Western Philosophy 20th-century philosophy
Name	Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein
Birth	April 26, 1889 Vienna, Austria-Hungary
Death	April 29, 1951 (aged 62) Cambridge, United Kingdom
School/tradition	Analytic philosophy, Post-Analytic Philosophy
Main interests	Logic, Metaphysics, Philosophy of language, Philosophy of mathematics, Philosophy of mind, Epistemology
Notable ideas	"Meaning is use," private language argument, conceptual therapy. See also [[Analytic philosophy]] and [[Continental philosophy]] The 20th century brought with it upheavals that produced a series of conflicting developments within Philosophy Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy. Year 1889 ( MDCCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. Events 1429 - Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orleans. Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January The city of Cambridge (ˈkeɪmbrɪdʒ is a university town and the administrative centre of the county of Cambridgeshire, England The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Analytic philosophy (sometimes analytical philosophy) is a generic term for a style of Philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century Postanalytic philosophy describes a detachment from the mainstream philosophical movement of Analytic philosophy, which is the predominant school of thought in English-speaking Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science Philosophy of language is the reasoned inquiry into the nature origins and usage of Language. The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of Philosophy that studies the philosophical assumptions foundations and implications of Mathematics. Philosophy of mind is the branch of Philosophy that studies the nature of the Mind, Mental events Mental functions mental properties Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge The private language argument is a philosophical Argument introduced by Ludwig Wittgenstein in his later work especially in the Philosophical Investigations
Influenced by	Frege, Russell, Schopenhauer, Moore, Sraffa, William James, Ramsey, Kant, Kierkegaard, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Hertz, Boltzmann, Kraus, Weininger, Augustine, Goethe, Spengler
Influenced	Russell, G. E. M. Anscombe, Norman Malcolm, D.Z. Phillips, Rush Rhees, Gilbert Ryle, P.M.S. Hacker, Vienna Circle, Logical Positivism, Analytic Philosophy, Ordinary Language Philosophy

Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein (pronounced [ˈluːtvɪç ˈjoːzɛf ˈjoːhan ˈvɪtgənʃtaɪn] in German) (April 26, 1889 – April 29, 1951) was an Austrian philosopher who worked primarily in the foundations of logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language. Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege ( 8 November 1848, Wismar, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin  &ndash 26 July 1925 Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian "GE Moore" redirects here For the cofounder of Intel see Gordon Moore. Piero Sraffa (1898-1983 was an influential Italian Economist whose book Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities is taken as founding the For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation William James (January 11 1842 – August 26 1910 was a pioneering Frank Plumpton Ramsey ( February 22, 1903 – January 19, 1930) was a British Mathematician who in addition to Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;) Leo Tolstoy, or Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy ( –) (Лев Никола́евич Толсто́й, was a Russian Writer widely regarded Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский, sometimes transliterated Dostoyevsky, Dostoievsky, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz ( February 22, 1857 – January 1, 1894) was a German physicist who clarified and expanded the electromagnetic theory Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann ( February 20, 1844 &ndash September 5, 1906) was an Austrian Physicist famous for his founding For the theologian see Karl Christian Friedrich Krause. Karl Kraus ( April 28, 1874 - June 12, 1936) Otto Weininger ( April 3, 1880 – October 4, 1903) was an Austrian Philosopher. ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer Oswald Arnold Gottfried Spengler (29 May 1880 Blankenburg am Harz &ndash 8 May 1936 Munich) was a German Historian and Philosopher whose Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian G E M Anscombe ( 18 March, 1919 &ndash 5 January, 2001) born Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe, but better known as Elizabeth Norman Malcolm (1911 &ndash 1990 was an American philosopher, born in Selden Kansas. Dewi Zephaniah Phillips ( 24 November 1934 &ndash 25 July 2006) known as D Rush Rhees ( 19 March[[ 905]]- 22 May[[ 989]] was a Philosopher at Swansea University from 1940 to 1966 Rhees is principally known as a student Gilbert Ryle ( 19 August 1900 - 6 October 1976) was a British Philosopher, and a representative of the generation of Peter Michael Stephan Hacker (born 15 July[[ 939]] in London is a British philosopher The Vienna Circle (in German: der Wiener Kreis) was a group of philosophers who gathered around Moritz Schlick when he Logical positivism (later and more accurately called logical empiricism) is a school of philosophy that combines Empiricism, the idea that observational evidence is Analytic philosophy (sometimes analytical philosophy) is a generic term for a style of Philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century Ordinary language philosophy is a philosophical school that approached traditional philosophical problems as rooted in misunderstandings philosophers develop by forgetting what words actually Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy. Year 1889 ( MDCCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1429 - Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orleans. Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of Philosophy that studies the philosophical assumptions foundations and implications of Mathematics. Philosophy of mind is the branch of Philosophy that studies the nature of the Mind, Mental events Mental functions mental properties Philosophy of language is the reasoned inquiry into the nature origins and usage of Language. ^[1] His influence has been wide-ranging and he is generally regarded as one of the twentieth century's most important philosophers.

