Magic, sometimes known as sorcery, is a conceptual system that asserts human ability to control the natural world (including events, objects, people, and physical phenomena) through mystical, paranormal or supernatural means. John William Waterhouse ( April 6, 1849 &ndash February 10, 1917) was an English Pre-Raphaelite painter most A conceptual system is a system that is comprised of non- physical objects i Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity Paranormal is an Umbrella term used to describe unusual Phenomena or experiences that lack an obvious Scientific explanation The term supernatural or supranatural ( Latin: super, supra "above" + natura "nature" pertains to entities events The term can also refer to the practices employed by a person asserting this influence, and to beliefs that explain various events and phenomena in such terms. In many cultures, magic is under pressure from, and in competition with, scientific^[1] and religious^[2] conceptual systems. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos

Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Classical antiquity 2.2 Middle Ages 2.3 Renaissance 2.4 Baroque 2.5 Romanticism 2.6 20th century 3 Theories of magic 3.1 Anthropological and psychological origins 3.2 Theories of adherents 4 Magic, ritual and religion 4.1 Magic in animism and folk religion 4.2 Magic in Hinduism 4.3 Magic and monotheism 4.3.1 In Judaism 4.3.2 In Christianity 4.3.3 In Islam 5 Varieties of magical practice 5.1 Magical traditions 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Bibliography 9 External links

Etymology

Through late 14th century Old French magique, the word "magic" derives via Latin magicus from the Greek adjective magikos (μαγικός) used in reference to the "magical" arts — in particular divination — of the Magians (Greek: magoi, singular mágos, μάγος), the Zoroastrian astrologer priests. The Magi (singular Magus, from Latin via Greek μάγος; Old English: Mage; from Persian maguš and Kurdish Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Greek mágos is first attested in Heraclitus (6th century BC, apud. Heraclitus of Ephesus ( Ancient Greek: &mdash grc-Latn ''Hērákleitos ho Ephésios'' English Heraclitus the Ephesian) (ca Clement Protrepticus 12) who curses the Magians and others for their "impious rites. Saint Clement of Alexandria (born Titus Flavius Clemens) (c150 - 211/216 was the first notable member of the Church of Alexandria, and one of its most " Greek magikos is attested from the 1st century Plutarch, typically appearing in the feminine, in μαγική τέχνη (magike techne, Latin ars magica) "magical art. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c "

Likewise, sorcery was taken in ca. 1300 from Old French sorcerie, which is from Vulgar Latin *sortiarius, from sors "fate", apparently meaning "one who influences fate. Vulgar Latin (in Latin sermo vulgaris, "folk speech" is a Blanket term covering the popular Dialects and Sociolects of the Latin " Sorceress appears also in the late 14th century, while sorcerer is attested only from 1526.

History

Further information: History of astrology and History of religion

Classical antiquity

Main article: Magic in the Greco-Roman world

The prototypical "magicians" were a class of priests, the Magi of Zoroastrianism, and their reputation together with that of Ancient Egypt shaped the hermeticism of Hellenistic religion. The Magi (singular Magus, from Latin via Greek μάγος; Old English: Mage; from Persian maguš and Kurdish Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Hermeticism is a set of philosophical and religious beliefs based primarily upon the writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, who is put forth as a Hellenistic religion comprises any of the various systems of beliefs and practices of the peoples who lived under the influence of ancient Greek culture during the Hellenistic The Greek mystery religions had strongly magical components, and in Egypt, a large number of magical papyri, in Greek, Coptic, and Demotic, have been recovered. Mystery Religions, Sacred Mysteries or simply Mysteries, were "religious cults of the Graeco-Roman Papyrus (/pəˈpaɪrəs/ (Rhymes -aɪrəs)is a thick paper-like material produced from the Pith of the papyrus plant Cyperus papyrus Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt Demotic (from δημοτικός dēmotikós, "popular" refers to either the Ancient Egyptian script derived from northern forms of Hieratic These sources contain early instances of much of the magical lore that later became part of Western cultural expectations about the practice of magic, especially ceremonial magic. Ceremonial magic is a broad term used to encompass a wide variety of long elaborate and complex Rituals it is named as such because the works included are characterized by They contain early instances of:

• the use of "magic words" said to have the power to command spirits;
• the use of wands and other ritual tools;
• the use of a magic circle to defend the magician against the spirits he is invoking or evoking; and
• the use of mysterious symbols or sigils thought useful to invoke or evoke spirits. Magic words are words which have a specific and sometimes unintended effect The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath WAND is an NBC affiliate serving the Decatur&ndash Springfield &ndash Champaign area An invocation (from the Latin verb invocare "to call on invoke" may take the form of Supplication or Prayer Evocation is the act of calling or summoning a spirit demon god or other supernatural agent in the Western mystery tradition. The musical instrument is spelled Cymbal. A symbol is something --- such as an object, Picture, written word a sound a piece Diabolical signatureA sigil ( or /ˈsɪgəl/ pl sigilia or sigils is a symbol created for a specific magical purpose ^[3]

The use of spirit mediums is also documented in these texts; many of the spells call for a child to be brought to the magic circle to act as a conduit for messages from the spirits. Mediumship is a practice in religious beliefs such as Spiritualism, Spiritism, Espiritismo, Candomblé, Louisiana Voodoo, and The time of the Emperor Julian of Rome, marked by a reaction against the influence of Christianity, saw a revival of magical practices associated with neo-Platonism under the guise of theurgy. Flavius Claudius Julianus, known also as Julian or Julian the Apostate (331 or 332 to 26 June 363) was Roman Emperor (Caesar Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by Theurgy (from Greek θεουργία) describes the practice of Rituals sometimes seen as magical in nature performed with the intention of

Middle Ages

Several medieval scholars were credited as magicians in popular legend, notably Gerbert d'Aurillac and Albertus Magnus: both men were active in scientific research of their day as well as in ecclesiastical matters, which was enough to attach to them a nimbus of the occult. Pope Sylvester II, or Silvester II (c 946&ndash May 12, 1003) born Gerbert d'Aurillac, was a prolific scholar teacher and Pope

