixed at the coastal verge with the Madagascar dry deciduous forests. The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern The Madagascar dry deciduous forests represent a tropical dry forest Ecoregion generally situated in the western part of Madagascar. Nigeria has the largest concentration of mangroves in Africa, spanning an area of 36,000 sq km. Many of Nigeria's mangroves have been destroyed in the last fifty years due to oil spills and leaks, destroying local fishing economy and water quality. Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal ^[13]

Americas

Mangroves are found in many parts of the tropical and subtropical coastal parts of the Americas.

United States

Because of their sensitivity to sub-freezing temperatures, mangroves in the continental United States are limited to the coastal Florida Peninsula (see Florida mangroves) and south Texas. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the The Florida mangroves comprise an Ecosystem of the coasts of the Florida Peninsula, including

Central America & Caribbean

Mangroves also occur on the west coast of Costa Rica, on the Pacific and Caribbean coasts of Nicaragua, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and Panama and on many Caribbean Islands, such as Antigua and St. Lucia. Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America Belize (bəˈliːz formerly British Honduras, is a country in Central America. Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest Honduras in Spanish, República de Honduras) is a democratic republic in Central America. Panama, officially the Republic of Panama (República de Panamá) is the southernmost country of Central America. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting Antigua (ænˈtiːgə an-TEE-gah) is an Island in the West Indies, in the Leeward Islands in the Caribbean region the main Saint Lucia (ˌseɪnt ˈluːʃɪə is an Island nation in the eastern Caribbean Sea on the boundary with the Atlantic Ocean. Significant mangals include the Marismas Nacionales-San Blas mangroves in Mexico. Marismas Nacionales-San Blas mangroves is a Mangrove ecoregion of the Pacific coast of Mexico. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Mangroves can also be found in Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Trinidad and the Pacific coast of El Salvador. Puerto Rico (ˌpwertoˈriko officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ("Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" {{lang-en|"Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"}} The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la The Dominican Republic ( Spanish: República Dominicana;) is a nation located in the Caribbean region and shares the island of Hispaniola with Haiti ( English: ˈheɪ·tiː or haɪ·ˈjiː·tiː French Haïti a·i·ti Haitian Creole: Jamaica (ˈdʒəˈmeɪkə} is an Island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. Trinidad ( Spanish: " Trinity " is the largest and most populous of the two major islands and El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America.

South America

Brazil contains approximately 26,000 km² of mangals, which is 15% of the world's total of 172,000 km². |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld

Ecuador and Peru also have significant areas of mangroves mainly in the Gulf of Guayaquil-Tumbes mangroves. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Ecuador topics. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. The Gulf of Guayaquil-Tumbes mangroves are an Ecoregion located in the Gulf of Guayaquil in South America, in northern Peru and southern

Venezuela's northern Caribbean island, Margarita, also possesses mangrove forest in the Parque Nacional la Restinga. Venezuela (ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə) officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish República Bolivariana de Venezuela) is a country on the

Colombia also possesses large mangrove forests on both the Caribbean and Pacific coasts. Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America.

Asia

Mangroves occur on the south coast of Asia, throughout the Indian subcontinent, in all the southeast Asian countries, and on islands in the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, South China Sea and the Pacific. This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface The Arabian Sea ( Arabic: بحر العرب transliterated: Baḥr al-'Arab Sanskrit: सिन्धु सागर transliterated: The Bay of Bengal is a bay that forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. The South China Sea is a Marginal sea south of China. It is a part of the Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from Singapore to the The mangal is particularly prevalent in the deltas of large Asian rivers.

