The word Maafa (also known as the African Holocaust or Holocaust of Enslavement) is derived from a Swahili word meaning disaster, terrible occurrence or great tragedy. Events 68 - Galba, Governor of Hispania, names himself legatus senatus populique Romani, breaking the line of Year 1863 ( MDCCCLXIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Pan-Africanism is a Sociopolitical World view, and Philosophy, as well as a movement which seeks to unify both Native Africans and those of Pan-Africanism is a Sociopolitical World view, and Philosophy, as well as a movement which seeks to unify both Native Africans and those of An Afro-Latin American (also Afro-Latino) is a Latin American person of at least partial Black African ancestry the term may also refer to historical African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa Kwanzaa is a week-long holiday celebrated primarily in the United States, honoring African-American heritage See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism The term black people usually refers to a racial group of Humans with dark Skin color, but the term has also been used to categorise a number of diverse African Philosophy is a disputed term used in different ways by different Philosophers. Black nationalism (BN advocates a racial definition (or redefinition of black national identity as opposed to Multiculturalism. Black orientalism is a terminology that is used for an intellectual and cultural movement within primarily African American circles which while similar to the general movement Afrocentrism or Afrocentricity is a World view that emphasizes the importance of African people in culture philosophy and history This is a list of articles that are related to African and black people The Panafrican Film and Television Festival of Ouagadougou ( Festival panafricain du cinéma et de la télévision de Ouagadougou or FESPACO) is the largest African African art constitutes one of the most diverse legacies on earth Established in 1992 The Pan African Film Festival (PAFF is a non-profit corporation dedicated to the promotion of cultural and racial tolerance and understanding through the exhibition of film George Padmore (1902&ndash September 23, 1959) born Malcolm Ivan Meredith Nurse, was a Trinidadian who became a leading Pan-Africanist Walter Rodney ( March 23, 1942 &ndash June 13, 1980) was a prominent Guyanese historian and political figure Patrice Émery Lumumba ( 2 July, 1925 – 17 January, 1961) was an African anti-colonial leader and the first legally elected Prime Captain Thomas Isidore Noël Sankara ( December 21, 1949 – October 15, 1987) was the leader of Burkina Faso (formerly Frantz Fanon ( July 20, 1925 – December 6, 1961) was a Psychiatrist, philosopher, revolutionary and author from Ahmed Sékou Touré (var Ahmen Seku Ture) (January 9 1922--March 26 1984 was an African political leader and president of the Republic of Guinea Kwame Nkrumah ( September 21, 1909 - April 27, 1972) was an influential 20th century advocate of Pan-Africanism, and the leader of Marcus Mosiah Garvey Jr, National Hero of Jamaica (17 August 1887 10 June 1940 was a Publisher, Journalist, Entrepreneur, Black nationalist Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little; May 19 1925 February 21 1965 also known as El-Hajj Malik El- Shabazz, was an African American William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (duːˈbɔɪz ( February 23, 1868 August 27, 1963) was an American Civil rights activist Cyril Lionel Robert James ( 4 January 1901 &ndash 19 May 1989) was an Afro- Trinidadian Journalist Cheikh Anta Diop ( 29 December, 1923 &ndash 7 February, 1986) was a Senegalese Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (ˈuɰo rafaˈel ˈtʃaβ̞es ˈfɾias (born July 28 1954 is the current President of Venezuela. African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa African American history is the portion of American history that specifically discusses the African American or Black American ethnic group in the United The Atlantic Slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the Colonies of the New World Slavery in the United States began soon after English colonists first settled Virginia in 1607 and lasted until the passage of the Thirteenth The Military history of African Americans spans from the arrival of the first black slaves during the colonial history of the United The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enacted primarily but not exclusively in the Southern and border states of the United States between 1876 and 1965 Redlining is the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services such as Banking, Insurance, access to jobs access to health care or even Supermarkets The American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968 refers to the reform movements in the United States aimed at abolishing racial discrimination against African Afrocentrism or Afrocentricity is a World view that emphasizes the importance of African people in culture philosophy and history Reparations for Slavery is a proposal by some in the United States that some type of compensation should be provided to the descendants of enslaved people in African American culture in the United States refers to the cultural contributions of African ethnic groups to the culture of the United States either as part of or distinct from African American studies is a subset of Black studies or Africana studies. African American neighborhoods or black neighborhoods are types of Ethnic enclaves found in many cities in the United States. Historically black colleges and universities ( HBCUs) are institutions of Higher education in the United States that were established before 1964 with the intention Kwanzaa is a week-long holiday celebrated primarily in the United States, honoring African-American heritage African American art is a broad term describing the visual arts of the American black community This is an incomplete list of museums which can or may never satisfy any objective standard for completeness African American dances in the vernacular tradition (academically known as "African American vernacular dance" are those dances which have developed within African African American literature is the body of Literature produced in the United States by writers of African descent African American music (also called black music) is an umbrella term given to a range of Music and Musical genres emerging from or influenced by the The term black church or African American