Magic practice was actively discouraged by the church, but remained widespread in folk religion throughout the medieval period. Folk religion consists of Beliefs Superstitions and Rituals transmitted from generation to generation in a specific Culture. Magical thinking became syncretized with Christian dogma, expressing itself in practices like the judicial duel and relic veneration. Syncretism consists of the attempt to reconcile disparate or contradictory beliefs often while melding practices of various schools of thought Trial by combat (also wager of battle, trial by battle or judicial duel) was a method of Germanic law to settle accusations in the absence of A relic is an object or a personal item of religious significance carefully preserved with an air of Veneration as a tangible memorial The relics had become amulets, and various churches strove to purchase scarce or valuable examples, hoping to become places of pilgrimage. An amulet ( the Elder|Pliny]] meaning "an object that protects a person from trouble" a close cousin of the talisman (from Arabic In Religion and Spirituality, a pilgrimage is a long journey or Search of great Moral significance As in any other economic endeavour, demand gave rise to supply. ^[4] Tales of the miracle-working relics of the saints were compiled later into quite popular collections like the Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine or the Dialogus miraculorum of Caesar of Heisterbach. The Golden Legend (Legenda Aurea by Jacopo da Varagine is a collection of fanciful hagiographies or lives of the Saints that became a late medieval Blessed Jacobus de Varagine or Voragine (Giacomo da Varazze Jacopo da Varazze (c Caesar of Heisterbach, also known as Caesarius of Heisterbach ca

From the 13th century, the Jewish Kabbalah exerts influence on Christian occultism, giving rise to the first grimoires and the scholarly occultism that would develop into Renaissance magic. Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. A grimoire (grɪˈmwɑr is a textbook of magic. Books of this genre typically giving instructions for invoking Angels or Demons performing The demonology and angelology contained in the earliest grimoires assume a life surrounded by Christian implements and sacred rituals. Demonology (from Greek grc δαίμων daimōn, "demon" and grc -λογία -logia) is the systematic study of An angel is a Spiritual Supernatural being found in many Religions Although the nature of angels and the tasks given to them vary from tradition to tradition A grimoire (grɪˈmwɑr is a textbook of magic. Books of this genre typically giving instructions for invoking Angels or Demons performing The underlying theology in these works of Christian demonology encourages the magician to fortify himself with fasting, prayers, and sacraments, so that by using the holy names of God in the sacred languages, he could use divine power to coerce demons into appearing and serving his usually lustful or avaricious magical goals. Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Fasting is primarily the act of willingly abstaining from some or all Food, Drink, or both for a period of time Prayer is the act of attempting to communicate with a Deity or spirit A sacrament, as defined in Hexam's Concise Dictionary of Religion is "a Rite in which God is uniquely active God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. ^[5]

13th century astrologers include Johannes de Sacrobosco and Guido Bonatti. Johannes de Sacrobosco or Sacro Bosco ( John of Holywood, c 1195 &ndash c Guido Bonatti from Forlì (d between 1296 and 1300 was a famous Italian astronomer and astrologer.

Renaissance

Further information: Renaissance magic

Renaissance humanism saw resurgence in hermeticism and Neo-Platonic varieties of ceremonial magic. Renaissance Humanism (15th and 16th century saw a resurgence in Hermeticism and Neo-Platonic varieties of Ceremonial magic The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal Hermeticism is a set of philosophical and religious beliefs based primarily upon the writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, who is put forth as a Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by The Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution, on the other hand, saw the rise of scientism, in such forms as the substitution of chemistry for alchemy, the dethronement of the Ptolemaic theory of the universe assumed by astrology, the development of the germ theory of disease, that restricted the scope of applied magic and threatened the belief systems it relied on. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the The term scientism can be used as a neutral term to describe the view that Natural science has authority over all other interpretations of life such as philosophical In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other The germ theory, also called the pathogenic theory of medicine, is a Theory that proposes that Microorganisms are the cause of many Diseases. ^[4]

The seven artes magicae or artes prohibitae, arts prohibited by canon law, as expounded by Johannes Hartlieb in 1456, their sevenfold partition reflecting that of the artes liberales and artes mechanicae, were:

1. nigromancy ("black magic", "demonology", linked by popular etymology with necromancy)
2. geomancy
3. hydromancy
4. aeromancy
5. pyromancy
6. chiromancy
7. scapulimancy

Both bourgeoisie and nobility in the 15th and 16th century showed great fascination with these arts, which exerted an exotic charm by their ascription to Arabic, Jewish, Gypsy and Egyptian sources. Johannes Hartlieb (born ca 1410 died 18 May 1468 was a physician of Late Medieval Bavaria, probably of a family from Neuburg an der Donau. The term liberal arts refers to a particular type of educational Curriculum broadly defined as a Classical education. The Artes Mechanicae (mechanical arts are a medieval concept juxtaposed to the seven Artes liberales. Nigromancy (Greek nigro "black" manteia " Divination " is Black magic, in particular the summoning of denizens of Hell Black magic or dark magic is a form of sorcery that draws on malevolent powers Demonology (from Greek grc δαίμων daimōn, "demon" and grc -λογία -logia) is the systematic study of Necromancy ( Greek νεκρομαντία nekromantía) is a form of Divination in which the practitioner seeks to summon "operative spirits" Hydromancy (from Greek " hydro " meaning water and " manteia " meaning divination is the art of Crystal gazing by means Aeromancy (from Greek aero, "air" and manteia, "divination" is Divination conducted by interpreting atmospheric conditions Pyromancy (from Greek 'pyros' fire and 'manteia' divination is the art of Divination by means of Fire. Chiromancy or cheiromancy, (Greek cheir (χειρ “hand” manteia (μαντεία “ Divination ” is the art of characterization Scapulimancy (also spelled scapulomancy and scapulamancy, and also termed omoplatoscopy) is the practice of Divination by use of Scapulae There was great uncertainty in distinguishing practices of vain superstition, blasphemous occultism, and perfectly sound scholarly knowledge or pious ritual. The intellectual and spiritual tensions erupted in the Early Modern witch craze, further reinforced by the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, especially in Germany, England, and Scotland. "Witch trial" redirects here For the song by Rush, see Fear series. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. ^[4]

Baroque

Further information: 17th-century philosophy and natural magic

Study of the occult arts remained intellectually respectable well into the 17th century, and only gradually divides into the modern categories of natural science vs. 17th century philosophy in the Western world is generally regarded as being the start of Modern philosophy, and a departure from the medieval approach Natural magic in the context of Renaissance magic is that part of the Occult which deals with Natural forces directly as opposed to Ceremonial magic As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 17th Century was that Century which lasted from 1601 - 1700 in the Gregorian calendar In Science, the term natural science refers to a naturalistic approach to the study of the Universe, which is understood as obeying rules or law of occultism or superstition. The word occult comes from the Latin word occultus (clandestine hidden secret referring to "knowledge of the hidden" Superstition ( Latin superstitio, literally "standing over" derived perhaps from standing in awe used in Latin as a unreasonable or excessive belief The 17th century sees the gradual rise of the "age of reason", while belief in witchcraft and sorcery, and consequently the irrational surge of Early Modern witch trials, receded, a process only completed at the end of the Baroque period or in ca. Baroque art redirects here Please disambiguate such links to Baroque painting, Baroque sculpture, etc the 1730s. Events and trends The Great Awakening - A Protestant religious movement active in the British colonies of North America Christian Thomasius still met opposition as he argued in his 1701 Dissertatio de crimine magiae that it was meaningless to make dealing with the devil a criminal offence, since it was impossible to really commit the crime in the first place. Christian Thomasius ( January 1, 1655 &ndash September 23, 1728) was a German jurist and philosopher In Britain, the Witchcraft Act of 1735 established that people could not be punished for consorting with spirits, while would-be magicians pretending to be able to invoke spirits could still be fined as con artists. In England, a succession of Witchcraft Acts have governed Witchcraft and provided penalties for its practice or (in later years for pretending to its practice