The Sundarbans is the largest mangrove forest in the world, located in the Ganges delta in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India. The Sundarbans (সুন্দরবন Shundorbôn) is the largest single block of tidal halophytic Mangrove forest in the world The Ganges (ˈgænʤiːz also Ganga, Devanāgarī: hi गंगा in most Indian languages) is the major river in the Indian subcontinent A delta is a Landform where the mouth of a River flows into an Ocean, Sea, Estuary, Lake or another river ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially West Bengal ( Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchim Bônggo poʃtʃim bɔŋgo is a state in eastern India. There are major mangals in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat. The Andaman & Nicobar Islands is a Union territory of India. Informally the territory's name is often abbreviated to A & N Islands, or ANI The Gulf of Kutch is an inlet of the Arabian Sea along the west coast of India, in the state of Gujarat. Gujarat (ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt, pronounced) is a state in western India. ^[14] Other significant mangals include the Bhitarkanika Mangroves and Godavari-Krishna mangroves. The Bhitarkanika Mangroves are a Mangrove wetland in India 's Orissa state The Godavari-Krishna mangroves are a Mangrove ecoregion of India 's southeastern or Coromandel Coast.

The Pichavaram Mangrove Forest near Chidambaram, South India is the second largest mangrove forest in the world. Pichavaram is the second largest Mangrove forest in the world located near Chidambaram in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Chidambaram is a Municipality and taluk ( Tehsil) headquarters in the Cuddalore district It is home to a large variety of birds—local resident, migratory resident and the pure migratory birds—and is separated from the Bay of Bengal by a lovely beach. It is one of those rare mangrove forests which has actually increased by 90% between 1986 and 2002.

There are large areas of mangroves in Oman near Muscat, in particular at Shinas, Qurm Park and Mahout Island. In Arabic, mangrove trees are known as qurm, thus the mangrove area in Oman is known as Qurm Park.

Iranian mangrove forests occur between 25°11′N to 27°52′N. These forests exist in the north part of the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea, along three Maritime Provinces in the south of Iran. The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. These provinces respectively from southwest to southeast of Iran, include Bushehr, Hormozgan and Sistan & Balouchestan. Bushehr or Bushire ( Persian:بوشهر pop 165377 (in 2005) is a city on the southwestern coast of Iran, on the Persian Gulf Hormozgān is one of the 30 provinces of Iran. It is in the south of the country facing Oman.

In Vietnam, mangrove forests grow along the southern coast, including two forests: the Can Gio Mangrove Forest biosphere reserve and the U Minh mangrove forest in the Sea and Coastal Region of Kien Giang, Ca Mau and Bac Lieu province. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Can Gio Biosphere Reserve is a Wetland located 40 km southeast of Ho Chi Minh City. A biosphere reserve is an international Conservation designation given by UNESCO under its Programme on Kiên Giang ( Hán tự: 堅[[wikt 江|江]] is a southern province of Vietnam known for Fishing and Rice farming Bac Lieu (in Vietnamese, Bạc Liêu; Hán tự: 薄[[wikt 遼|遼]] is a Province of Vietnam.

Australasia

In Australasia, mangroves occur around much of New Guinea, Sulawesi and the surrounding islands. Australasia is a Region of Oceania: New Zealand, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and neighbouring Islands in the Pacific New Guinea, located just north of Australia, is the world's second largest island, having become separated from the Australian mainland when the area now known Sulawesi (formerly known as Celebes, ˈsɛlɛbiz is one of the four larger Sunda Islands of Indonesia and is situated between Borneo and the Australia has mangle primarily on the northern and eastern coasts of the continent. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. It has approximately 11,500 km² of mangroves with occurrences as far south as Corner Inlet in Victoria (37°45′S) and Barker Inlet in Adelaide, South Australia. Adelaide is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of South Australia, and is the fifth largest city in Australia with a South Australia is a state of Australia in the southern central part of the country ^[15] New Zealand also has mangrove forests extending to around 38°S (similar to Australia's southernmost mangrove incidence): the furthest geographical extent on the west coast is Raglan Harbour (37°48′S); on the east coast, Ohiwa Harbour (near Opotiki) is the furthest south that mangroves are found (38°00′S). New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Opotiki is a town in the eastern Bay of Plenty in the North Island of New Zealand. ^[16]

