Timber in storage for later processing at a sawmill

Lumber or timber is wood in any of its stages from felling through readiness for use as structural material for construction, or wood pulp for paper production. Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs Logging is the process in which Trees are cut down for Forest management and Timber. Materials are physical Substances used as inputs to production or Manufacturing. In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure Wood pulp is a dry fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating the fibers which make up Wood. Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon printing upon or packaging Timber often refers to the wood contents of standing, live trees that can be used for lumber or fiber production, although it can also be used to describe sawn lumber whose smallest dimension is not less than 5 inches (127 mm). ^[1]

Mountain ash logs at a sawmill in Australia

Wood cut from Victorian Mountain Ash

Lumber is supplied either rough or finished. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and other items requiring additional cutting and shaping. Pulpwood refers to Timber grown with the principal purpose of making Wood pulp for Paper production Furniture is the Mass noun for the movable objects which may support the human body (seating furniture and beds, provide storage or hold objects on horizontal It is available in many species, usually hardwoods. The term hardwood is used to describe Wood from broad-leaved angiosperm Trees mostly Deciduous, but not necessarily in the case of tropical Finished lumber is supplied in standard sizes, mostly for the construction industry, primarily softwood from coniferous species including pine, cedar, hemlock, fir and spruce, but also some hardwood for high-grade flooring. Softwood is a generic term used in Woodworking and the Lumber industries for Wood from Conifers (needle-bearing trees from the order Pinales This article is about the tree For other uses of the term "pine" see Pine (disambiguation. Cedar ( Cedrus) is a genus of Coniferous Trees in the Plant family Pinaceae. Tsuga (from ツガ ja 栂 the name for Tsuga sieboldii) is a genus of conifers in the family Pinaceae. Firs ( Abies) are a genus of between 45-55 species of Evergreen conifers in the family Pinaceae. Spruce refers to Trees of the genus Picea, a genus of about 35 species of Coniferous Evergreen trees in the Family Pinaceae

Dimensional lumber

Dimensional lumber is a term used for lumber that is finished/planed and cut to standardized width and depth specified in inches. Inches redirects here To see the Les Savy Fav album see Inches. Examples of common sizes are 2×4 (also two-by-four and other variants such as four-b'-two in Australia), 2×6, and 4×4. The length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth. It is thus possible to find 2×4s that are four, eight, or twelve feet in length. In the United States the standard lengths of lumber are 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, and 24 feet.

Solid dimensional lumber typically is only available up to lengths of 24 ft, yet since builders have a need for lengths beyond that for roof construction (rafters), builders use "finger-jointed" lumber that can be up to 36 ft long in 2×6 size (see Engineered Lumber below). Finger-jointed lumber is also widely used for smaller lengths like studs, the vertical members of a framed wall. Pre-cut studs save a framer a lot of time as they are pre-cut by the manufacturer to be used in 8 ft, 9 ft & 10 ft ceiling applications, which means they have removed a few inches of the piece to allow for the sill plate and the double top plate with no additional sizing necessary by the framer.

In the Americas, two-bys (2×4s, 2×6s, 2×8s, 2×10s, and 2×12s), along with the 4×4, are common lumber sizes used in modern construction. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America They are the basic building block for such common structures as balloon-frame or platform-frame housing. Framing, in construction known as light frame construction, is a building technique based around structural members usually called studs, which provide a stable Framing, in construction known as light frame construction, is a building technique based around structural members usually called studs, which provide a stable Dimensional lumber made from softwood is typically used for construction, while hardwood boards are more commonly used for making cabinets or furniture. Softwood is a generic term used in Woodworking and the Lumber industries for Wood from Conifers (needle-bearing trees from the order Pinales The term hardwood is used to describe Wood from broad-leaved angiosperm Trees mostly Deciduous, but not necessarily in the case of tropical Furniture is the Mass noun for the movable objects which may support the human body (seating furniture and beds, provide storage or hold objects on horizontal

The nominal size of a board varies from the actual size of the board. This is due to planing and shrinkage as the board is dried. This results in the final lumber being slightly smaller than the nominal size. Also, if the wood is surfaced when it is green, the initial dimensions are slightly larger (e. g. 1/16 in bigger for up to 4 in nominal lumber, ⅛ in for 5 in and 6 in nominal lumber, ¼ in bigger for larger sizes). As the wood dries, it shrinks and reaches the specified actual dimensions.

Non-North American sizes

Outside North America sizes of timber can vary slightly. Sizes are, in some cases, based on the imperial measurement and referred to as such; in other cases the sizes are too far removed from the imperial size to be referred to by imperial measurement. Lengths are sold every 300 mm (a metric approximation of 1 ft). Common sizes are similar to the North American equivalent; 2. 4, 2. 7, 3. 0, 3. 6, 4. 2, 4. 8, 5. 4, 6. 0.