Further information: Isaac Newton's occult studies

"Newton was not the first of the age of reason, he was the last of the magicians. Isaac Newton (1643 &ndash 1727 the noted British scientist and mathematician wrote many works that would now be classified as Occult studies " — John Maynard Keynes

Romanticism

From 1756 to 1781, Jacob Philadelphia performed feats of magic, sometimes under the guise of scientific exhibitions, throughout Europe and Russia. John Maynard Keynes 1st Baron Keynes CB (ˈkeɪnz "cains" (5 June 1883 &ndash 21 April 1946 was a British Economist whose ideas Jacob Philadelphia was a Jewish magician, Physicist, Mechanic, Juggler, Astrologer, alchemist, and Kabbalist Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Baron Carl Reichenbach's experiments with his Odic force appeared to be an attempt to bridge the gap between magic and science. Baron Dr Carl (Karl Ludwig von Reichenbach (full name Karl Ludwig Freiherr von Reichenbach ( February 12, 1788, Stuttgart - January The Odic force (also called Od, Odyle, Önd, Odes, Odylic, Odyllic, or Odems) is the name given in the mid-19th More recent periods of renewed interest in magic occurred around the end of the nineteenth century, where Symbolism and other offshoots of Romanticism cultivated a renewed interest in exotic spiritualities. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar Symbolism was a late nineteenth-century Art movement of French and Belgian origin in poetry and other arts Romanticism is a complex artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the European colonialism, which put Westerners in contact with India and Egypt, re-introduced exotic beliefs to Europeans at this time. See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Hindu and Egyptian mythology frequently feature in nineteenth century magical texts. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Ancient Egyptian religion encompasses the various religious beliefs and rituals practiced in Ancient Egypt from the predynastic period until the adoption of Christianity ^[6] The late 19th century spawned a large number of magical organizations, including the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, the Theosophical Society, and specifically magical variants on Freemasonry. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar A magical organization is an organization created for the practice of magic or to further the knowledge of magic among its members The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (or more commonly the Golden Dawn) was a magical order of the late 19th and early 20th centuries practicing a form of The Theosophical Society was the organization formed to advance the spiritual principles and search for Truth known as Theosophy. The Golden Dawn represented perhaps the peak of this wave of magic, attracting cultural celebrities like William Butler Yeats, Algernon Blackwood, and Arthur Machen to its banner. Algernon Henry Blackwood, CBE ( 14 March 1869 &ndash 10 December 1951) was an English writer of Fiction Arthur Machen (ˈmækən ( March 3, 1863 &ndash December 15, 1947) was a leading Welsh Author of the 1890s ^[7]

20th century

A further revival of interest in magic was heralded by the repeal, in England, of the last Witchcraft Act in 1951. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland In England, a succession of Witchcraft Acts have governed Witchcraft and provided penalties for its practice or (in later years for pretending to its practice Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January This was the cue for Gerald Gardner to publish his first non-fiction book Witchcraft Today, in which he claimed to reveal the existence of a witch-cult that dated back to pre-Christian Europe. Gerald Brousseau Gardner ( June 13 1884 - February 12 1964) was an English civil servant amateur anthropologist Witchcraft, in various historical anthropological religious and mythological contexts is the use of certain kinds of Supernatural or magical powers Gardner combined magic and religion in a way that was later to cause people to question the Enlightenment's boundaries between the two subjects. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century

Gardner's newly publicized religion, and many others, took off in the atmosphere of the 1960s and 1970s, when the counterculture of the hippies also spawned another period of renewed interest in magic, divination, and other occult practices. The 1960s decade refers to the years from the beginning of 1960 to the end of 1969 This article is about the Decade 1970-1979 For the Year 1970 see 1970. Counterculture (also " counter-culture " is a sociological term used to describe the values and norms of behavior of a Cultural group, or The Hippie Subculture was originally a Youth movement that began in the United States during the early 1960s and spread around the world ^[8] The various branches of Neopaganism and other Earth religions that have been publicized since Gardner's publication tend to follow a pattern in combining the practice of magic and religion. Neopaganism or Neo-Paganism is an Umbrella term used to identify a wide variety of modern religious movements particularly those influenced by historical Earth religion is a New Age term used mostly in the context of Neopaganism. Following the trend of magic associated with counterculture, some feminists launched an independent revival of goddess worship. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Goddess worship (also Goddess spirituality, Goddess veneration) is a general description for the veneration of a female Goddess or goddesses This brought them into contact with the Gardnerian tradition of magical religion, and deeply influenced that tradition in return. Gardnerian Wicca is a Wiccan tradition whose members can trace initiatory descent from Gerald Gardner ^[7]

Some people in the West believe in or practice various forms of magic. The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Aleister Crowley, and their followers are most often credited with the resurgence of magical tradition in the English speaking world of the 20th century. The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (or more commonly the Golden Dawn) was a magical order of the late 19th and early 20th centuries practicing a form of Aleister Crowley, born Edward Alexander Crowley (ˈkroʊli (12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947 was a British Occultist Writer, mountaineer English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States The twentieth century of the Common Era began on Other, similar movements took place at roughly the same time, centered in France and Germany. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Most Western traditions acknowledging the natural elements, the seasons, and the practitioner's relationship with the Earth, Gaia, or the Goddess have derived at least in part from these magical groups, and are considered Neopagan. Gaia (ˈgeɪə or /ˈgaɪə/ (" land " or " Earth " from the Ancient Greek Γαîα also Gæa or Gea A goddess is a Female Deity. Many Cultures have goddesses Often deities are part of a polytheistic system that includes several deities Neopaganism or Neo-Paganism is an Umbrella term used to identify a wide variety of modern religious movements particularly those influenced by historical Long-standing indigenous traditions of magic are regarded as Pagan. Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world

Aleister Crowley preferred the spelling magick, defining it as "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with the will. Aleister Crowley, born Edward Alexander Crowley (ˈkroʊli (12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947 was a British Occultist Writer, mountaineer Magick, in the broadest sense is any act designed to cause intentional change " By this, he included "mundane" acts of will as well as ritual magic. A ritual is a set of actions often thought to have Symbolic value the performance of which is usually prescribed by a Religion or by the Traditions In Magick in Theory and Practice, Chapter XIV, Crowley says:

What is a Magical Operation? It may be defined as any event in nature which is brought to pass by Will. We must not exclude potato-growing or banking from our definition. Let us take a very simple example of a Magical Act: that of a man blowing his nose.