Before his death at the age of 62,^[2] the only book-length work Wittgenstein had published was the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus is the only book-length work published by Austrian Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. Philosophical Investigations, which Wittgenstein worked on in his later years, was published shortly after he died. Philosophical Investigations ( Philosophische Untersuchungen) is along with the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, one of the two major works Both of these works are regarded as highly influential in analytic philosophy. Analytic philosophy (sometimes analytical philosophy) is a generic term for a style of Philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century ^[3]

Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life 1.2 World War I 1.2.1 Developing the Tractatus 1.3 The "lost years" after the Tractatus 1.4 Return to Cambridge 1.5 Final years 2 Work 2.1 The Tractatus 2.2 Intermediate works 2.3 Philosophical Investigations 3 Criticism 3.1 Obscurantism 4 Influence 5 Notes and references 6 Bibliography 6.1 Works 6.1.1 Important publications 6.1.2 Later work 6.1.3 Works available online 6.2 Further reading 6.3 Works about Wittgenstein 7 See also 8 External links

Life

Ludwig Wittgenstein was born in Vienna on April 26, 1889, to Karl and Leopoldine Wittgenstein. Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy. Year 1889 ( MDCCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Karl Wittgenstein (b April 8, 1847 in Gohlis near Leipzig; d January 20, 1913 in Vienna) was an Entrepreneur He was the youngest of eight children, born into one of the most prominent and wealthy families in the Austro-Hungarian empire. His father's parents, Hermann Christian and Fanny Wittgenstein, were born into Jewish families but later converted to Protestantism, and after they moved from Saxony to Vienna in the 1850s, assimilated into the Viennese Protestant professional classes. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. The Free State of Saxony (Freistaat Sachsen ˈzaksən Swobodny Stat Sakska is the easternmost federal state of Germany. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Ludwig's father, Karl Wittgenstein, became an industrialist and went on to make a fortune in iron and steel. Ludwig's mother Leopoldine, born Kalmus, was an aunt of the Nobel Prize laureate Friedrich von Hayek. Friedrich August von Hayek CH ( May 8, 1899 March 23, 1992) was an Austrian British Economist Despite Karl's Protestantism, and the fact that Leopoldine's father was Jewish, the Wittgenstein children were baptized as Roman Catholics—the faith of their maternal grandmother—and Ludwig was given a Roman Catholic burial upon his death. In Christianity, baptism ( Greek, "immersing" "performing Ablutions " is the ritual act with the use of water by which one is admitted ^[4]

Early life

Ludwig grew up in a household that provided an exceptionally intense environment for artistic and intellectual achievement. His parents were both very musical and all their children were artistically and intellectually educated. Karl Wittgenstein was a leading patron of the arts, and the Wittgenstein house hosted many figures of high culture — above all, musicians. High culture is a term now used in a number of different ways in Academic discourse whose most common meaning is the set of cultural products mainly in the The family was often visited by musicians such as Johannes Brahms and Gustav Mahler. A musician is a person who plays or writes Music. Musicians can be classified by their roles in creating or performing music An instrumentalist plays a Johannes Brahms ( pronounced ˈbʁaːms (May 7 1833 &ndash April 3 1897 was a German Composer Ludwig's older brother Paul Wittgenstein went on to become a world-famous concert pianist, even after losing his right arm in World War I. Paul Wittgenstein ( May 11, 1887 &ndash March 3, 1961) was an Austrian born Pianist. Ludwig himself had absolute pitch,^[5] and his devotion to music remained vitally important to him throughout his life: he made frequent use of musical examples and metaphors in his philosophical writings, and was said to be unusually adept at whistling lengthy and detailed musical passages. Absolute pitch (AP widely referred to as perfect pitch, is the ability of a person to identify or recreate a Musical Note without the benefit of a known He also played the clarinet and is said to have remarked that he approved of this instrument because it took a proper role in the orchestra. The clarinet is a Musical instrument in the Woodwind family The name derives from adding the suffix -et meaning little to the Italian word