church refers to predominantly African-American Christian churches that minister to predominantly black congregations This theology maintains that African Americans must be liberated from multiple forms of bondage — social political economic and religious Black theology refers to a variety of Christian theologies which has as its base in the The Doctrine of Father Divine is the teachings of the late Father Divine (d The Nation of Islam ( NOI) (أمة الإسلام Ummah al-Islāmu) is a group founded in Detroit, Michigan, Black Hebrew Israelites (also Black Hebrews, African Hebrew Israelites, and Hebrew Israelites) are groups of people of Black African ancestry Vodou ( Anglicized: Voodoo) or Vaudoo is a family of New World syncretistic religions primarily based on the faiths of the Hoodoo is a form of predominantly African-American traditional folk magic. Santería, also known as La Regla de Lukumi (Lukumi's Rule and The Way of the Saints is an Afro-Cuban religious tradition derived from traditional beliefs Pan-Africanism is a Sociopolitical World view, and Philosophy, as well as a movement which seeks to unify both Native Africans and those of Black nationalism (BN advocates a racial definition (or redefinition of black national identity as opposed to Multiculturalism. Black Power is a racially based Political slogan and a name for various associated ideologies Black Capitalism is a movement among African Americans to build wealth through the ownership and development of businesses Black conservatism is an international political and social movement rooted in communities of African descent that aligns largely with the conservative movement Following the collapse of Reconstruction, African Americans created a broad-based independent political movement in the South black populism that influence all The African American left tends to support leftist positions on social issues and an expansive state that aims at bringing about equality of outcome between the African The Black Panther Party (originally the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense) was a Marxist / Maoist African-American organization established Garveyism is an aspect of Black Nationalism which takes its source from the works words and deeds of UNIA-ACL founder Marcus Garvey. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, usually abbreviated as NAACP, is one of the oldest and most influential Civil rights organizations The Southern Christian Leadership Conference ( SCLC) is an American Civil rights organization The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (or SNCC, pronounced "snick" was one of the principal organizations of the American Civil Rights Movement The National Urban League ( NUL) formerly known as the National League of black men and women, is a Civil rights organization based in New York City The Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH is a non-profit organization founded in Chicago, Illinois, on September 9, The United Negro College Fund ( UNCF) is a Fairfax, Virginia -based American philanthropic organization that fundraises College tuition The National Black Chamber of Commerce was incorporated in 1993 by Harry Alford who in 2007 continues as CEO History The National Pan-Hellenic Council was established in an age when Racial segregation and disenfranchisement plagued African Americans, the rise of each The Links Incorporated is an exclusive non-profit organization based upon the ideals of combining friendship and community service The National Council of Negro Women (NCNW is a Non-profit organization with the mission to advance the opportunities and the quality of life for African American women their Part of the History of baseball in the United States series The Negro leagues were American professional Baseball leagues History The Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association, founded on the campus of Hampton Institute (now Hampton University) in 1912 is the oldest African-American Conference sports Conference member schools Current members Former members Conference Stadia Championships The Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC is a Collegiate athletic conference of historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs in the Southeastern "Southwestern Conference" redirects here For the former major conference in Texas and Arkansas see Southwest Conference; for the Ohio High School Conference English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States The Gullah language (Sea Island Creole English Geechee is a Creole language spoken by the Gullah people (also called "Geechees" an African Louisiana Creole is a French Creole language spoken by the mixed Louisiana Creole people of the state of Louisiana. African American Vernacular English ( AAVE) – also called African American English; less precisely Black English, Black Vernacular, Notable African-Americans or Black Americans For people from current African countries see lists for individual countries List of first African-American mayors for most mayor listings African Americans are a demographic minority in the United States. This is a list of landmark legislation, court decisions, executive orders and proclamations in the United States significantly affecting African Americans This is an alphabetical list of African-American-related topics: A African American African American culture This is a list of articles that are related to African and black people Swahili (called Kiswahili in the language itself is the First language of the Swahili people (Waswahili who inhabit several large stretches [1][2] The term refers to the 500 years of suffering of Africans and the African diaspora, through slavery, imperialism, colonialism, invasion, oppression, dehumanization and exploitation. The African diaspora was the movement of Africans and their descendants to places throughout the world - predominantly to the Americas, then later to Europe, the [2][3] The term also refers to the social and academic policies that were used to invalidate or appropriate the contributions of African peoples to humanity as a whole,[2] and the residual effects of this persecution, as manifest in contemporary society. [4]