Western magical traditions include ceremonial magic, as well as Wicca and some other Neopagan religions. Neopaganism or Neo-Paganism is an Umbrella term used to identify a wide variety of modern religious movements particularly those influenced by historical Definitions and uses of magic tend to vary even within magical traditions.

Wicca is one of the more famous traditions within Neopaganism, a magical religion of witchcraft with influences including the Golden Dawn and Crowley. Witchcraft, in various historical anthropological religious and mythological contexts is the use of certain kinds of Supernatural or magical powers Ruickbie (2004:193-209) shows that Wiccans and Witches define magic in many different ways and use it for a number of different purposes. Despite that diversity of opinion, he concludes that the general result upon the practitioner is a positive one.

The belief in Magic is often considered superstitious, although some magical practices rely on widely accepted psychological principles and are only intended to promote internal personal changes within the practitioner themselves. Superstition ( Latin superstitio, literally "standing over" derived perhaps from standing in awe used in Latin as a unreasonable or excessive belief Visualization techniques, for instance, widely used by magicians, are also used in fields such as clinical psychology and sports training. ^[9]

Theories of magic

Anthropological and psychological origins

Further information: Myth and ritual

The belief that one can influence supernatural powers, by prayer, sacrifice or invocation goes back to prehistoric religion, and is consequently present from the earliest records of a cultic nature, including the Egyptian pyramid texts and the Indian Vedas, among which the Atharvaveda in particular addresses magic in the classical sense, and the position of the Vedic Brahmins, like that of any ancient priesthood, can be compared to that of magicians. In traditional societies myth and ritual are two central components of religious practice Prayer is the act of attempting to communicate with a Deity or spirit Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" An invocation (from the Latin verb invocare "to call on invoke" may take the form of Supplication or Prayer Prehistoric religion is a general term for the religious beliefs and practices of prehistoric peoples The Pyramid Texts are a collection of ancient Egyptian religious texts from the time of the Old Kingdom. "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi Brahmin ( Brāhmaṇa, sa ब्राह्मणः is the class of educators scholars and preachers in Brahminical Hinduism. ^[10]

James George Frazer believed that magic was a fallacious system and asserted that magical observations are the result of an internal dysfunction: "Men mistook the order of their ideas for the order of nature, and hence imagined that the control which they have, or seem to have, over their thoughts, permitted them to exercise a corresponding control over things. "^[11]

Others, such as N. W. Thomas^[12] and Sigmund Freud have rejected this explanation. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Freud explains that "the associated theory of magic merely explains the paths along which magic proceeds; it does not explain its true essence, namely the misunderstanding which leads it to replace the laws of nature by psychological ones". Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded ^[13] Freud emphasizes that what led primitive men to come up with magic is the power of wishes: "His wishes are accompanied by a motor impulse, the will, which is later destined to alter the whole face of the earth in order to satisfy his wishes. This motor impulse is at first employed to give a representation of the satisfying situation in such a way that it becomes possible to experience the satisfaction by means of what might be described as motor hallucinations. A hallucination, in the broadest sense is a Perception in the absence of a stimulus. This kind of representation of a satisfied wish is quite comparable to children's play, which succeeds their earlier purely sensory technique of satisfaction. [. . . ] As time goes on, the psychological accent shifts from the motives for the magical act on to the measures by which it is carried out—that is, on to the act itself. [. . . ] It thus comes to appear as though it is the magical act itself which, owing to its similarity with the desired result, alone determines the occurrence of that result. "^[14]

See also: Shamanism

Theories of adherents

Adherents to magic believe that it may work by one or more of the following basic principles:

• Natural forces that cannot be detected by science at present, and in fact may not be detectable at all. These magical forces are said to exist in addition to and alongside the four fundamental forces of nature: gravity, electromagnetism, the strong force and the weak force. In Physics, a fundamental interaction or fundamental force is a mechanism by which particles interact with each other and which cannot be explained in terms Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another Electromagnetism is the Physics of the Electromagnetic field: a field which exerts a Force on particles that possess the property of In particle physics the strong interaction, or strong force, or color force, holds Quarks and Gluons together to form Protons and The weak interaction (often called the weak force or sometimes the weak nuclear force) is one of the four Fundamental interactions of nature

• Intervention of spirits similar to these hypothetical natural forces, but with their own consciousness and intelligence. Believers in spirits will often describe a whole cosmos of beings of many different kinds, sometimes organized into a hierarchy. The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath In its most general sense a cosmos is an orderly or harmonious system @@@ main@@@ - title Hierarchy@@@ keywords structure; sociology; information@@@ review@@@ -

• A mystical power, such as mana or numen, that exists in all things. Mana is the concept of an impersonal force or quality that resides in people animals and inanimate objects Numen ("presence" plural numina) is a Latin term for the power of either a deity or a spirit that is present in places and objects in the Sometimes this power is contained in a magical object, such as a ring, a stone, charm, or dehk, which the magician can manipulate.

• Manipulation of the Elements by using the will of the magician and/or with symbols or objects representative of the element(s). Western practitioners typically use the Classical elements of Earth, Air, Water, and Fire. Many ancient philosophies used a set of archetypal classical "elements" to explain patterns in Nature.

• Manipulation of Energy. Also believed to be the manipulation of energy from the human body. Most commonly referred to by the usage of the hands while the mouth uses a command of power.

• Manipulation of symbols. Adherents of magical thinking believe that symbols can be used for more than representation: they can magically take on a physical quality of the phenomenon or object that they represent. In Anthropology, Psychology, and Cognitive science, magical thinking is nonscientific causal reasoning that often includes such ideas as the ability of By manipulating symbols (as well as sigils), one is said to be able to manipulate the reality that this symbol represents.