His family also had a history of intense self-criticism, to the point of depression and suicidal tendencies. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately The Jew of Linz (1998 is a controversial book by Australian writer Kimberley Cornish. Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression Three of his four brothers committed suicide. The eldest of the brothers, Hans — an early musician who started composing at age four — killed himself in April 1902, in Havana, Cuba. Havana ( IPA: aˈβana officially Ciudad de La Habana, is the Capital city, major port and leading The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la The third son, Rudolf, followed in May 1904 in Berlin. Their brother Kurt shot himself at the end of World War I, in October 1918, when the Austrian troops he was commanding deserted en masse. ^[6]

Until 1903, Ludwig was educated at home; after that, he began three years of schooling at the Realschule in Linz, a school emphasizing technical topics. The Realschule is a type of Secondary school in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein. Linz is the third largest city of Austria and capital of the state of Upper Austria (Oberösterreich Adolf Hitler was a student there at the same time, when both boys were 14 or 15 years old. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately It is a matter of controversy whether Hitler and Wittgenstein knew each other personally, and if so whether either had any memory of the other. However, Hitler must have at least noticed Wittgenstein, for in Linz the latter was a conspicuously bizarre fellow. ^[7]

Wittgenstein spoke an unusually pure high German, albeit with a slight stutter, wore very elegant clothes, and was highly sensitive and extremely unsociable. It was one of his idiosyncracies to use the formal form of address with his classmates and to demand that they too with the exception of a single acquaintance address him formally, with "Sie" and "Herr Ludwig". Like Hitler, he hated school. He was frequently absent but held an average record. He had a vocabulary that was scarcely better than Hitler's. ^[8]

The teacher whom Hitler commends in Mein Kampf for teaching him German history and making him into a fanatical German nationalist, one Dr. Leopold Poetsch, also took Wittgenstein's class on overnight excursions. Mein Kampf ( English: My Struggle/My Battle) is a book by Adolf Hitler. Leopold Poetsch (or Pötsch was a German Professor and a high school history Teacher of Adolf Hitler who influenced the future leader's later Some school records with this and other items of information concerning Wittgenstein, have been posted on the University of Passau website. ^[9]

These include references to the texts studied by Wittgenstein as a student. Ludwig was interested in physics and wanted to study with Ludwig Boltzmann, whose collection of popular writings, including an inspiring essay about the hero and genius who would solve the problem of heavier-than-air flight ("On Aeronautics") was published during this time (1905). Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann ( February 20, 1844 &ndash September 5, 1906) was an Austrian Physicist famous for his founding ^[10]However, Boltzmann committed suicide in 1906. ^[11]

In 1906, Wittgenstein began studying mechanical engineering in Berlin, and in 1908 he went to the Victoria University of Manchester to study for his doctorate in engineering, full of plans for aeronautical projects. Mechanical Engineering is an Engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis Design, Manufacturing The Victoria University of Manchester (commonly known as the University of Manchester) was a University in Manchester, England. A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and He registered as a research student in an engineering laboratory, where he conducted research on the behaviour of kites in the upper atmosphere, and worked on the design of a propeller with small jet engines on the end of its blades. Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five During his research in Manchester, he became interested in the foundations of mathematics, particularly after reading Bertrand Russell's Principles of Mathematics and Gottlob Frege's Grundgesetze. Foundations of mathematics is a term sometimes used for certain fields of Mathematics, such as Mathematical logic, Axiomatic set theory, Proof theory Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege ( 8 November 1848, Wismar, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin  &ndash 26 July 1925 In the summer of 1911 Wittgenstein visited Frege and, after having corresponded with him for some time, was advised by Frege to attend the University of Cambridge to study under Russell. The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University) located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the ^[12]

In October 1911 Wittgenstein arrived unannounced at Russell's rooms in Trinity College and was soon attending his lectures and discussing philosophy with him at great length. Trinity College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England. He made a great impression on Russell and G. E. Moore and started to work on the foundations of logic and mathematical logic. "GE Moore" redirects here For the cofounder of Intel see Gordon Moore.