Maafa can be considered an area of study within African history in which both the actual history and the legacy of that history are studied as a single discourse. The history of Africa begins with the first emergence of Homo sapiens in East Africa, continuing into its modern present as a patchwork of Thus the paradigm emphasizes the legacy of the African Holocaust on African peoples globally. The term African people can refer to people who live in Africa, or people who trace their ancestry to Indigenous inhabitants of Africa. The emphasis in the historical narrative is on African agents, in opposition to what is perceived to be the conventional Eurocentric voice; for this reason Maafa is an aspect of Pan-Africanism. Eurocentrism is the practice of viewing the world from a European perspective with an implied belief either consciously or subconsciously in the preeminence of European (and Pan-Africanism is a Sociopolitical World view, and Philosophy, as well as a movement which seeks to unify both Native Africans and those of
Usage of the term Maafa to describe this period of persecution was popularized by Professor Marimba Ani's 1994 book Let the Circle Be Unbroken: The Implications of African Spirituality in the Diaspora. [5][6][7][8]
Beyond slavery
The Maafa or African Holocaust morally distinguishes domestic slavery in Africa from the commercial ventures of the European and Arab trade in captive Africans, focusing on the consequences and legacy of these foreign interventions in Africa. The term is not limited to demographic significance, in the aggregate population losses, but also references the profound changes to settlement patterns, epidemiological exposure and reproductive and social development potential. [10]
In terms of legacy, the Maafa also includes the academic and social forces which categorized Africans into color labels, and the ramifications of this economic, social, political, and legal disenfranchisement, as manifest in contemporary society. [2]
Curse of Ham
- See also: Ham (son of Noah) and Curse of Ham
The "curse of Ham" was one moral rationalization underlying the slave trade. Ham (; Greek Χαμ, Cham; Arabic: ar حام, xam, "hot" according to the Table of Nations in Genesis, was a The Curse of Ham (also called the curse of Canaan) refers to the curse that Ham 's father Noah placed upon Ham's son Canaan, after Ham "saw [11] The curse of Ham interpretation of the Bible stems from Genesis 9:20-27, which relates the story of Noah's family, soon after the flood. Noah (or Noe, Noach;; Nūḥ; Arabic: نوح; "Rest") was according to the Bible, the tenth and last of The story of a Great Flood (also known as the Deluge) sent by a Deity or deities to destroy Civilization as an act of Divine retribution is a Noah declares of Ham's son Canaan, "Cursed be Canaan; a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren. " Because Ham's sons and their descendants were believed by biblical genealogists to be the people of Africa, these readings of the Bible also assumed that Ham must have been "born black. . . contrary to the common dictation of nature. "[12] This explanation of biblical events also helped to account for the origins of dark-skinned people.
This reading of biblical scripture was far from universal. One 19th century critic suggested that, even if this tenuous theory of a curse were legitimate, the cursed children of Ham were as likely to be European as African, except in the "oblique and sinister and not very generous bearing [of the] pro-slavery mind. "[13]
The equating of blackness with darkness of the soul has been traced back to antiquity, with some historians finding such thinking in the thought of, for instance, Philo and Origen. Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria Origen ( Greek: Ōrigénēs, or Origen Adamantius, ca 185–ca [14] In the Middle Ages, European scholars of the Bible picked up on the Talmud idea of viewing the "sons of Ham" or Hamites as cursed, possibly "blackened" by their sins. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Hamitic is an obsolete ethno-linguistic classification of some Ethnic groups within the Afro-Asiatic (previously termed "Hamito-Semitic" language family Though early arguments to this effect were sporadic, they became increasingly common during the slave trade of the 18th and 19th centuries,[15] when it began to be used as a justification or rationalization of slavery, to suit the economic and ideological interests of the elite.
Historians believe that by the 19th century, the belief that blacks were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery. [16] According to Benjamin Braude, the curse of Ham became "a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery. "[16]
Slavery in Africa
Some aspects of the slave trade were controlled by indigenous Africans themselves. Several African nations such as the Ashanti of Ghana and the Yoruba of Nigeria had economies depending solely on the trade. Ashanti, or Asante, are a major Ethnic group of Ashanti Region in Ghana. The Republic of Ghana is a country in West Africa. It borders Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast to the west Burkina Faso to the north Togo to the Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal African peoples such as the Imbangala of Angola and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania would serve as intermediaries or roving bands warring with other African nations to capture Africans for Europeans. Extenuating circumstances demanding exploration are the tremendous efforts European officials in Africa used to install rulers agreeable to their interests. They would actively favor one African group over another to deliberately ignite chaos and continue their slaving activities. [17]
European slave trade
This system of enslavement was held to reflect a divine ethno-social dynamic, placing whites as masters above blacks as slaves. There was the presumption of a divine legitimacy in the corporeal system of subjugation and oppression, a system which was motivated and maintained by greed and ignorance and only excused with Christianity, and sometimes even with the idea of, to some extent, Christianizing a "heathen" people. Some defenders of slavery in the United States' South in the antebellum period, for instance, argued that blacks in the United States were becoming "elevated, from the degrading slavery of savage heathenism to the participation in civilization and Christianity". " Antebellum " is an expression derived from Latin that means "before war" ( ante, "before" and bellum [18]
Christian belief became the context for the cultural prevalence of European culture, European names became Christian names and those who adopted or were forced into Christianity automatically adopted European culture in an attempt to become more "Christian".
