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For other uses, see Mallard (disambiguation).
Mallard
Male (top) and female (bottom)
Male (top) and female (bottom)
Conservation status
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Anseriformes
Family: Anatidae
Subfamily: Anatinae
Genus: Anas
Species: A. The conservation status of a Species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species remaining extant either in the present day or the near future Least Concern ( LC) is an IUCN category assigned to extant species or lower taxa which have been evaluated but do not qualify for any other category The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List) created in 1963 is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global Chordates ( Phylum Chordata) are a group of Animals that includes the Vertebrates together with several closely related Invertebrates Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. The order Anseriformes contains about 150 living Species of Birds in three extant families the Anhimidae (the screamers Anseranatidae The Anatinae is a Subfamily of the family Anatidae ( Swans geese and Ducks. Anas is a Genus of Dabbling ducks It includes Mallards Wigeons Teals Pintails and Shovelers in platyrhynchos
Binomial name
Anas platyrhynchos
Linnaeus, 1758
Subspecies

See Mexican Duck, Anas and below
Synonyms

Anas boschas

The Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos[1]), probably the best-known and most recognizable of all ducks, is a dabbling duck which breeds throughout the temperate and sub-tropical areas of North America, Europe, Asia, New Zealand (where it is currently the most common duck species), and Australia. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for Year 1758 ( MDCCLVIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common In Zoology, as in other branches of Biology, subspecies is the Taxonomic rank immediately subordinate to a Species. The Mexican Duck ( Anas diazi,and see below is a Dabbling duck in the genus Anas which breeds in Mexico and the southern Anas is a Genus of Dabbling ducks It includes Mallards Wigeons Teals Pintails and Shovelers in In Scientific nomenclature, synonyms are different Scientific names used for a single Taxon. The Anatinae is a Subfamily of the family Anatidae ( Swans geese and Ducks. The subtropics are the zones of the Earth immediately north and south of the tropic zone which is bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. It is strongly migratory in the northern parts of its breeding range, and winters farther south. Bird migration refers to the regular seasonal journeys undertaken by many species of Birds Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability For example, in North America it winters south to Mexico, but also regularly strays into Central America and the Caribbean between September and May. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting [2]

The Mallard and the Muscovy Duck[3][4] are believed be the ancestors of all domestic ducks. The Muscovy Duck, Cairina moschata, is a large Duck which is native to Mexico, Central and South America. Domesticated ducks are Ducks that are raised for Meat, eggs and down.

The Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies to the mallard.

Contents

Description

Close up photo showing the brilliant green colours of the male Mallard.
Close up photo showing the brilliant green colours of the male Mallard.
Mallard drake in midflight
Mallard drake in midflight
Female Mallard landing
Female Mallard landing
Iridescent blue-black-white speculum feathers of male Mallard
Iridescent blue-black-white speculum feathers of male Mallard

The mallard is 56–65 cm long, has a wingspan of 81–98 cm, and weighs 2-2 1/2 pounds. The speculum is a patch often distinctly coloured on the inner Remiges of some Birds. The breeding male is unmistakable, with a green head, black rear end and a yellow bill tipped with black (as opposed to the dark brown bill in females). The female Mallard is light brown, like most female dabbling ducks. However, both the female and male Mallards have distinct purple speculum edged with white, prominent in flight or at rest (though temporarily shedded during the annual summer molt). The speculum is a patch often distinctly coloured on the inner Remiges of some Birds. In non-breeding (eclipse) plumage the drake becomes drab, looking more like the female, but still distinguishable by its yellow bill and reddish breast.