Russell was increasingly tired of philosophy and saw Wittgenstein as a successor who would carry on his work. ^[13] During this period Wittgenstein's other major interests were music and travelling (he went to Iceland, in September 1912), often in the company of David Pinsent, an undergraduate who became a firm friend. Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( Year 1912 ( MCMXII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year starting David Pinsent was a friend and collaborator of the Austrian Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. He was also invited to join the Cambridge Apostles, an elite secret society which Russell and Moore had both belonged to as students. The Cambridge Apostles, also known as the Cambridge Conversazione Society, is an elite intellectual Secret society at the University of Cambridge founded Secret society is a term used to describe a variety of organizations Whilst in Cambridge Wittgenstein often liked to go to the cinema. ^[14]

In 1913 Wittgenstein inherited a large fortune when his father died. ^[15] He donated some of it, initially anonymously, to Austrian artists and writers, including Rainer Maria Rilke and Georg Trakl. Rainer Maria Rilke (also Rainer Maria von Rilke (4 December 1875 &ndash 29 December 1926 is considered one of the German language 's greatest 20th century Poets Georg Trakl ( February 3, 1887 – November 3, 1914) was a pre-eminent Austrian poet In 1914 he went to visit Trakl when the latter wanted to meet his benefactor, but Trakl died (an apparent suicide) days before Wittgenstein arrived.

Although he was invigorated by his study in Cambridge and his conversations with Russell, Wittgenstein came to feel that he could not get to the heart of his most fundamental questions while surrounded by other academics. In 1913 he retreated to the relative solitude of the remote village of Skjolden at the end of the Sognefjord in Norway. Skjolden is a village in the municipality of Luster in Sogn og Fjordane county Norway. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional ^[12] Here he rented the second floor of a house and stayed for the winter. The isolation from academia allowed him to devote himself entirely to his work, and he later saw this period as one of the most passionate and productive times of his life. While there he wrote a book entitled Logik, a ground-breaking work in the foundations of logic which was the immediate predecessor and source of much of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus is the only book-length work published by Austrian Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein.

World War I

The outbreak of World War I in the next year took him completely by surprise, as he was living a secluded life at the time. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All He volunteered for the Austro-Hungarian army, first serving on a ship and then in an artillery workshop. The Austro-Hungarian Army was the ground force of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy (1867 - 1918 Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine In 1916 he was sent as a member of a howitzer regiment to the Russian front, where he won several medals for bravery, then in the southern Tyrol, where he was taken as a prisoner of war by the Italian army in November 1918. A howitzer is a type of Artillery piece that is characterized by a relatively short barrel and the use of comparatively small explosive charges to propel projectiles Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending ^[12]

His notebook entries during the war reflect his contempt for the baseness, as he saw it, of his fellow soldiers. Throughout the war, Wittgenstein kept notebooks in which he frequently wrote philosophical and religious reflections alongside personal remarks. The notebooks reflect a profound change in his religious life: a militant atheist during his stint at Cambridge, Wittgenstein discovered Leo Tolstoy's The Gospel in Brief at a bookshop in Galicia. Leo Tolstoy, or Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy ( –) (Лев Никола́евич Толсто́й, was a Russian Writer widely regarded The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria official (Königreich Galizien und Lodomerien mit dem Großherzogtum Krakau und den Herzogtümern Auschwitz und Zator official He devoured Tolstoy's commentary and became an evangelist of sorts; he carried the book everywhere he went and recommended it to anyone in distress (to the point that he became known to his fellow soldiers as "the man with the gospels"). Although Monk notes that Wittgenstein began to doubt again by at least 1937, and that by the end of his life he said he could not believe Christian doctrines (although religious belief remained an important preoccupation), this is not contrary to the influence that Tolstoy had on his philosophy. ^[16] Wittgenstein's other religious influences include Saint Augustine, Fyodor Dostoevsky and, most notably, Søren Kierkegaard, whom Wittgenstein referred to as "a saint". Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский, sometimes transliterated Dostoyevsky, Dostoievsky, Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;) ^[17]

Developing the Tractatus

Wittgenstein's work on Logik began to take on an ethical and religious significance. With this new concern with the ethical, combined with his earlier interest in logical analysis, and with key insights developed during the war (such as the so-called "picture theory" of propositions), Wittgenstein's work from Cambridge and Norway was transfigured into the material that eventually became the Tractatus. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional Towards the end of the war in 1918 Wittgenstein was promoted to reserve officer (lieutenant) and sent to northern Italy as part of an artillery regiment. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest On leave in the summer of 1918 he received a letter from David Pinsent's mother telling Wittgenstein that her son had been killed in an airplane accident. Suicidal, Wittgenstein went to stay with his uncle Paul, and there completed the Tractatus, which he dedicated to Pinsent. The book was then sent to publishers, but without success.