Arab slave trade
The oriental slave trade is sometimes called Islamic slave trade, but religion was hardly the point of the slavery, states Patrick Manning, a professor of World History. The Arab Slave trade was the practice of Slavery in West Asia, North Africa, East Africa, and certain parts of Europe (such Patrick Augustus Mervyn Manning (born August 17, 1946) is the current Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, the Political Leader of the [19] Many Arabs were Christian, Jewish and also indigenous Arab faiths. Also, this term suggests comparison between Islamic slave trade and Christian slave trade. Furthermore, usage of the terms "Islamic trade" or "Islamic world" implicitly and erroneously treats Africa as it were outside of Islam, or a negligible portion of the Islamic world. Dr. Kwaku Person-Lynn points out that the Arab trade was rarely a chattel trade and some argue more "humane. Personal property is a type of Property. In the Common law systems personal property may also be called chattels or personalty. " [17]. In both African Slavery and Arab enslavement of Africans, the enslaved were allowed great social ascension. In the 8th century Africa was dominated by Arab-Berbers in the north: Islam moved southwards along the Nile and along the desert trails. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River The Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia often exported Nilotic slaves from their western borderland provinces, or from newly conquered or reconquered Muslim provinces. The Solomonic dynasty is the traditional royal house of Ethiopia, claiming descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, who is said NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Nilotic people or Nilotes, in its contemporary usage refers to some Ethnic groups mainly in Southern Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, and northern Native Muslim Ethiopian sultanates (rulership) exported slaves as well, such as the sometimes independent sultanate (rulership) of Adal (a sixteenth century province-cum-rulership located in East Africa north of Northwestern Somalia). Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings The Adal Sultanate ( Somali: Adaal, Ge'ez: አዳል ʾAdāl, Arabic: عدل (c [20] The Arab (African identifying as Arab) Tippu Tib extended his influence and made many people slaves. Tippu Tip or Tib ( 1837 - June 14, 1905) real name Hamed bin Mohammed bin Juma bin Rajab bin Mohammed bin Said el Murgebi, was a After Europeans had settled in the Gulf of Guinea, the trans-Saharan slave trade became less important. The Gulf of Guinea is the part of the Atlantic Ocean southwest of Africa. In Zanzibar, slavery was abolished late, in 1897, under Sultan Hamoud bin Mohammed. Sayyid Sir Hamoud bin Mohammed Al-Said, GCSI, (born 1853 - July 18, 1902) (ruled August 27, 1896 - [21] The rest of Africa had no direct contact with Muslim slave-traders.
The primary boom of the trade in African slaves by Arabs was during the 18th century. The Portuguese had destroyed the Swahili coast and Zanzibar emerged as the hub of wealth for the Arabian state of Muscat. By 1839, slaving became the prime Arab enterprise. The demand for slaves in Arabia, Egypt, Persia and India, but more notability by the Portuguese who occupied Mozambique created a wave of destruction on Eastern Africa. 45,000 slaves were passing through Zanzibar every year. [22].
Legacy of Arab enslavement of Africans
Islam like Christianity became the context for the cultural prevalence of Arab culture. Arab names became Islamic names and those who adopted Islam automatically adopted Arab culture in an attempt to become "Islamic. " The Afro-Arab relationship was riddled with complexities and nuance. Some Arabs were Arab linguistically but racially African. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Thus, the Arab trade in enslaved Africans was not only conducted by Asiatic and Caucasian Arabs, but also African Arabs: Africans speaking Arabic as a first language embracing an Arab culture. [22]
Scholarship on Arab slavery has historically been limited, because most people who know themselves to have had enslaved ancestors are people of the African Diaspora whose ancestors were involved in the Transatlantic slave trade. The Atlantic Slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the Colonies of the New World The impact of the Arab trade on people of the Americas was negligible. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America Another reason why the Arab Slave Trade is far less scrutinized than the European trade is that the social legacy of western slavery is far more salient today: in the West, ghettos of concentrated poverty, populated by a black-skinned minority, are not uncommon, nor are prison systems disproportionately incarcerating impoverished black minorities. The African Diaspora in Arab lands, on the other hand, has almost disappeared through inter-marriage. The resurgence of Islamaphobia, some argue, has brought this aspect of history to the foreground. Islamophobia is a Neologism that refers to Prejudice or Discrimination against Islam or Muslims The term itself dates back to the [23]
According to Dr. Carlos Moore, resident scholar at Brazil's Universidade do Estado da Bahia, Afro-multiracials in the Arab world self-identify in ways that resemble Latin America. Moore recalled that a film about Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had to be cancelled when Sadat discovered that an African-American had been cast to play him. Sadat considered himself white, according to Moore. Moore claimed that black-looking Arabs, like many black-looking Latin Americans, often consider themselves white because they have some white ancestry. [24] Similarly, 19th century slave trader Tippu Tip is often identified as Arab[25] despite having an unmixed African mother, in part because of the Arab tradition of assigning race through paternal descent. Tippu Tip or Tib ( 1837 - June 14, 1905) real name Hamed bin Mohammed bin Juma bin Rajab bin Mohammed bin Said el Murgebi, was a The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Tip, whose Arab father raped his mother, was conceived in violence against Africans, a tradition he continued by earning a reputation for being merciless to his slaves. [26]
According to J. Phillipe Rushton, Arab relations with blacks whom the Muslims had dealt as slave traders for over 1000 years could be summed up as follows:
| “ | Although the Koran stated that there were no superior and inferior races and therefore no bar to racial intermarriage, in practice this pious doctrine was disregarded. John Philippe Rushton (born December 3, 1943) is a Psychology professor at the University of Western Ontario, Canada, most widely The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Arabs did not want their daughters to marry even hybridized blacks. The Ethiopians were the most respected, the "Zanj" (Bantu and other Negroid tribes from East and West Africa south of the Sahara) the least respected, with Nubians occupying an intermediate position. Zanj ( Arabic and Persian زنج "Land of the Blacks" was a name used by medieval Arab geographers to refer to both a certain portion of the [27] | ” |
Scale
There is debate that the widely accepted view of the arrival of 10 million neglects to state how many left the continent of Africa. The Atlantic Slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the Colonies of the New World The Arab Slave trade was the practice of Slavery in West Asia, North Africa, East Africa, and certain parts of Europe (such Estimates range from 40 million to 100 million from both the Arab Slave trade and the Transatlantic trade. [28] It has been estimated that the population of Africa in the mid 19th century would have been 50 million instead of 25 million had slavery not taken place. [28] Many Africans died during capturing or deportation to the coast, in the coastal dungeons or during the middle passage. Middle Passage refers to the forcible passage of African people from Africa to the New World, as part of the Atlantic slave trade. It is estimated that the Portuguese trade was underestimated by half and the British trade by 1/3. There were also indirect effects of the slavers' actions, including broken families left behind and the spreading of European diseases. [28]
It is estimated that by the height of the slave trade the population of Africa unlike the rest of the World had stagnated by 50%. [28] Not only was the trade of demographic significance in the aggregate population losses but also in the profound changes to settlement patterns, epidemiological exposure, and reproductive and social development potential. [10]
Effects
Few scholars dispute the harm done to the slaves themselves, nor the legacy of social and financial alienation. African scholar Maulana Karenga puts slavery in the broader context of the Maafa, suggesting that its effects exceed mere physical persecution and legal disenfranchisement: the "destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples. Maulana Karenga (born Ronald McKinley Everett on July 14, 1941, and also known as Ron Everett) is an African American "[29]
Slavery, colonialism and racism engendered a broad array of aftereffects, which are very visible in western society. The emotional stress of societal alienation and the burden of social and economic disadvantage fall under the scope of this legacy, and Africans of the diaspora are continually "tested by the engagement with Eurocentric culture. "[30] Several scholars have suggested that black families often seem to present "symptoms of imbalance, alienation, and non-cohesion within themselves and their communities",[30] linking this tendency to the brutal disconnect in familial tradition that slavery made, when families were arbitrarily destroyed as slaves were bought and sold. [31] Rather than family--"community, harmony, and balance"--as a generational norm, "alienation and chaos in the wake of the Maafa seems more familiar. "[32]
The destruction of the family unit was furthered by the destruction of the institution of marriage. NOTICE TO WOULD-BE ROMEOS ************** Not only were slaves disallowed legal marriage and forbidden any American religious and civil proceedings, but also their tribal ceremonies were not permitted or honored. [31] Children were not raised among their own parents, who were themselves never formally united in union; and children were often sold away. [31] These practices born of the economics of the slave trade, in addition to undermining family traditions,[33] were justified with arguments that dehumanized African people. One scholar speaks to the "residual effects" of this prolonged campaign of dehumanization as a "collective posttraumatic stress disorder",[4] an anxiety innate to the African American experience which is exacerbated by the barrage of statistics and studies that categorize African Americans as an "other", often seeming to revive the bigoted, dehumanizing sentiments of the past.
Economics of slavery
Slavery was involved in some of the most profitable industries in history. 70% of the slaves brought to the New World were used to produce sugar, the most labor-intensive crop. The rest were employed harvesting coffee, cotton, and tobacco, and in some cases in mining. The West Indian colonies of the European powers were some of their most important possessions, so they went to extremes to protect and retain them. For example, at the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763, France agreed to cede the vast territory of New France to the victors in exchange for keeping the minute Antillian island of Guadeloupe. The Seven Years' War (1756&ndash1763 involved all of the major European powers of the period causing 900000 to 1400000 deaths The Viceroyalty of New France (Nouvelle-France was the area colonized by France in North America during a period extending from the exploration of the Guadeloupe is an island group or Archipelago located in the eastern Caribbean Sea at, with a land area of 1628 square kilometres (629 sq
Slave trade profits have been the object of many fantasies. Returns for the investors were not actually absurdly high (around 6% in France in the eighteenth century), but they were higher than domestic alternatives (in the same century, around 5%). Risks—maritime and commercial—were important for individual voyages. Investors mitigated it by buying small shares of many ships at the same time. In that way, they were able to diversify a large part of the risk away. Between voyages, ship shares could be freely sold and bought. All these made slave trade a very interesting investment (Daudin 2004). Historian Walter Rodney estimates that by c. Walter Rodney ( March 23, 1942 &ndash June 13, 1980) was a prominent Guyanese historian and political figure 1770, the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling captive African soldiers and even his own people to the European slave-traders. Most of this money was spent on British-made firearms (of very poor quality) and industrial-grade alcohol.