Pacific islands

Twenty-five species of mangrove are found on various Pacific islands, with extensive mangals on some islands. Mangals on Guam, Palau, Kosrae and Yap have been badly affected by development. Guam ( Chamorro: cha Guåhån) officially the Territory of Guam, is an island in the western Pacific Ocean and is an organized unincorporated Palau, officially the Republic of Palau (Beluu er a Belau is an island nation in the Pacific Ocean, some 500 miles (800  km) east Kosrae (koʊˈʃaɪ /koʊʃˈraɪ/ or /koʊsˈraɪ/ in English) formerly known as Kusaie, is an island in Micronesia and is by itself one of four Yap, also known as Wa'ab for locals is an Island in the Caroline Islands of the western Pacific Ocean. ^[17] Mangroves are not native to Hawaii, but the Red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle, and Oriental mangrove, Bruguiera sexangula, have been introduced and are now naturalized. The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the Rhizophora mangle, known as the red mangrove, is distributed in estuarine ecosystems throughout the tropics In Biology, naturalisation is the process when foreign or cultivated plants or animals have spread into the Wild, where they multiply by natural regeneration ^[18] Both species are classified as "Pest Plants of Hawaiian Native Ecosystems" by the University of Hawaii Botany Department. The University of Hawaii, formally the University of Hawaii System and popularly known as UH, is a public co-educational college and university system that confers ^[19]

Growing mangroves

Red Mangroves are the most commonly grown of all species, used particularly in Marine Aquariums in a sump to reduce proteins and other minerals in the water. A sump is a low space that collects any often-undesirable liquids such as water or chemicals Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific People also may grow them just for their unusual appearance, either in Aquariums, or as ornamental plants, such as in Japan. An aquarium (plural aquariums or aquaria) is a Vivarium consisting of at least one transparent side in which Water -dwelling Plants For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. In Hawaii, these plants are considered pests, while in Florida they are heavily protected. The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the

Preservation

The United Nations Environment Program has estimated that a quarter of the destruction of mangrove forests stems from shrimp farming. The UN Environment Programme (or UNEP) coordinates United Nations environmental activities assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies This article is about the farming of marine (saltwater shrimp ^[20]

Grassroots efforts to save mangroves from development are becoming more popular as the benefits of mangroves are becoming more widely known. In the Bahamas, for example, active efforts to save mangroves are occurring on the islands of Bimini and Great Guana Cay. The Bahamas, officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an independent sovereign English -speaking country consisting of two thousand Cays and Bimini (ˈbɪmɨni is a district of the Bahamas composed of a chain of islands Great Guana Cay is an Islet located in The Bahamas. It is a long but narrow islet which is 9 Miles (14

In popular media

• The mangrove is used as a symbol in Annie Dillard's essay Sojourner due to its significance as a self-sustaining biome. Annie Dillard (born April 30, 1945 in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania) is a Pulitzer Prize -winning American Author, best known for her
• The manga series One Piece has a forest of giant mangroves forming the Shabondy Archipelago, notable for creating a resin combined with the oxygen breathed out of the trees to create large bubbles used and manipulated by the local population for everything from transport to hotels. is a Japanese Shōnen Manga written and illustrated by Eiichiro Oda, that has been serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine

Notes

See also

• Body of water
• Salt marsh
• Wetland

References

• Saenger, Peter (2002). A body of water is any significant accumulation of Water, usually covering the Earth or another planet A salt marsh is a type of Marsh that is a transitional intertidal between land and salty or Brackish water (e A wetland is an area of Land consisting of Soil that is Saturated with Moisture, such as a Swamp, Marsh, or Bog Mangrove Ecology, Silviculture, and Conservation. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. ISBN 1-4020-0686-1.
• Hogarth, Peter J. (1999). The Biology of Mangroves. Oxford University Press, Oxford. ISBN 0-19-850222-2.
• Thanikaimoni, Ganapathi (1986). Ganapathi Thanikaimoni ( January 1, 1938 – September 5, 1986) often referred to as Thani was widely known for his manifold Mangrove Palynology UNDP/UNESCO and the French Institute of Pondicherry, ISSN 0073-8336 (E). United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 Puducherry (formerly; புதுச்சேரி or பாண்டிச்சேரி పాండిచెర్రి പുതുശ്ശേരി Pondichéry is a
• Tomlinson, Philip B. (1986). The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 0-521-25567-8.
• Teas, H. J. (1983). Biology and Ecology of Mangroves. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. ISBN 90-6193-948-8.
• Plaziat, J. C. , et al. (2001). "History and biogeography of the mangrove ecosystem, based on a critical reassessment of the paleontological record". Wetlands Ecology and Management 9 (3): pp. 161-179.
• Sato, Gordon, et al. Growing Mangroves With The Potential For Relieving Regional Poverty And Hunger WETLANDS, Vol. 25, No. 3 - September 2005
• Jayatissa, L. P. , Dahdouh-Guebas, F. & Koedam, N. (2002). "A review of the floral composition and distribution of mangroves in Sri Lanka". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 138: 29-43.
• Warne, K. (February 2007). "Forests of the Tide". National Geographic pp. 132-151
• Aaron M. Ellison (2000) Mangrove Restoration: Do We Know Enough?