In October of 1918, Wittgenstein returned to the Italian front but was captured by the Italians shortly thereafter. While he was a prisoner of war at Cassino (Central Italy), through the intervention of his Cambridge friends Russell and Keynes, Wittgenstein managed to get access to books, prepare his manuscript, and send it back to England. Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian John Maynard Keynes 1st Baron Keynes CB (ˈkeɪnz "cains" (5 June 1883 &ndash 21 April 1946 was a British Economist whose ideas England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Russell recognized it as a work of supreme philosophical importance and worked with Wittgenstein to get it published after his release in 1919. An English translation was prepared, first by Frank P. Ramsey and then by C. K. Ogden, with Wittgenstein's involvement. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Frank Plumpton Ramsey ( February 22, 1903 – January 19, 1930) was a British Mathematician who in addition to For the children's book writer see Charles Ogden (children's writer. After some discussion of how best to translate the title, G. E. Moore suggested Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, an allusion to Baruch Spinoza's Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. "GE Moore" redirects here For the cofounder of Intel see Gordon Moore. Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21, Russell wrote an introduction,^[18] lending the book his reputation as one of the foremost philosophers in the world.

However, difficulties remained. Wittgenstein had become personally disaffected with Russell and was displeased with Russell's introduction, which he thought evinced a fundamental misunderstanding of the Tractatus. Wittgenstein grew frustrated as interested publishers proved difficult to find. To add insult to injury, those publishers who were interested proved to be so mainly because of Russell's introduction. Finally Wilhelm Ostwald's journal Annalen der Naturphilosophie printed a German edition in 1921, and Routledge's Kegan Paul printed a bilingual edition with Russell's introduction and the Ramsey-Ogden translation in 1922. Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald ( Latvian: Vilhelms Ostvalds; September 2, 1853 &ndash April 4, 1932) was a Baltic

The "lost years" after the Tractatus

By then Wittgenstein was a profoundly changed man. He had embraced the Christianity that he had previously opposed, faced harrowing combat in World War I, and crystallized his intellectual and emotional upheavals with the exhausting composition of the Tractatus. It was a work which transfigured all of his past work on logic into a radically new framework that he believed offered a definitive solution to all the problems of philosophy. These changes in Wittgenstein's inner and outer life left him both haunted and yet invigorated to follow a new, ascetic life. One of the most dramatic expressions of this change was his decision in 1919 to give away the portion of the family fortune he had inherited when his father died. The money was divided between his sisters Helene and Hermine and his brother Paul, and Wittgenstein insisted that they promise never to give it back. He felt that giving money to the poor could only corrupt them further, whereas the rich would not be harmed by it.

Since Wittgenstein thought that the Tractatus had solved all the problems of philosophy, he left philosophy and returned to Austria to train as a primary school teacher. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich ^[19] He was educated in the methods of the Austrian School Reform Movement which advocated the stimulation of the natural curiosity of children and their development as independent thinkers, instead of just letting them memorize facts. Wittgenstein was enthusiastic about these ideas but ran into problems when he was appointed as an elementary teacher in the rural Austrian villages of Trattenbach, Puchberg-am-Schneeberg, and Otterthal. Trattenbach is a Town in Austria, situated in Lower Austria. 81 Otterthal is a Town in Austria. Situated in Lower Austria, it is in the industrial part of Lower Austria During his time as a school teacher Wittgenstein wrote a pronunciation and spelling dictionary for his own use in teaching students. The publishers insisted upon the removal of Wittgenstein's introduction (on the grounds that it contained poor grammar) and some additions to the list of words, and it was moderately well received by his colleagues (although not reprinted in his lifetime). ^[20] This would be the only book besides the Tractatus that Wittgenstein published in his lifetime.