By far the most successful West Indian colonies in 1800 belonged to the United Kingdom. After entering the sugar colony business late, British naval supremacy and control over key islands such as Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbados and the territory of British Guiana gave it an important edge over all competitors; while many British did not make gains, some made enormous fortunes, even by upper class standards. Jamaica (ˈdʒəˈmeɪkə} is an Island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. Trinidad ( Spanish: " Trinity " is the largest and most populous of the two major islands and Barbados ( Portuguese word for bearded-ones, bɑrˈbeɪdoʊz -dɒs situated just east of the Caribbean Sea, is an independent Island nation British Guiana was the name of the British Colony on the northern coast of South America, now the independent nation of Guyana. This advantage was reinforced when France lost its most important colony, St. Dominigue (western Hispaniola, now Haiti), to a slave revolt in 1791 and supported revolts against its rival Britain, after the 1793 French revolution in the name of liberty (but in fact opportunistic selectivity). Saint-Domingue was a French Colony on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola from 1659 to 1804 when it became the independent nation of Before 1791, British sugar had to be protected to compete against cheaper French sugar. After 1791, the British islands produced the most sugar, and the British people quickly became the largest consumers of sugar. West Indian sugar became ubiquitous as an additive to Chinese tea. Products of American slave labor soon permeated every level of British society with tobacco, coffee, and especially sugar all becoming indispensable elements of daily life for all classes.
Colonialism and the European scramble for Africa
In the late nineteenth century, European powers staged the "Scramble for Africa", carving up most of the continent into colonial states. The colonisation of Africa has a long history the most famous phase World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The Scramble for Africa, also known as the Race for Africa, was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New Only Liberia and Abyssinia (Ethiopia) escaped colonization. Liberia, officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the west coast of Africa, bordered by Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page This colonial occupation continued until after World War II, when the colonial states gradually attained formal independence. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including
Colonialism had a destabilizing effect that still resonates in African politics. See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism Before European intervention, national borders were no real concern, as a group's territory was generally congruent with its military or trade influence. The European insistence on drawing borders around territories to isolate them from those of other colonial powers often had the effect of separating otherwise contiguous political groups, or forcing traditional enemies to live side by side with no buffer between them. For example, although the Congo River appears to be a natural geographic boundary, there had formerly been linguistically and culturally like groups living on each side, in mutually dependent community; border demarcation, in this case between Belgium and France along the river, permanently separated such groups, undermining these societies. The Congo River (for a time known as the Zaire River) is the largest River in Western Central Africa. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Africans who lived in Saharan or Sub-Saharan Africa, some of whom had subsisted in trading across the continent for centuries, often found themselves crossing borders that existed only on European maps. Sub-Saharan Africa is a geographical term used to describe the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara, or those African countries
European intervention often undermined the local balance of power, creating ethnic conflict where it was previously nonexistent, now that territorial boundaries were artificially redrawn by outsiders. In International relations, a balance of power exists when there is parity or stability between competing forces Peoples of like ethnicity, religion, and language were often separated by virtue of having been conquered by different European states; the states themselves often grouped unlike peoples together, such that the nascent political entities completely lacked political unity. Peoples of differing religions, ethnicities, and even languages were jumbled together according to the sphere of influence under which they happened to fall, encouraging internecine conflict and disunity. A sphere of influence ( SOI) is an area or region over which an organization or state exerts some kind of indirect cultural economic military or political domination
In nations that had substantial European populations, for example Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and South Africa, systems of second-class citizenship were established to give Europeans political power far in excess of their numbers. Rhodesia was the name adopted when the formerly British colony of Southern Rhodesia declared itself independent ( Unilateral Declaration of Independence See also Great Zimbabwe National Monument. For information about the March and June 2008 presidential elections see Zimbabwean presidential election The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Political power ( Imperium in Latin is a type of power held by a group in a Society which allows administration of some or all of In the Congo Free State, which was the personal property of King Leopold II of Belgium, the native population was subjected to inhumane treatment and near-slavery status; forced labor was not uncommon. The Congo Free State was a Corporate state privately controlled by Leopold II King of the Belgians through a dummy non-governmental organization the Leopold II (Léopold Louis Philippe Marie Victor Leopold Lodewijk Filips Maria Victor (9 April 1835 – 17 December 1909 was King of the Belgians.