• The principles of sympathetic magic of Sir James George Frazer, explicated in his The Golden Bough (third edition, 1911-1915). Sympathetic magic, also known as imitative magic, is a type of magic based on imitation or correspondence The Golden Bough A Study in Magic and Religion is a wide-ranging comparative study of Mythology and Religion, written by Scottish anthropologist Sir These principles include the "law of similarity" and the "law of contact" or "contagion. " These are systematized versions of the manipulation of symbols. Frazer defined them this way:

If we analyse the principles of thought on which magic is based, they will probably be found to resolve themselves into two: first, that like produces like, or that an effect resembles its cause; and, second, that things which have once been in contact with each other continue to act on each other at a distance after the physical contact has been severed. The former principle may be called the Law of Similarity, the latter the Law of Contact or Contagion. From the first of these principles, namely the Law of Similarity, the magician infers that he can produce any effect he desires merely by imitating it: from the second he infers that whatever he does to a material object will affect equally the person with whom the object was once in contact, whether it formed part of his body or not. ^[15]

• Concentration or meditation. A certain amount of focusing or restricting the mind to some imagined object (or will), according to Aleister Crowley, produces mystical attainment or "an occurrence in the brain characterized essentially by the uniting of subject and object. Aleister Crowley, born Edward Alexander Crowley (ˈkroʊli (12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947 was a British Occultist Writer, mountaineer " (Book Four, Part 1: Mysticism) Magic, as defined previously, seeks to aid concentration by constantly recalling the attention to the chosen object (or Will), thereby producing said attainment. For example, if one wishes to concentrate on a God, one might memorize a system of correspondences (perhaps chosen arbitrarily, as this would not affect its usefulness for mystical purposes) and then make every object that one sees "correspond" to said God.

Aleister Crowley wrote that ". Aleister Crowley, born Edward Alexander Crowley (ˈkroʊli (12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947 was a British Occultist Writer, mountaineer . . the exaltation of the mind by means of magickal practices leads (as one may say, in spite of itself) to the same results as occur in straightforward Yoga. Yoga ( Sanskrit: योग, IAST: yóga, joːgə refers to traditional physical and mental disciplines originating in India, to the " Crowley's magick thus becomes a form of mental, mystical, or spiritual discipline, designed to train the mind to achieve greater concentration. Magick, in the broadest sense is any act designed to cause intentional change Crowley also made claims for the paranormal effects of magick, suggesting a connection with the first principle in this list. However, he defined any attempt to use this power for a purpose other than aiding mental or mystical attainment as "black magick".

• The magical power of the subconscious mind. To believers who think they need to convince their subconscious mind to make the changes they want, all spirits and energies are projections and symbols that make sense to the subconscious. The term subconscious is defined as existing or operating in the Mind beneath or beyond Conscious Awareness. The musical instrument is spelled Cymbal. A symbol is something --- such as an object, Picture, written word a sound a piece A variant of this belief is that the subconscious is capable of contacting spirits, who in turn can work magic.

• A mysterious interconnection in the cosmos that connects and binds all things, above and beyond the natural forces, or in some cases thought to be an as-yet undiscovered or unquantifiable natural force.

• "The Oneness in All"; based on the fundamental concepts of monism and Non-duality, this philosophy holds that Magic is little more than the application of one's own inherent unity with the Universe. Monism is the metaphysical and Theological view that all is one that all reality is subsumed under the most fundamental category of being or existence Nondualism implies that things appear distinct while not being separate The central idea is that on realizing that the Self is limitless, one may live as such, seeking to preserve the Balance of Nature and live as a servant/extension thereof.

Many more theories exist. Practitioners will often mix these concepts, and sometimes even invent some themselves. In the contemporary current of chaos magic in particular, it is not unusual to believe that any concept of magic works. Chaos magic is a form of magic which was first formulated in West Yorkshire, England, in the 1970s

Key principles of utilizing Magic are often said to be Concentration and Visualization. Many of those who cast spells attain a mental state called the "Trance State" to enable the spell. Trance denotes a variety of processes techniques modalities and states of mind awareness and consciousness The Trance State is often described as an emptying of the mind, akin to meditation. Meditation is a mental discipline by which one attempts to get beyond the conditioned "thinking" mind into a deeper state of relaxation or awareness

Magic, ritual and religion

Main articles: Magic and religion and Myth and ritual

Viewed from a non-theistic perspective, many religious rituals and beliefs seem similar to, or identical to, magical thinking. A belief in magic as a means of influencing the world seems to have been common in all Cultures Some of these beliefs crossed over into nascent Religions influencing In traditional societies myth and ritual are two central components of religious practice A ritual is a set of actions often thought to have Symbolic value the performance of which is usually prescribed by a Religion or by the Traditions In Anthropology, Psychology, and Cognitive science, magical thinking is nonscientific causal reasoning that often includes such ideas as the ability of

Related to both magic and prayer is religious supplication. Prayer is the act of attempting to communicate with a Deity or spirit Supplication (also known as petitioning) is the most common form of Prayer, wherein a person asks a Supernatural Deity to provide something This involves a prayer, or even a sacrifice to a supernatural being or god. Prayer is the act of attempting to communicate with a Deity or spirit Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" This god or being is then asked to intervene on behalf of the person offering the prayer.

The difference, in theory, is that prayer requires the assent of a deity with an independent will, who can deny the request. Magic, by contrast is thought to be effective:

• by virtue of the operation itself;
• or by the strength of the magician's will;
• or because the magician believes he can command the spiritual beings addressed by his spells.

In practice, when prayer doesn't work, it means that the god has chosen not to hear nor grant it; when magic fails, it is because of some defect in the casting of the spell itself. Consequently magical rituals tend to place more emphasis on exact formulaic correctness and are less extempore than prayer. Ritual is the magician's failsafe, the key to any hope for success, and the explanation for failure.

A possible exception is the practice of word of faith, where it is often held that it is the exercise of faith in itself that brings about a desired result. Word of Faith (also known as Word-Faith or simply Faith) is a family of local Christian churches as well as a teaching movement kindred to many

Magic in animism and folk religion

Appearing from aboriginal tribes in Australia and Maori tribes in New Zealand to rainforest tribes in South America, bush tribes in Africa and ancient Pagan tribal groups in Europe and the British Isles, some form of shamanic contact with the spirit world seems to be nearly universal in the early development of human communities. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. This article discusses the Māori people of New Zealand For their language see Māori language, and for other meanings see Māori (disambiguation. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Rainforests are Forests characterized by high Rainfall with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1750–2000 mm (68-78 inches South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world The British Isles (Irish variously Na hOileáin Bhriotanacha, Oileáin Iarthair Eorpa, Éire agus an Bhreatain Mhór; Ellanyn Goaldagh Eileanan Much of the Babylonian and Egyptian pictorial writing characters appear derived from the same sources. Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics.

Although indigenous magical traditions persist to this day, very early on some communities transitioned from nomadic to agricultural civilizations, and with this shift, the development of spiritual life mirrored that of civic life. Just as tribal elders were consolidated and transformed in kings and bureaucrats, so too were shamans and adepts devolved into priests and a priestly caste.