Hardwoods

In North America sizes for dimensional lumber made from hardwoods varies from the sizes for softwoods. Boards are usually supplied in random widths and lengths of a specified thickness, and sold by the board-foot (144 cubic inches, 1/12th of a cubic foot). The board-foot is a specialized unit of Volume for measuring Lumber in the United States and Canada. This does not apply in all countries, for example in Australia many boards are sold to timber yards in packs with a common profile (dimensions) but not necessarily of consisting of the same length boards. Hardwoods cut for furniture are cut in the fall and winter, after the sap has stopped running in the trees. If hardwoods are cut in the spring or summer the sap ruins the natural color of the timber and deteriorates the value of the timber for furniture.

Also in North America hardwood lumber is commonly sold in a “quarter” system when referring to thickness. 4/4 (four quarters) refers to a one-inch thick board, 8/4 (eight quarters) is a two-inch thick board, etc. This system is not usually used for softwood lumber, although softwood decking is sometimes sold as 5/4 (actually one inch thick).

Engineered lumber

Engineered lumber is lumber created by a manufacturer and designed for a certain structural purpose. Engineered wood, also called composite wood, "man made wood" or "manufactured wood" includes a range of derivative Wood products which are The main categories of engineered lumber are:^[2]

1. Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) – LVL comes in 1-3/4 inch thicknesses with depths such as 9-1/2, 11-7/8, 13, 16, 18, or 24 inches, and are typically doubled or tripled up. Laminated veneer lumber (LVL is an Engineered wood product that uses multiple layers of thin Wood assembled with Adhesives It offers several advantages They function as beams to provide support over large spans, such as removed support walls and garage door openings, places where dimensional lumber isn't structurally sound to use, and also in areas where a heavy load is bearing from a floor, wall or roof above on a somewhat short span where dimensional lumber isn't practical. This type of lumber cannot be altered by holes or notches anywhere within the span or at the ends, as it compromises the integrity of the beam, but nails can be driven into it wherever necessary to anchor the beam or to add hangers for I-joists or dimensional lumber joists that terminate at an LVL beam.
2. Wood I-joists – Sometimes called "TJI®" or "Trus Joists®", both of which are brands of wood I-joists, they are used for floor joists on upper floors and also in first floor conventional foundation construction on piers as opposed to slab floor construction. They are engineered for long spans and are doubled up in places where a wall will be placed over them, and sometimes tripled where heavy roof-loaded support walls are placed above them. They consist of a top and bottom chord/flange made from LVL with a webbing in-between made from oriented strand board (OSB). The webbing can be removed up to certain sizes/shapes according to the manufacturer's or engineer's specifications, but for small holes, wood I-joists come with "knockouts", which are perforated, precut areas where holes can be made easily, typically without engineering approval. When large holes are needed, they can typically be made in the webbing only and only in the center third of the span; the top and bottom chords cannot be cut. Sizes and shapes of the hole, and typically the placing of a hole itself, must be approved by an engineer prior to the cutting of the hole and in many areas, a sheet showing the calculations made by the engineer must be provided to the building inspection authorities before the hole will be approved. Some I-joists are made with W-style webbing like a truss to eliminate cutting and allow ductwork to pass through.
   

   Freshly cut logs showing sap running from beneath bark
3. Finger-Jointed Lumber – Solid dimensional lumber lengths typically are limited to lengths of 22 to 24 feet, but can be made longer by the technique of "finger-jointing" lumber by using small solid pieces, usually 18 to 24 inches long, and joining them together using finger joints and glue to produce lengths that can be up to 36 feet long in 2×6 size. Finger-jointing also is predominant in precut wall studs.
4. Glu-lam Beams – Created from 2×4 or 2×6 stock by gluing the faces together to create beams such as 4×12 or 6×16. Glued laminated timber, also called "gluelam" or "glulam" is a type of structural Timber product composed of several layers of dimensioned Lumber LVL beams have taken their place in most home construction.
5. Manufactured Trusses – Trusses are used in home construction as bracing to support the roof rafters in the attic space. It is seen as an easier installation and a better solution for supporting roofs as opposed to the use of dimensional lumber's struts and purlins as bracing. In the southern USA and other parts, stick-framing with dimensional lumber roof support is still predominant. The main drawback of trusses is that less attic space is usable.
6. Oriented Strand Board (OSB) – OSB is made by laminating large, thin wood chips with glue, such that the grain orientation of the chips is random, making the OSB panels equally stiff in all directions. Oriented strand board, or OSB, or waferboard or Sterling board (UK is an Engineered wood product formed by layering strands (flakes of OSB has replaced plywood for use as exterior wall sheathing and roof decking (7/16 inch minimum thickness) and in second-story flooring (3/4 inch thickness in a tongue-and-groove interlocking pattern), which is nailed and glued to the I-joists. OSB used in wall sheathing and roof decking will swell if exposed to the elements for even a brief time and must be replaced; therefore, it is covered by a weatherproof membrane such as felt or spun-bonded olefin (Tyvek®) to protect it, secured with plastic cap nails. House wrapping is used on areas which will be sheathed with vinyl siding. 3/4 inch tongue-and-groove OSB flooring is coated to protect it from the elements for a short time until the structure is roofed over. Moisture resistant OSB is often specified for use as a roof underlayment.