In what are now Rwanda and Burundi, two ethnic groups Hutus and Tutsis had merged into one culture by the time German colonists had taken control of the region in the nineteenth century. The Republic of Rwanda (ruːˈændə or /rəˈwɑːndə/ in English ɾwanda or in Kinyarwanda is a small Landlocked country in the Burundi (buˈɾundi officially the Republic of Burundi, is a small country in the Great Lakes region of Eastern Africa bordered by Rwanda The The Tutsi are one of three native Peoples of the nations of Rwanda and Burundi in central Africa, the other two being the Twa No longer divided by ethnicity as intermingling, intermarriage, and merging of cultural practices over the centuries had long since erased visible signs of a culture divide, Belgium instituted a policy of racial categorization upon taking control of the region, as race-based categorization was a fixture of the European culture of that time. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those The term Hutu originally referred to the agricultural-based Bantu-speaking peoples that moved into present day Rwanda and Burundi from the West, and the term Tutsi referred to Northeastern cattle-based peoples that migrated into the region later. The Bantu may refer to Bantu expansion, a series of migrations of Bantu speakers Bantu languages Bantu people The Tutsi are one of three native Peoples of the nations of Rwanda and Burundi in central Africa, the other two being the Twa The terms described a person's economic class; individuals who owned roughly 10 or more cattle were considered Tutsi, and those with fewer were considered Hutu, regardless of ancestral history. This was not a strict line but a general rule of thumb, and one could move from Hutu to Tutsi and vice versa.
The Belgians introduced a racialized system; European-like features such as fairer skin, ample height, narrow noses were seen as more ideally Hamitic, and belonged to those people closest to Tutsi in ancestry, who were thus given power amongst the colonized peoples. Hamitic is an obsolete ethno-linguistic classification of some Ethnic groups within the Afro-Asiatic (previously termed "Hamito-Semitic" language family Identity cards were issued based on this philosophy.
Academic legacy of the African holocaust
The persecution of Africans has been traditionally minimized or whitewashed in historiography. Conventional western historical narratives have frequently been criticized as anti-African or Eurocentric, for instance in regards to viewing centuries of persecution and disenfranchisement as a side affect of commercial enterprise. Prejudicial accounts of African societies, cultures, languages and peoples by Western scholars abound, with African and African Diaspora voices often muted or relegated to the periphery. Until the 1960s, African Americans suffered from what one historian deemed "historical invisibility". [34]
Owen 'Alik Shahadah traces this pattern of scholarship to the era of slavery and colonialism, when it first came to serve as a means of removing any noble claim from the victims of systemic persecution; this served to rationalize their plight as "natural" and a continuation of a preexisting historical status, in order to eschew moral responsibility for destroying societies and undermining indigenous social and political systems. Owen 'Alik Shahadah (b 1973) is a director, African Writer, Musician, Photographer and Music producer. The first expressions of this academic trend appeared in the claim that "Slavery was a natural feature of Africa, and that Africans sold each other everyday. " This contention sought to justify the commercial exploitation of humanity while denying the moral question, a pattern Shahada perceives to have continued beyond the eclipse of slavery and colonialism. [35]
Questions of terminology
The term African Holocaust is preferred by some academics, such as Maulana Karenga, because it implies intention. Maulana Karenga (born Ronald McKinley Everett on July 14, 1941, and also known as Ron Everett) is an African American [29] One problem noted by Karenga is that the word Maafa can also translate to "accident", and the holocaust of enslavement was clearly "no accident". The term holocaust, however, can be misleading as it is primarily used to refer to the Nazi genocide and etymologically refers to something being "completely (ολος - holos) burnt (καυστός - kaustos)". [38]
Many Afrocentric scholars prefer the term Maafa to African Holocaust,[39] because they believe that indigenous African terminology more truly confers the events. [7] The term Maafa may serve "much the same cultural psychological purpose for Africans as the idea of the Holocaust serves to name the culturally distinct Jewish experience of genocide under German Nazism. "[30] Other arguments in favor of Maafa rather than African Holocaust emphasize that the "denial of the validity of the African people's humanity" is an unparalleled centuries-long phenomenon: "The Maafa is a continual, constant, complete, and total system of human negation and nullification. "[8]
The terms "Transatlantic Slave Trade", "Atlantic Slave Trade" and "Slave Trade" are deeply problematic, as they serve as euphemisms for the intense violence and mass murder inflicted on African peoples, the complete appropriation of their lands and undermining of their societies. The Atlantic Slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the Colonies of the New World Referred to as a "trade", this prolonged period of persecution and suffering is rendered as a commercial dilemma, rather than as a moral atrocity. [36] With trade as the primary focus, the broader tragedy becomes consigned to a secondary point, as mere "collateral damage" of a commercial venture. Collateral damage is damage that is unintended or incidental to the intended outcome
Further reading
- Let The Circle Be Unbroken, by Marimba Ani
- Powell, Eve Troutt, and John O. Hunwick, ed. The African Diaspora in the Mediterranean Lands of Islam (Princeton Series on the Middle East)
- Van Sertima, Ivan. ed. The Journal of African Civilization.
- Rodney, Walter. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Washington, D. C. : Howard University Press. 1974.
- World's Great Men Of Color. Vols. I and II, edited by John Henrik Clarke. New York: Collier-MacMillan, 1972.
- The Negro Impact on Western Civilization. New York: Philosophical Library. 1970.
- Quarles, Benjamin. The Negro and the Making of the Americas.