This shift is by no means in nomenclature alone. While the shaman's task was to negotiate between the tribe and the spirit world, on behalf of the tribe, as directed by the collective will of the tribe, the priest's role was to transfer instructions from the deities to the city-state, on behalf of the deities, as directed by the will of those deities. A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities This shift represents the first major usurpation of power by distancing magic from those participating in that magic. It is at this stage of development that highly codified and elaborate rituals, setting the stage for formal religions, began to emerge, such as the funeral rites of the Egyptians and the sacrifice rituals of the Babylonians, Persians, Aztecs and Mayans. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas

Magic in Hinduism

It has been often stated that India is a land of magic, both supernatural and mundane. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Hinduism is one of the few religions that has sacred texts like the Vedas that discuss both white and black magic. "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. The Atharva Veda is a veda that deals with mantras that can be used for both good and bad. The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi A mantra ( Devanāgarī मन्त्र (or mantram is a religious or mystical syllable or poem typically from the Sanskrit language The word mantrik in India literally means "magician" since the mantrik usually knows mantras, spells, and curses which can be used for or against forms of magic. A Mantrik or mantric is someone who specializes in practicing Mantra. Many ascetics after long periods of penance and meditation are alleged to attain a state where they may utilize supernatural powers. Ascetic redirects here You might also be looking for Acetic acid. Penance is repentance of Sins as well as the proper name of the Catholic and Orthodox Christian Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation/Confession Meditation is a mental discipline by which one attempts to get beyond the conditioned "thinking" mind into a deeper state of relaxation or awareness However, many say that they choose not to use them and instead focus on transcending beyond physical power into the realm of spirituality. Many siddhars are said to have performed miracles that would ordinarily be impossible to perform. Siddhars are saints in India mostly of the Saivaite denomination in Tamil Nadu who professed and practised an unorthodox type of Sadhana, or spiritual practice to attain liberation A miracle is an event believed to be caused by interposition of Divine intervention by a Supernatural being in the Universe by which the ordinary operation

Magic and monotheism

Officially, Judaism, Christianity and Islam characterize magic as forbidden witchcraft, and have often prosecuted alleged practitioners of it with varying degrees of severity. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Witchcraft, in various historical anthropological religious and mythological contexts is the use of certain kinds of Supernatural or magical powers Other trends in monotheistic thought have dismissed all such manifestations as trickery and illusion, nothing more than dishonest gimmicks.

In Judaism

Further information: Kabbalah and Hermetic Qabalah

Medieval Judaism preserved and embellished practices of Greco-Roman magic, claims for the authority of Kabbalah often involving an argument of the antiquity of authority. Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. Hermetic Qabalah (from the Hebrew קַבָּלָה "reception" is a Western esoteric and mystical tradition Magic in the Greco-Roman world is a branch of the disciplines of Classics, Ancient history and Religious studies that has become a popular object of Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. Thus, virtually all works pseudepigraphically claim, or are ascribed, ancient authorship. For example, Sefer Raziel HaMalach, an astro-magical text partly based on a magical manual of late antiquity, Sefer ha-Razim, was, according to the kabbalists, transmitted to Adam by the angel Raziel after he was evicted from Eden. Sefer Raziel HaMalakh, (Hebrew he ספר רזיאל המלאך " Book of Raziel the Angel ” is Medieval Kabbalistic The Sepher Ha-Razim is a Kabbalistic text supposedly given to Noah by the angel Raziel. Raziel ( Heb רזיאל "Secret of God " is an Archangel within the teachings of Jewish mysticism (of the Kabbalah Not to be confused with Eden Gardens.The Garden of Eden ( Hebrew "pleasure" גַּן עֵדֶן Arabic: جنات عدن,

Another famous work, the Sefer Yetzirah, supposedly dates back to the patriarch Abraham. Sefer Yetzirah ( Hebrew, "Book of Creation" ספר יצירה is the title of the earliest extant book on Jewish Esotericism. Abraham ( Ashkenazi   Avrohom or Avruhom; ابراهيم, {{Unicode|Ibrāhīm}}; Ge'ez: This tendency toward pseudepigraphy has its roots in Apocalyptic literature, which claims that esoteric knowledge such as magic, divination and astrology was transmitted to humans in the mythic past by the two angels, Aza and Azaz'el (in other places, Azaz'el and Uzaz'el) who 'fell' from heaven (see Genesis 6:4). Pseudepigrapha (from Ancient Greek ψευδής Divination (from Latin divinare "to be inspired by a god" related to Divine, Diva and Deus) is the attempt of ascertaining Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems Azazel ( Aramaic: רמשנאל Hebrew: עזאזל Aze'ezel Arabic: عزازل Azazil) is an enigmatic name from the Hebrew scriptures In Islam, the angels 'Harut' and 'Marut' were sent to teach magic only as a test to mankind (see Qur'an, Ch. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran 2: 102).

In Christianity

Further information: Renaissance magic, Grimoire, Christian views on witchcraft, and Theurgy

Magia was viewed with suspicion by Christianity from the time of the Church fathers. Renaissance Humanism (15th and 16th century saw a resurgence in Hermeticism and Neo-Platonic varieties of Ceremonial magic A grimoire (grɪˈmwɑr is a textbook of magic. Books of this genre typically giving instructions for invoking Angels or Demons performing Christian views on magic vary widely across Denominational and individual barriers and are often influenced by Biblical, Theological, and historical Theurgy (from Greek θεουργία) describes the practice of Rituals sometimes seen as magical in nature performed with the intention of The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church It was, however, never completely settled whether there may be permissible practicies, e. g. involving relics or holy water as opposed to blasphemous necromancy (nigromantia) involving the invocation of demons (goetia). A relic is an object or a personal item of religious significance carefully preserved with an air of Veneration as a tangible memorial Holy water can also refer to water that has been blessed, such as by a Priest, and is considered Holy. Necromancy ( Greek νεκρομαντία nekromantía) is a form of Divination in which the practitioner seeks to summon "operative spirits" see The Goetia for the 1904 book by Crowley and Mathers la Goetia ( Middle Latin, anglicized goety The distinction became particularly pointed and controversial during the Early Modern witch-hunts, with some learned authors such as Johannes Hartlieb denouncing all magical practice as blasphemous, while others portrayed natural magic as not sinful. The period of Witch trials in Early Modern Europe came in waves and then subsided Johannes Hartlieb (born ca 1410 died 18 May 1468 was a physician of Late Medieval Bavaria, probably of a family from Neuburg an der Donau. Natural magic in the context of Renaissance magic is that part of the Occult which deals with Natural forces directly as opposed to Ceremonial magic The position taken by Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, one of the foremost Renaissance magicians, is notoriously ambiguous. Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim ( September 14, 1486 – February 18 1535) was a German magician, Occult The character of Faustus, likely based on a historical 16th century magician or charlatan, became the prototypical popular tale of a learned magician who succumbs to blasphemy (pact with the devil). Faust or Faustus ( Latin for "auspicious" or "lucky" is the protagonist of a classic German Legend in which he makes A deal with the Devil, pact with the Devil, or Faustian bargain is a cultural motif widespread wherever the Devil is vividly present most familiar

The current Catechism of the Catholic Church discusses divination and magic under the heading of the First Commandment. The Catechism of the Catholic Church, or CCC, is an official exposition of the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and the twenty-two The Ten Commandments, or Decalogue, are a list of religious and moral imperatives that according to Judeo-Christian tradition were authored by God and given ^[16] It is careful to allow for the possibility of divinely inspired prophecy, but rejects "all forms of divination":

(2116) All forms of divination are to be rejected: recourse to Satan or demons, conjuring up the dead or other practices falsely supposed to "unveil" the future. Prophecy, generally describes the disclosing of Information that is not known to the Prophet by any ordinary means Divination (from Latin divinare "to be inspired by a god" related to Divine, Diva and Deus) is the attempt of ascertaining Consulting horoscopes, astrology, palm reading, interpretation of omens and lots, the phenomena of clairvoyance, and recourse to mediums all conceal a desire for power over time, history, and, in the last analysis, other human beings, as well as a wish to conciliate hidden powers. They contradict the honor, respect, and loving fear that we owe to God alone.