The Mallard is a rare example of both Allen's Rule and Bergmann's Rule in birds. Allen's rule is a biological rule posited by Joel Asaph Allen in 1877 In Zoology, Bergmann's rule is an ecogeographic rule that correlates Latitude with body mass in animals Bergmann's Rule, which states that polar forms tend to be larger than related ones from warmer climates, has numerous examples in birds. Allen's Rule says that appendages like ears tend to be smaller in polar forms to minimize heat loss, and larger in tropical and desert equivalents to facilitate heat diffusion, and that the polar taxa are stockier overall. Examples of this rule in birds are rare, as they lack external ears. However, the bill of ducks is very well supplied with blood vessels and is vulnerable to cold.

The size of the Mallard varies clinally, and birds from Greenland, although larger than birds further south, have smaller bills and are stockier. Greenland (Kalaallit Nunaat meaning "Land of the Greenlanders" Grønland is a self-governing Danish Province located between the It is sometimes separated as subspecies Greenland Mallard (A. In Zoology, as in other branches of Biology, subspecies is the Taxonomic rank immediately subordinate to a Species. p. conboschas).

In captivity, domestic ducks come in wild-type plumages, white, and other colours. Domesticated ducks are Ducks that are raised for Meat, eggs and down. Most of these colour variants are also known in domestic mallards not bred as livestock, but kept as pets, aviary birds, etc. Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally to a Domesticated Animal intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to produce such as Food An aviary is a large enclosure for confining Birds. Unlike cages ' aviaries allow birds a larger living space where they can fly hence aviaries are also , where they are rare but increasing in availability.

A noisy species, the male has a nasal call, the female the "quack" always associated with ducks. Onomatopoeia (also spelled onomatopœia, from Greek: ονοματοποιΐα is a Word or a grouping of words that imitates the sound it is describing [5]

Ecology

The Mallard inhabits most wetlands, including parks, small ponds and rivers, and usually feeds by dabbling for plant food or grazing; there are reports of it eating frogs. A wetland is an area of Land consisting of Soil that is Saturated with Moisture, such as a Swamp, Marsh, or Bog A park is a protected area of Land and Water, usually in its natural or semi-natural (landscaped state and set aside for some purpose often to do with human A pond is a body of water smaller than a Lake, both being examples of Terrain features Although the term pond is universally used to describe waterbodies that This article is about the block cipher algorithm For the ultrafast laser pulse measurement technique see Frequency-resolved optical gating. [2] It usually nests on a river bank, but not always near water. It is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season and will form large flocks, which are known as a sord. A flock is a group of Birds conducting flocking behavior in flight or while foraging [6]

Breeding behavior

Mallards form pairs only until the female lays eggs, at which time she is left by the male. The clutch is 8–13 eggs, which are incubated for 27–28 days to hatching with 50–60 days to fledging. The ducklings are precocial, and can swim and feed themselves on insects as soon as they hatch, although they stay near the female for protection. In Biology, the term precocial refers to species in which the young are relatively mature and mobile from the moment of birth or hatching Young ducklings are not naturally waterproof and rely on the mother to provide waterproofing. Mallards also have rates of male-male sexual activity that are unusually high for birds. In some cases, as many as 19% of pairs in a Mallard population are male-male homosexual[7].

When they pair off with mating partners, often one or several drakes will end up "left out". This group will sometimes target an isolated female duck — chasing, pestering and pecking at her until she weakens (a phenomenon referred to by researchers as rape flight), at which point each male will take turns copulating with the female. Male Mallards will also occasionally chase other males in the same way. (In one documented case, a male Mallard copulated with another male he was chasing after it had been killed when it flew into a glass window. )[8]

Ancestor of almost all Domestic Ducks

Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) is the ancestor of almost all of the varieties of domestic ducks. Domesticated ducks are Ducks that are raised for Meat, eggs and down. Domestic ducks belong to the subfamily Anatinae of the waterfowl family Anatidae. The wild mallard and Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) are believed to be the ancestors of all domestic ducks. The Muscovy Duck, Cairina moschata, is a large Duck which is native to Mexico, Central and South America. [9][10]

Genetic pollution, hybridization and systematics

The last male Mariana Mallard. This extinct population probably evolved in part from mallards.
The last male Mariana Mallard. The Mariana Mallard ( Anas oustaleti)or Oustalet's Gray Duck is an Extinct Species of Duck of the Genus Anas This extinct population probably evolved in part from mallards. In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa.