- The African Diaspora in the Mediterranean Lands of Islam by John Hunwick
References
- ^ Nicole Cheeves, Denise. Legacy. 2004, page 1.
- ^ a b c d Harp, O. J. Across Time: Mystery of the Great Sphinx. 2007, page 247.
- ^ "The Maafa, African Holocaust". Swagga.
- ^ a b Boyd-Franklin, Nancy. Black Families in Therapy, Second Edition: Understanding the African American Experience. 2006, page 9.
- ^ Barndt, Joseph. Understanding and Dismantling Racism: The Twenty-First Century. 2007, page 269.
- ^ Dove, Nah. Afrikan Mothers: Bearers of Culture, Makers of Social Change. 1998, page 240.
- ^ a b Gunn Morris, Vivian and Morris, Curtis L. The Price They Paid: Desegregation in an African American Community. 2002, page x.
- ^ a b Jones, Lee and West, Cornel. Making It on Broken Promises: Leading African American Male Scholars Confront the Culture of Higher Education. 2002, page 178.
- ^ Schwartz, Vanessa R. and Przyblyski, Jeannene M. The Nineteenth Century Visual Culture Reader. 2004, page 266.
- ^ a b "African Holocaust: Dark Voyage". Owen 'Alik Shahadah. Owen 'Alik Shahadah (b 1973) is a director, African Writer, Musician, Photographer and Music producer.
- ^ "'The Curse of Ham': Slavery and the Old Testament". "npr".
- ^ Priest, Josiah. Bible Defence of Slavery: And Origin, Fortunes, and History of the Negro. 1852, page 34.
- ^ Hall, Marshall. The Two-fold Slavery of the United States: With a Project of Self-Emanicipation. 1854, page 90.
- ^ Goldenberg, D. M. (2005) The Curse of Ham: Race & Slavery in Early Judaism, Christian, Princeton University Press
- ^ Benjamin Braude, "The Sons of Noah and the Construction of Ethnic and Geographical Identities in the Medieval and Early Modern Periods, "William and Mary Quarterly LIV (January 1997): 103–142. See also William McKee Evans, "From the Land of Canaan to the Land of Guinea: The Strange Odyssey of the Sons of Ham,"American Historical Review 85 (February 1980): 15–43
- ^ a b Felicia R. Lee, Noah's Curse Is Slavery's Rationale, Racematters. org, November 1, 2003
- ^ a b "African involvement in Atlantic Slave Trade". "Kwaku Person-Lynn".
- ^ Conser, Walter H. God and the Natural World: Religion and Science in Antebellum America. 1993, page 120.
- ^ Manning (1990) p. 10
- ^ Pankhurst (1997) p. 59
- ^ Ingrams (1967) p. 175
- ^ a b "18th century Boom". "African Holocaust".
- ^ "Myths regarding the Arab Slave Trade". Owen 'Alik Shahadah. Owen 'Alik Shahadah (b 1973) is a director, African Writer, Musician, Photographer and Music producer.
- ^ The Subtle Racism of Latin America, UCLA International Institute
- ^ Tippu Tip
- ^ Ayanna - Islam, Colourism and the Myth of Black African Slave Traders
- ^ Race, Evolution, and Behavior, unabridged edition, 1997, by J. Phillipe Rushton pg 97-98
- ^ a b c d "How Europe underdeveloped Africa". "Walter Rodney". (marxists. org)
- ^ a b "Effects on Africa". "Ron Karenga". Maulana Karenga (born Ronald McKinley Everett on July 14, 1941, and also known as Ron Everett) is an African American
- ^ a b c Aldridge, Delores P. and Young, Carlene. Out of the Revolution: The Development of Africana Studies. 2000, page 250.
- ^ a b c Boyd-Franklin, Nancy. Black Families in Therapy, Second Edition: Understanding the African American Experience. 2006, page 7-8.
- ^ Aldridge, Delores P. and Young, Carlene. Out of the Revolution: The Development of Africana Studies. 2000, page 251.
- ^ Fredrickson, George M. The Arrogance of Race: Historical Perspectives on Slavery, Racism, and Social Inequality. 1988, page 113.
- ^ Fredrickson, George M. The Arrogance of Race: Historical Perspectives on Slavery, Racism, and Social Inequality. 1988, page 112.
- ^ "Removal of Agency from Africa". "Owen 'Alik Shahadah". Owen 'Alik Shahadah (b 1973) is a director, African Writer, Musician, Photographer and Music producer. Retrieved on 2005. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ a b Diouf, Sylviane Anna. Fighting the Slave Trade: West African Strategies. 2003, page xi.
- ^ Wood, Marcus. Blind Memory: Visual Representations of Slavery in England and America. 2000, page 38-9.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press (1989). Retrieved on 2007-03-21. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem.
- ^ Tarpley, Natasha. Testimony: Young African-Americans on Self-Discovery and Black Identity. 1995, page 252.
External links
- African Holocaust Society
- swagga.com/maafa Swagga Maafa
- maafa.org Maafa.org
- africawithin.com/maafa/slavery Africa Within
- What African Holocaust
- I Want To Remember the African Holocaust
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