The section on "practices of magic or sorcery" is less absolute, specifying "attempts to tame occult powers" in order to "have supernatural power over others". Such are denounced as "gravely contrary to the virtue of religion", notably avoiding a statement on whether such attempts can have any actual effect (that is, attempts to employ occult practices are identified as violating the First Commandment because they in themselves betray a lack of faith, and not because they may or may not result in the desired effect).

The Catechism expresses skepticism towards widespread practices of folk Catholicism without outlawing them explicitly:

(2117) [. Folk Christianity is composed of Christian ideas and practices outside the approval or authority of a religious establishment &mdash Roman Catholic Protestant or other . . ] Wearing charms is also reprehensible. Spiritism often implies divination or magical practices; the Church for her part warns the faithful against it. Recourse to so-called traditional cures does not justify either the invocation of evil powers or the exploitation of another's credulity.

In Islam

Any discussion of Muslim magic poses a double set of problems. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. On the one hand, like its counterpart in predominantly Christian cultures, magic is not officially approved of by orthodox leaders and legal opinions. However, this has not prevented the practice of magic in Muslim cultures, nor staved its influence on European magical traditions and the early stages of scientific thought. On the other hand, translating various Arabic terms as ‘magic’ causes another set of problems with no clear answers.

As with any question regarding the behavior of Muslims in relation to authorized practices, theological decisions begin by consulting the Qur’an. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran The second chapter introduces an explanation for the introduction of magic into the world:

They followed what the evil ones gave out (falsely) against the power of Solomon: the blasphemers were, not Solomon, but the evil ones, teaching men magic, and such things as came down at Babylon to the angels Harut and Marut. King Solomon ( Ge'ez: ስለሞን Arabic: ar سليمان, Sulayman, all from the Triliteral root S-L-M, "peace" Blasphemy is the disrespectful use of the name of one or more gods. Harut ( Arabic: هاروت also known as Azazel) is one of two Angels mentioned in the Qur'an, who were sent down to test the See Maruts for the group of Vedic deities or Maruti for the wind god see HAL HF-24 Marut for the aircraft But neither of these taught anyone (such things) without saying: “We are only for trial; so do not blaspheme. ” They learned from them the means to sow discord between man and wife. But they could not thus harm anyone except by Allah’s permission. And they learned what harmed them, not what profited them. And they knew that the buyers of (magic) would have no share in the happiness of the Hereafter. And vile was the price for which they did sell their souls, if they but knew! (Q 2:102).

Though it presents a generally contemptuous attitude towards magic, it also develops a differentiation between benevolent and malevolent forms. The first is that used by Solomon who, being a prophet of Allah, is assumed to have used magic by Allah’s blessing. Allah ( Arabic: الله, ʔalˤːɑːh) is the standard Arabic word for ' ^[17] The second form is the magic that was taught by the “evil ones,” or al-shayatin. Al-shayatin has two meanings; the first is similar to the Christian Satan. The second meaning, which is the one used here, refers to a djinn of superior power. GEnie (General Electric Network for Information Exchange was an online service ^[18] The al-shayatin taught knowledge of evil and “pretended to force the laws of nature and the will of Allah . . . ”^[19] According to this belief, those who follow this path turn themselves from Allah and cannot reach heaven. Thus, present in this passage is what can very loosely be described as conceptions of white and black magic. The Arabic word translated in this passage as “magic” is sihr. The etymological meaning of sihr suggests that “it is the turning . . . of a thing from its true nature . . . or form . . . to something else which is unreal or a mere appearance . . . ”^[20] However, the seriousness with which the passage treats it reveals that sihr, in the context of the Qur’an, is no mere illusion. Sowing discord between a married couple and harming others with sihr are very real consequences. If one uses sihr for such malevolent purposes, then its assault on marital harmony and social justice probably influenced the contempt for which it is generally viewed in the Qur’an. By the first millennium C. E. , sihr became a fully developed system in Islamic society. Within this system, all magicians “assert[ed] that magic is worked by the obedience of spirits to the magician. ”^[21] The efficacy of this system comes from the belief that every Arabic letter, every word, verse, and chapter in the Qur’an, every month, day, time and name were created by Allah a priori and each has an angel and a djinn servant. ^[22] It is through the knowledge of the names of these servants that an actor is able to control the angel and djinn for his/her purposes. ^[23]

The Sunni and Shia sects of Islam typically forbid all use of magic. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic The Sufis within these two sects are much more ambiguous about it's use as seen in the concept of "Barakah". Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف If magic is understood in terms of Frazer’s principle of contagion, then barakah is another term that can refer to magic. Barakah ( Arabic: بركة: also Baraka) is an Arabic term meaning Blessing, particularly spiritual gifts or protection Barakah, variously defined as “blessing,” or “divine power,” is a quality one possesses rather than a category of activity. According to Muslim conception, the source of barakah is solely from Allah; it is Allah’s direct blessing and intervention conferred upon special, pious Muslims. ^[24] Barakah has a heavily contagious quality in that one can transfer it by either inheritance or contact. Of all the humans who have ever lived, it is said that the Prophet Muhammad possessed the greatest amount of barakah and that he passed this to his male heirs through his daughter Fatima. ^[25] Barakah is not just limited to Muhammad’s family line; any person who is considered holy may also possess it and transfer it to virtually anyone. In Morocco, barakah transfer can be accomplished by spitting into another’s mouth or by sharing a piece of bread from which the possessor has eaten because saliva is the vessel of barakah in the human body. ^[26] However, the transference of barakah may also occur against the will of its possessor through other forms of physical contact such as hand shaking and kissing. ^[27] The contagious element of barakah is not limited to humans as it can be found in rocks, trees, water, and even some animals, such as horses. ^[28]