Wittgenstein had unrealistic expectations of the rural children he taught, and his teaching methods were intense and exacting — he had little patience with those children who had no aptitude for mathematics. However, he achieved good results with children attuned to his interests and style of teaching, especially boys. His severe disciplinary methods (often involving corporal punishment, not unusual at the time) — as well as a general suspicion amongst the villagers that he was somewhat mad — led to a long series of bitter disagreements with some of his students' parents, and eventually culminated in April 1926 in the collapse of an eleven year old boy whom Wittgenstein had struck on the head. ^[19] The boy's father attempted to have Wittgenstein arrested, and despite being cleared of misconduct he resigned his position and returned to Vienna, feeling that he had failed as a school teacher.

After abandoning his work as a school teacher, Wittgenstein worked as a gardener's assistant in a monastery near Vienna. He considered becoming a monk,^[19] and went so far as to inquire about the requirements for joining an order. However, at the interview he was advised that he would not find in monastic life what he sought.

Two major developments helped to save Wittgenstein from this despairing state. The first was an invitation from his sister Margaret ("Gretl") Stonborough (who was painted by Gustav Klimt in 1905) to work on the design and construction of her new house. Margarethe "Gretl" Stonborough-Wittgenstein ( 19 September, 1882 - 27 September, 1958) of the Gustav Klimt (July 14 1862 – February 6 1918 was an Austrian Symbolist painter and one of the most prominent members of the Vienna Art Nouveau He worked with the architect, Paul Engelmann, who had become a close friend of Wittgenstein's during the war, and the two designed a spare modernist house after the style of Adolf Loos (whom they both greatly admired). Adolf Loos (10 December 1870 &ndash 23 August 1933 was one of the most important and influential Austrian and Czechoslovak Architects of European Wittgenstein found the work intellectually absorbing and exhausting; he poured himself into the design in painstaking detail, including even small aspects such as doorknobs and radiators, spending a year on each as they had to be exactly positioned to maintain the symmetry of the rooms. ^[19] As a work of modernist architecture the house evoked some high praise; G. H. von Wright said that it possessed the same "static beauty" as the Tractatus. Georg Henrik von Wright (pronounced roughly fon vrikt, IPA hɛnrik fɔn-vrikt ( June 14, 1916 &ndash June 16, 2003) was The effort of totally involving himself in intellectual work once again did much to restore Wittgenstein's spirits.

Secondly, toward the end of his work on the house, Wittgenstein was contacted by Moritz Schlick, one of the leading figures of the newly formed Vienna Circle. Moritz Schlick ( April 14, 1882 &ndash June 22, 1936) was a German philosopher and the founding father of Logical positivism The Vienna Circle (in German: der Wiener Kreis) was a group of philosophers who gathered around Moritz Schlick when he The Tractatus had been tremendously influential to the development of the Vienna positivism and, although Schlick never succeeded in drawing Wittgenstein into the discussions of the Vienna Circle itself, he and some of his fellow circle members, especially Friedrich Waismann, met occasionally with Wittgenstein to discuss philosophical topics. Friedrich Waismann ( March 21, 1896 - November 4, 1959) was an Austrian mathematician physicist and philosopher ^[21] Wittgenstein was frequently frustrated by these meetings — he believed that Schlick and his colleagues had fundamentally misunderstood the Tractatus, and at times would refuse to talk about it at all. (Much of the disagreements concerned the importance of religious life and the mystical; Wittgenstein considered these matters as a sort of wordless faith, whereas the positivists disdained them as useless. In one meeting Wittgenstein refused to discuss the Tractatus at all, and sat with his back to his guests while he read aloud from the poetry of Rabindranath Tagore. ) Nevertheless, the contact with the Vienna Circle stimulated Wittgenstein intellectually and revived his interest in philosophy. He also met with Frank P. Ramsey, a young philosopher of mathematics who traveled several times from Cambridge to Austria to meet with Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle. Frank Plumpton Ramsey ( February 22, 1903 – January 19, 1930) was a British Mathematician who in addition to In the course of his conversations with the Vienna Circle and with Ramsey, Wittgenstein began to think that there might be some "grave mistakes" in his work as presented in the Tractatus — marking the beginning of a second career of ground-breaking philosophical work, which would occupy him for the rest of his life.