Release of feral Mallard Ducks worldwide is creating havoc on indigenous waterfowl, these don't migrate and stay back in the local breeding season and interbreed with indigenous rare wild ducks devastating local populations of closely related species through genetic pollution by producing fertile offspring. A feral organism is one that has escaped from Domestication and returned partly or wholly to its wild state See also UK Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust USA Ducks Unlimited Bird migration refers to the regular seasonal journeys undertaken by many species of Birds Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability The breeding season is the most suitable season usually with favorable conditions and abundant food and water for breeding among some wild animals and birds (wildlife Genetic pollution is undesirable Gene flow into wild populations Complete hybridization of various species of rare wild duck gene pools could result in the extinction of many indigenous waterfowl. Wild Mallard itself is the ancestor of most domestic ducks and their naturally evolved wild gene pool gets genetically polluted in turn by the domesticated and feral populations. Domesticated ducks are Ducks that are raised for Meat, eggs and down. Domestication (from Latin domesticus) refers to the process whereby a Population of Animals [11][12][13][14][15]

Mallards frequently interbreed with their closest relatives in the genus Anas, such as the American Black Duck, and also with species more distantly related, for example the Northern Pintail, leading to various hybrids that may be fully fertile. A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic Anas is a Genus of Dabbling ducks It includes Mallards Wigeons Teals Pintails and Shovelers in The American Black Duck ( Anas rubripes) is a large Dabbling duck. The Pintail or Northern Pintail ( Anas acuta) is a widely-occurring Duck which breeds in the northern areas of Europe, Asia and In Biology, hybrid has two meanings The first meaning is the result of interbreeding between two animals or plants of different taxa. This is quite unusual among different species, and apparently has its reasons in the fact that the Mallard evolved very rapidly and not too long ago, during the Late Pleistocene only. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 The Late Pleistocene (also known as Upper Pleistocene or the Tarantian) is a stage of the Pleistocene Epoch. The distinct lineages of this radiation are usually kept separate due to non-overlapping ranges and behavioral cues, but are still not fully genetically incompatible. Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually Mallards and their domesticated conspecifics are, of course, also fully interfertile. Conspecificity is a concept in Biology. Two or more individual Organisms Populations or Taxa are termed conspecific if they belong

The Mallard is considered an invasive species in New Zealand. Introduced species|Weed Invasive species is a phrase with several definitions New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island There, and elsewhere, Mallards are spreading with increasing urbanization and hybridizing with local relatives. Urbanizationn (also spelled urbanisation) is the physical growth of Urban areas into rural or natural land as a result of population in-migration to an existing [16] Over time, a continuum of hybrids ranging between almost typical examples of either species will develop; the speciation process beginning to reverse itself. Speciation is the Evolutionary process by which new biological Species arise [17] This has created conservation concerns for relatives of the Mallard, such as the Hawaiian Duck,[18] the A. "Conservation Biology" redirects here For the Scientific journal, see Conservation Biology (journal. The Hawaiian Duck ( Anas wyvilliana) is a Species of the bird Anas. s. superciliosa subspecies of the Pacific Black Duck,[19] the American Black Duck,[20] the Florida Duck,[21] Meller's Duck,[22] the Yellow-billed Duck,[17] and the Mexican Duck,[23] in the latter case even leading to a dispute whether these birds should be considered a species[24] (and thus entitled to more conservation research and funding) or included in the mallard. The Pacific Black Duck, Anas superciliosa is a Dabbling duck found in much of Indonesia, New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand The American Black Duck ( Anas rubripes) is a large Dabbling duck. The Mottled Duck ( Anas fulvigula)or Mottled Mallard is a medium-sized Dabbling duck. Meller's Duck ( Anas melleri)is a Species of the Dabbling duck Genus Anas. The Yellow-billed Duck, Anas undulata, is a 51-58 cm long Dabbling duck which is an abundant resident breeder in southern and eastern Africa. The Mexican Duck ( Anas diazi,and see below is a Dabbling duck in the genus Anas which breeds in Mexico and the southern