Just how the actor maintained obedience depended upon the benevolence or malevolence of his practice. Malevolent magicians operated by enslaving the spirits through offerings and deeds displeasing to Allah. Benevolent magicians, in contrast, obeyed and appeased Allah so that Allah bore his will upon the spirits. ^[29] Al-Buni provides the process by which this practice occurs: First: the practitioner must be of utterly clean soul and garb. Second, when the proper angel is contacted, this angel will first get permission from God to go to the aid of the person who summoned him. Third: the practitioner “must not apply . . . [his power] except to that [i. e. to achieve goals] which would please God. ^[30]

However, not all Islamic groups accept this explanation of benevolent magic. The Wahhabis particularly view this as shirk, denying the unity of Allah. Wahhabism ( Arabic: Al-Wahhābīyya الوهابية or Wahabism is a conservative reformist call of Sunni Islam attributed to Consequently, the Wahhabis renounce appellations to intermediaries such as saints, angels, and djinn, and renounce magic, fortune-telling, and divination. ^[31] This particular brand of magic has also been condemned as forbidden by a fatwa issued by Al-Azhar University. A fatwā (فتوى plural fatāwā فتاوى in the Islamic faith is a religious opinion on Islamic law issued by an ^[32] Further, Egyptian folklorist Hasan El-Shamy, warns that scholars have often been uncritical in their application of the term sihr to both malevolent and benevolent forms of magic. He argues that in Egypt, sihr only applies to sorcery. A person who practices benevolent magic “is not called saahir or sahhaar (sorcerer, witch), but is normally referred to as shaikh (or shaikha for a female), a title which is normally used to refer to a clergyman or a community notable or elder, and is equal to the English title: ‘Reverend. ’”^[33]

Varieties of magical practice

The best-known type of magical practice is the spell, a ritualistic formula intended to bring about a specific effect. A ritual is a set of actions often thought to have Symbolic value the performance of which is usually prescribed by a Religion or by the Traditions Spells are often spoken or written or physically constructed using a particular set of ingredients. The failure of a spell to work may be attributed to many causes, such as failure to follow the exact formula, general circumstances being unconducive, lack of magical ability or downright fraud.

Another well-known magical practice is divination, which seeks to reveal information about the past, present or future. Divination (from Latin divinare "to be inspired by a god" related to Divine, Diva and Deus) is the attempt of ascertaining Varieties of divination include: Astrology, Augury, Cartomancy, Chiromancy, Dowsing, Fortune telling, Geomancy, I Ching, Omens, Scrying and Tarot reading. Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems The Augur was a priest and official in the classical world especially Ancient Rome and Etruria. Cartomancy is Fortune-telling or Divination using a deck of cards Chiromancy or cheiromancy, (Greek cheir (χειρ “hand” manteia (μαντεία “ Divination ” is the art of characterization Dowsing, sometimes called doodlebugging, divining or water witching, is a practice whereby dowsers attempt to locate hidden Water wells Fortune-telling is the practice of predicting the future usually of an individual through mystical or supernatural means and often for commercial gain The I Ching ( Wade-Giles) or “Yì Jīng” ( Pinyin) also called “Classic of Changes” or “Book of Changes” is one of the oldest of the An omen (also called portent or presage) is a phenomenon that is believed to foretell the Future, often signifying the advent of change "Seer stone" redirects here For the usage in Mormonism see Seer stone (Latter Day Saints.

Necromancy is another practice involving the summoning of and conversation with spirits of the dead (necros). Necromancy ( Greek νεκρομαντία nekromantía) is a form of Divination in which the practitioner seeks to summon "operative spirits" This is sometimes done simply to commune with deceased loved ones; it can also be done to gain information from the spirits, as a type of divination; or to command the aid of those spirits in accomplishing some goal, as part of casting a spell.

Varieties of magic can also be categorized by the techniques involved in their operation. One common means of categorization distinguishes between contagious magic and sympathetic magic, one or both of which may be employed in any magical work. Contagious magic involves the use of physical ingredients which were once in contact with the person or thing the practitioner intends to influence. Sympathetic magic involves the use of images or physical objects which in some way resemble the person or thing one hopes to influence; voodoo dolls are an example. Vodou ( Anglicized: Voodoo) or Vaudoo is a family of New World syncretistic religions primarily based on the faiths of the

Other common categories given to magic include High and Low Magic (the appeal to divine powers or spirits respectively, with goals lofty or personal as accords the type of magic). Manifest and Subtle magic typically refers to magic of legend rather than what many individuals who practice the Occult claim to use as magic, where Manifest magic is magic that immediately appears with a result, and Subtle magic being magic that gradually and intangibly alters the world. The word occult comes from the Latin word occultus (clandestine hidden secret referring to "knowledge of the hidden"

Academic historian Richard Kieckhefer divides the category of spells into psychological magic, which seeks to influence other people's minds to do the magician's will, such as with a love spell, and illusionary magic, which seeks to conjure the manifestation of various wonders. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and An illusion is a distortion of the senses revealing how the Brain normally organizes and interprets sensory stimulation A spell that conjured up a banquet, or that conferred invisibility on the magician, would be examples of illusionary magic. Magic that causes objective physical change, in the manner of a miracle, is not accommodated for in Kieckhefer's categories. A miracle is an event believed to be caused by interposition of Divine intervention by a Supernatural being in the Universe by which the ordinary operation

Magical traditions

Another method of classifying magic is by "traditions," which in this context typically refer to complexes of magical belief and practice associated with various cultural groups and lineages of transmission. The word tradition comes from the Latin traditionem acc of traditio which means "a giving up delivering up surrendering" and is used in a number of Some of these traditions are highly specific and culturally circumscribed. Others are more eclectic and syncretistic. Syncretism consists of the attempt to reconcile disparate or contradictory beliefs often while melding practices of various schools of thought These traditions can compass both divination and spells.

When dealing with magic in terms of "traditions," it is a common misconception for outsiders to treat any religion in which clergy members make amulets and talismans for their congregants as a "tradition of magic," even though what is being named is actually an organized religion with clergy, laity, and an order of liturgical service. An amulet ( the Elder|Pliny]] meaning "an object that protects a person from trouble" a close cousin of the talisman (from Arabic This is most notably the case when Voodoo, Palo, Santeria, Taoism, Wicca, and other contemporary religions and folk religions are mischaracterized as forms of "magic" or even "sorcery. Folk religion consists of Beliefs Superstitions and Rituals transmitted from generation to generation in a specific Culture. "

Examples of magical, folk-magical, and religio-magical traditions include:

See also

Notes

Bibliography

External links

• Catholic Encyclopedia "Occult Art, Occultism"
• Catholic Encyclopedia "Witchcraft"
• The Skeptic's Dictionary entry for Magical Thinking
• "The Magus as Renaissance Man" ("Western" roots)

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