Defects in lumber

Defects occurring in Timber are grouped into the following five divisions:

Defects due to conversion

During the process of converting timber to commercial form, the following defects may occur:

1. Chip mark
2. Diagonal grain
3. Torn grain
4. Wane

Defects due to fungi

Fungi attack timber only when the following two conditions are satisfied simultaneously:

1. The moisture content of the timber is above 20%
2. There is presence of air and warmth for the growth of fungi. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ

If any of the above condition is absent, decay of wood due to fungi would not occur. Hence, dry wood due having moisture content less than 20 per cent will remain sound for centuries. Similarly, wood submerged in water will not be attacked by fungi because of absence of air. Following defects are caused in timber by fungi:

1. Blue stain
2. Brown rot
3. Dry rot
4. Heart rot
5. Sap stain
6. Wet rot
7. White rot

Defects due to insects

Following are the insects which are usually responsible for the decay of timber:

1. Beetles
2. Marine Borers
3. Termites

Defects due to natural forces

The main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber are two, namely, abnormal growth and rupture of tissues.

Defects due to seasoning

Defects due to seasoning are the number one cause for splinters and slivers.

Preservatives

Main article: timber treatment

Fasteners used with treated lumber require special consideration because of the corrosive chemicals used in the treatment process. All measures that are taken to ensure a long life of wood fall under the definition wood preservation (timber treatment

Timber or lumber may be treated with a preservative that protects it from being destroyed by insects, fungus or exposure to moisture. A preservative is a natural or synthetic chemical that is added to products such as foods pharmaceuticals paints biological samples wood etc Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Generally this is applied through combined vacuum and pressure treatment. This vacuum means "absence of matter" or "an empty area or space" for the cleaning appliance see Vacuum cleaner. Pressure (symbol 'p' is the force per unit Area applied to an object in a direction perpendicular to the surface The preservatives used to pressure-treat lumber are classified as pesticides; due to potential hazards to humans and the environment, some are being phased out. A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. Treating lumber provides long-term resistance to organisms that cause deterioration. If it is applied correctly, it extends the productive life of lumber by five to ten times. If left untreated, wood that is exposed to moisture or soil for sustained periods of time will become weakened by various types of fungi, bacteria or insects. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have

Timber framing

Main article: timber framing

Timber framing is a style of construction which uses heavier framing elements than modern stick framing, which uses dimensional lumber. Timber framing (Fachwerk or Half-timbering, is the method of creating framed structures of heavy timber jointed together with pegged Mortise and tenon joints The timbers originally were tree boles squared with a broadaxe or adze and joined together with joinery without nails. A modern imitation with sawn timbers is growing in popularity in the United States.

One of the most conventional framing methods is the Neumann Notch, which involves a thirty-two degree angling of adjoining lumber and then a right-angled wedge with an eighteen degree cusp fitted between the lumber before being bolted. This convention was pioneered by Daniel R. Neumann, a carpenter from Germany, that was responsible for the structural development of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630. This framing convention spread to construction sites in other colonies, most famously Plymouth and Concord. Neumann's notched framing then was adopted by carpenters and construction companies and this framing convention is still used today in traditional frame sets.

Another somewhat less conventional method for framing is known as the "New-style" binding. The basic setup of the New-style binding was developed by Austin D. New, a Mormon settler in Salt Lake City, Utah during the 1800s. The basic structure of the New-style binding involves a set-up of two similar sized logs set against each other perpendicularly and lashed together with hemp rope. This technique was used to construct many of the early houses of the Mormon settlers due to its ease of use and durability. Eventually the New-style binding became obsolete as the settlers began constructing homes out of the more traditional brick and mortar.

Terminology

In the United Kingdom and Australia, "timber" is a term also used for sawn wood products (that is, boards), whereas generally in the United States and Canada, the product of timber cut into boards is referred to as lumber. In the United States and Canada sawn wood products of five inches (127 mm) (nominal size) diameter or greater are sometimes called "timbers".

See also

• British timber trade
• Deck (building)
• Forestry
• Hardwood timber production
• Hartwick Pines State Park
• Illegal logging
• Interlochen State Park
• List of Indian timber trees
• List of woods
• Log scaler
• Logging
• Lumber baron
• Lumber room
• Lumberman's Monument
• Michigan logging wheels
• Non-timber forest products
• Plank
• Recycling timber
• Sawmill
• Saw pit
• Sodium silicate's use as a timber treatment
• Timber treatment
• United States-Canada softwood lumber dispute
• Wood
• Woody plant
• Woodworking

References

External links

• Hills Brothers Long Log Harvesting Archive Footage
• Hills Brothers Short Log Harvesting Archive Footage
• National Hardwood Lumber Association
• Timber Development Association of NSW - Australia
• CPSC Test coatings to reduce arsenic emissions from pressure treated wood
• TRADA: Timber Research And Development Association
• Wood themed links and activities
• Lumber Directory
• The Forest Products Laboratory. US main wood products research lab. Madison, WI (E)
• International Wood Collectors Society
• Xiloteca Manuel Soler (One of the largest private collection of wood samples)
• Humanitarian Timber project (A project to produce and disseminate a field handbook that brings together best practice in the procurement and use of timber in humanitarian emergencies)