Like elsewhere worldwide the invasive alien mallard ducks are also causing severe “genetic pollution” of South Africa’s biodiversity by breeding with endemic ducks. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. The hybrids of mallard ducks and the Yellow-billed Duck are fertile and can produce more hybrid offspring. The Yellow-billed Duck, Anas undulata, is a 51-58 cm long Dabbling duck which is an abundant resident breeder in southern and eastern Africa. If this continues, only hybrids will occur and in the long term this will result in the extinction of various indigenous waterfowl worldwide like the yellow billed duck of South Africa. The mallard duck can cross breed with 45 other species and is posing a severe threat to the genetic integrity of indigenous waterfowls. Mallard ducks and their hybrids compete with indigenous birds for resources such as food, nest sites and roosting sites. The drakes (males) also kill the offspring of other waterfowl species by attacking and drowning them. [25]

On the other hand, the Chinese Spotbill is currently introgressing into the mallard populations of the Primorsky Krai, possibly due to habitat changes from global warming. The Spotbill, Anas poecilorhyncha, also known as the Spot-billed Duck, is a Dabbling duck which breeds in tropical and eastern Asia. Primorsky Krai (Примо́рский край also known as Primorye (ru Примо́рье is a federal subject of Russia (a Krai) A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the [26] The Mariana Mallard was a resident allopatric population - in most respects a good species - apparently initially derived from Mallard × Pacific Black Duck hybrids;[27] unfortunately, it became extinct in the 1980s. The Mariana Mallard ( Anas oustaleti)or Oustalet's Gray Duck is an Extinct Species of Duck of the Genus Anas Allopatric speciation, also known as geographic Speciation, is the phenomenon whereby biological populations are physically isolated by an extrinsic barrier The Pacific Black Duck, Anas superciliosa is a Dabbling duck found in much of Indonesia, New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa. The 1980s was the decade spanning from January 1 1980 to December 31 1989. In addition, feral domestic ducks interbreeding with Mallards have led to a size increase - especially in drakes - in most Mallards in urban areas. Rape flights between normal-sized females and such stronger males are liable to end with the female being drowned by the males' combined weight.

It was generally assumed that as the spectacular nuptial plumage of Mallard drakes is obviously the result of sexual selection - most species in the mallard group being sexually monomorphic -, hybrid matings would preferentially take place between females of monomorphic relatives and Mallard drakes instead of the other way around. Sexual selection is the Theory proposed by Charles Darwin that states that certain evolutionary traits can be explained by Intraspecific competition Sexual dimorphism is the systematic difference in form between individuals of different Sex in the same Species. But this generalization was found to be incorrect. [28]

Note that it is not the hybridization itself that causes most conservation concerns. The Laysan Duck is an insular relative of the mallard with a very small and fluctuating population. The Laysan Duck ( Anas laysanensis) also known as the Laysan Teal because of its small size is an endangered Dabbling duck endemic to the Hawaiian Mallards sometimes arrive on its island home during migration, and can be expected to occasionally have remained and hybridized with Laysan Ducks as long as these species exist. But these hybrids are less well adapted to the peculiar ecological conditions of Laysan Island than the local ducks, and thus have lower fitness, and furthermore, there were - apart from a brief time in the early 20th century when the Laysan Duck was almost extinct - always much more Laysan Ducks than stray Mallards. Laysan ( Hawaiian: Kauō) located northwest of Honolulu at N25° 42' 14" W171° 44' 04" is one of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Fitness (often denoted w in Population genetics models is a central concept in evolutionary theory. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on Thus, in this case, the hybrid lineages would rapidly fail.