Restoration Ecology 8 (3), 219–229 doi: 10. 1046/j. 1526-100x. 2000. 80033. x

• Agrawala, Shardul; Hagestad; Marca; Koshy, Kayathu; Ota, Tomoko; Prasad, Biman; Risbey, James; Smith, Joel; Van Aalst, Maarten. 2003. Development and Climate Change in Fiji: Focus on Coastal Mangroves. Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, Cedex 16, France.
• Barbier, E. B. , Sathirathai, S. , 2001. Valuing Mangrove Conservation in Southern Thailand. Contemproary Economic Policy. 19 (2) 109-122.
• Bosire, J. O. , Dahdouh-Guebas, F. , Jayatissa, L. P. , Koedam, N. , Lo Seen, D. , Nitto, Di D. 2005. How Effective were Mangroves as a Defense Against the Recent Tsunami? Current Biology Vol. 15 R443-R447.
• Bowen, Jennifer L. , Valiela, Ivan, York, Joanna K. 2001. Mangrove Forests: One of the World’s Threatened Major Tropical Environments. Bio Science 51:10, 807-815.
• Jin-Eong, Ong. 2004. The Ecology of Mangrove Conservation and Management. Hydrobiologia. 295:1-3, 343-351.
• Glenn, C. R. 2006. "Earth's Endangered Creatures" (Online). Accessed 4/28/2008 at http://earthsendangered.com.
• Lewis, Roy R. III. 2004. Ecological Engineering for Successful Management and Restoration of Mangrove Forest. Ecological Engineering. 24:4, 403-418.
• Lucien-Brun H. 1997. Evolution of world shrimp production: Fisheries and aquaculture. World Aquaculture. 28:21–33.
• Twilley, R. R. , V. H. Rivera-Monroy, E. Medina, A. Nyman, J. Foret, T. Mallach, and L. Botero. 2000. Patterns of forest development in mangroves along the San Juan River estuary, Venezuela. Forest Ecology and Management.

External links

• Tsunami protection.
• The story of the UNESCO Mangrove Programme.
• Science and Management of Mangroves in the South China Sea and the Gulf of Thailand.
• WWF article about the mangrove biome.
• East African Mangroves, a website managed by the Universities of Brussels (Belgium) and Florence (Italy).
• Kenyan Mangroves.
• Large mangrove website.
• Borneo Mangroves.
• Sundarbans Tiger Project Research and Conservation of tigers in the largest remaining mangrove forest in the world.
• Coastal wetland and shoreline change mapping of Pichavaram, south east coast of India using satellite data.
• Status of Indian Mangroves: Pollution Status of Pichavaram Mangrove, Southeast Coast of India.
• Mangrove Action Project. Advocacy group devoted to the conservation, restoration and sustainable management of mangroves and related coastal ecosystems. Spun off from Earth Island Institute in March 2007. The Earth Island Institute was founded in 1982 by environmentalist David Brower.
• Global Mangrove database and Information System (GLOMIS).
• (Italian) Information and photo of Red Mangrove in aquarium - Rhizophora mangle.
• Mangroves of Rodrigues Island.
• Mangroves of Singapore.
• mangrove.org - Mangrove Afforestation, Habitat Creation, Replenishment, Shoreline Stabilization.

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