In the cases mentioned above, however, ecological changes and hunting have led to a decline of local species; for example, the New Zealand Gray Duck's population declined drastically due to overhunting in the mid-20th century (Williams & Basse 2006). In the Hawaiian Duck, it seems that hybrid offspring are less well-adapted to native habitat and that utilizing them in reintroduction projects makes these less than successful. [29] In conclusion, the crucial point underlying the problems of Mallards "hybridizing away" relatives is far less a consequence of Mallards spreading, but of local ducks declining; allopatric speciation and isolating behavior have produced today's diversity of Mallard-like ducks despite the fact that in most if not all of these populations, hybridization must always have occurred to some extent. Allopatric speciation, also known as geographic Speciation, is the phenomenon whereby biological populations are physically isolated by an extrinsic barrier Given time and a population of sufficient size exists, natural selection ought to suppress harmful allele combinations to a negligible level. Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of An allele (ˈæliːl (UK /əˈliːl/ (US (from the Greek αλληλος allelos, meaning each other) is one member of a pair or series of different forms

The aforementioned confounds analysis of the evolution considerably. Analyses of good samples of mtDNA sequences give the confusing picture[30] one expects from a wide-ranging species that has evolved probably not much earlier than the Plio-/Pleistocene boundary, around 2 mya. Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the Primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA Molecule The Pliocene epoch (spelled Pleiocene in some older texts is the period in the Geologic timescale that extends The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period In Astronomy, Geology, and Paleontology, mya or " mya " is an abbreviation for "million years ago". Mallards appear to be closer to their Indo-Pacific relatives than to their American ones judging from biogeography. The Indo-Pacific is a biogeographic region of the earth's seas comprising the tropical waters of the Indian Ocean, the western and central Pacific Ocean Biogeography is the study of the distribution of Biodiversity over Space and Time. Considering mtDNA D-loop sequence data,[31] they may have evolved more probably than not in the general area of Siberia; mallard bones rather abruptly appear in food remains of ancient humans and other deposits of fossil bones in Europe, without a good candidate for a local predecessor species. Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. D-loop replication is a process by which Chloroplasts and Mitochondria replicate their genetic material A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the Primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA Molecule Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. The large ice age paleosubspecies which made up at least the European and W Asian populations during the Pleistocene has been named Anas platyrhynchos palaeoboschas. An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets A chronospecies is a Species which changes physically morphologically, genetically, and/or behaviorally over time on an evolutionary scale such The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period

As expected, haplotypes typical of American mallard relatives and Spotbills can be found in Mallards around the Bering Sea. The term haplotype is a contraction of the term " haploid Genotype. The Bering (or Imarpik) Sea is a body of water in the Pacific Ocean that comprises a deep water basin (the Aleutian Basin) which rises through [32] Interestingly, the Aleutian Islands turned out to hold a population of Mallards that appear to be evolving towards a good subspecies as gene flow with other populations is very limited. The Aleutian Islands (possibly from Chukchi aliat, " Island " are a chain of more than 300 small volcanic islands forming a Volcanic In Population genetics, gene flow (also known as gene migration) is the transfer of Alleles of Genes from one Population to another [33] This unexpected result suggests that reevaluation of the Greenland, Iceland, and NE Canada populations according to molecular and morphological characters is warranted. Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page

Gallery

Mallard drake standing

An adult female with a brood of ducklings

A trio of ducklings.

The new hatched ducklings are hiding under their mother.

Urbanized female mallard with brood of 12 ducklings

A turtle and a brood of ducklings sharing microhabitat

A Mallard drake swimming. Turtles are Reptiles of the Order Testudines (all living turtles belong to the Crown group Chelonia) most of A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species.

Wing-Flapping

Drake, domestic duck × mallard, Akureyri (Iceland); note stocky body shape. Akureyri ( is a town in the northern part of Iceland; it is the second largest urban area after Greater Reykjavík area but is the fourth Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland (

A male mallard flying.

Two males

Mallards in the snow. Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Kingston Ontario is a Canadian city located at the eastern end of Lake Ontario, where the lake runs into the St Ontario (ɒnˈtɛrioʊ is a province located in the central part of Canada, the largest by population and second largest after Quebec Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page 10 March 2008.


Notes

Female mallard duck resting.
Female mallard duck resting.
  1. ^ Etymology: Ancient Greek for "flat-billed duck" [1]
  2. ^ Herrera et al. Etymology is the study of the History of Words &mdash when they entered a language from what source and how their form and meaning have changed over time The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c (2006)
  3. ^ Anas platyrhynchos, Domestic Duck; DigiMorph Staff - The University of Texas at Austin
  4. ^ Mallard; Encyclopædia Britannica
  5. ^ Rogers (2001)
  6. ^ Baltimore Bird Club. Group Name for Birds: A Partial List. Retrieved on 2007-06-03. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, proclaims himself Roman Emperor, entering
  7. ^ Bagemihl (1999)
  8. ^ Moeliker (2001). This paper was awarded with an Ig Nobel Prize in 2003 (MacLeod 2005). The Ig Nobel Prizes are a Parody of the Nobel Prizes and are given each year in early October — around the time the recipients of the genuine Nobel Prizes are Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar.
  9. ^ Anas platyrhynchos, Domestic Duck; DigiMorph Staff - The University of Texas at Austin
  10. ^ Mallard; Encyclopædia Britannica
  11. ^ Mottled Ducks : The Problem – Hybridization; Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, MyFWC.com
  12. ^ ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT FOR CONTROL OF FREE-RANGING RESIDENT MALLARDS IN FLORIDA, MAY 2002, Contact: Frank Bowers, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
  13. ^ Invasive Alien Bird Species Pose A Threat, Kruger National Park, Siyabona Africa Travel (Pty) Ltd - South Africa Safari Travel Specialist
  14. ^ Anas platyrhynchos, Domestic Duck; DigiMorph Staff - The University of Texas at Austin
  15. ^ Mallard; Encyclopædia Britannica
  16. ^ Rhymer & Simberloff (1996)
  17. ^ a b Rhymer (2006)
  18. ^ Griffin et al. (1989), Rhymer & Simberloff (1996)
  19. ^ Gillespie (1985), Rhymer et al. (1994), Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), Williams & Basse (2006).
  20. ^ Johnsgard (1967), Avise et al. (1990), Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), Mank et al. (2004).
  21. ^ Mazourek & Gray (1994), Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), McCracken et al. (2001).
  22. ^ Young & Rhymer (1998)
  23. ^ Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), McCracken et al. (2001)
  24. ^ See AOU (1983)
  25. ^ Invasive Alien Bird Species Pose A Threat, Kruger National Park, Siyabona Africa Travel (Pty) Ltd - South Africa Safari Travel Specialist
  26. ^ Kulikova et al. (2004)
  27. ^ Yamashina (1948)
  28. ^ Rhymer et al. (1994), Kulikova et al. (2004)
  29. ^ Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), see also Kirby et al. (2004)
  30. ^ See for example Johnson & Sorenson (1999) for a phylogeny suggesting Mallard paraphyly, almost certainly because one of the mere 2 Mallards successfully sampled had an American Black Duck maternal ancestor. In Phylogenetics, a group of organisms is said to be paraphyletic if the group contains its most recent common ancestor but does not contain all Contrary to Avise et al. (1990), the question whether the American haplotypes are an original Mallard lineage is far from resolved.
  31. ^ Kulikova et al. (2005)
  32. ^ Kulikova et al. (2004, 2005)
  33. ^ Kulikova et al. (2005)

References

External links

A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.

Dictionary

mallard

-noun

  1. A common and widespread dabbling duck, Anas platyrhynchos, whose male has a distinctive dark green head.
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