Return to Cambridge

In 1929 he decided, at the urging of Ramsey and others, to return to Cambridge. He was met at the railway station by a crowd of England's greatest intellectuals, discovering rather to his horror that he was one of the most famed philosophers in the world. In a letter to his wife, Lydia Lopokova, John Maynard Keynes wrote: "Well, God has arrived. Lydia Vasilyevna Lopokova Baroness Keynes ( October 21, 1892 - June 8, 1981; Лидия Васильевна Лопухова was a famous John Maynard Keynes 1st Baron Keynes CB (ˈkeɪnz "cains" (5 June 1883 &ndash 21 April 1946 was a British Economist whose ideas I met him on the 5. 15 train. "

Despite this fame he could not initially work at Cambridge as he did not have a degree, so he applied as an advanced undergraduate. Russell noted that his previous residency was in fact sufficient for a doctoral degree, and urged him to offer the Tractatus as a doctoral thesis, which he did in 1929. A dissertation (also called thesis or disquisition) is a document that presents the author's Research and findings and is submitted in support of candidature It was examined by Russell and Moore; at the end of the thesis defence, Wittgenstein clapped the two examiners on the shoulder and said, "Don't worry, I know you'll never understand it. "^[22] Moore commented in the examiner's report: "In my opinion this is a work of genius; it is, in any case, up to the standards of a degree from Cambridge. " Wittgenstein was appointed as a lecturer and was made a fellow of Trinity College.

Although Wittgenstein was involved in a relationship with Marguerite Respinger (a young Swiss woman he had met as a friend of the family), his plans to marry her were broken off in 1931 and he never married. Most of his romantic attachments were to young men. There is considerable debate over how active Wittgenstein's homosexual life was, inspired by W. W. Bartley's claim to have found evidence of not only active homosexuality but in particular several casual liaisons with young men in the Wiener Prater park during his time in Vienna. Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the same sex or to a Homosexual orientation. William Warren Bartley III, (1934–1990 was an American Professor of Philosophy a Senior Research Fellow at Stanford University and an author The Wiener Prater is a large public park in Vienna 's 2nd district Leopoldstadt. Bartley published his claims in a biography of Wittgenstein in 1973, claiming to have his information from "confidential reports from. . . friends" of Wittgenstein,^[23] whom he declined to name, and to have discovered two coded notebooks unknown to Wittgenstein's executors that detailed the visits to the Prater. Wittgenstein's estate and other biographers disputed Bartley's claims and asked him to produce the sources that he claims. What has become clear, at least, is that Wittgenstein had several long-term homoerotic attachments, including an infatuation with his friend David Pinsent and long-term relationships during his years in Cambridge with Francis Skinner and Ben Richards. David Pinsent was a friend and collaborator of the Austrian Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. Francis Skinner (1912-1941 was a friend collaborator and alleged lover of the Austrian Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. ^[24]

Wittgenstein's political sympathies lay on the left, and while he was opposed to Marxist theory, he described himself as a "communist at heart" and romanticized the life of labourers. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. ^[25] In 1934, attracted by Keynes' description of Soviet life in Short View of Russia, he conceived the idea of emigrating to the Soviet Union with Skinner. John Maynard Keynes 1st Baron Keynes CB (ˈkeɪnz "cains" (5 June 1883 &ndash 21 April 1946 was a British Economist whose ideas The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 They took lessons in Russian and in 1935 Wittgenstein traveled to Leningrad and Moscow in an attempt to secure employment. He was offered teaching positions but preferred manual work and returned three weeks later.

From 1936 to 1937 Wittgenstein lived again in Norway,^[26] leaving Skinner behind. He worked on the Philosophical Investigations. In the winter of 1936/37, he delivered a series of "confessions" to close friends, most of them about minor infractions like white lies, in an effort to cleanse himself. In 1938 he traveled to Ireland to visit Maurice Drury, a friend who was training as a doctor, and considered such training himself, with the intention of abandoning philosophy for psychiatry. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric The visit to Ireland was at the same time a response to the invitation of the then Irish Taoiseach, Eamon de Valera, himself a mathematics teacher. The Taoiseach (ˈtiːʃəx in English t̪ˠiːʃʲəx (plural Taoisigh ( or) in Irish) also referred to as An Taoiseach ( t̪ˠiːʃʲəx is the the Éamon de Valera (ˈeɪmən dɛvəˈlɛrə (born Edward George de Valera) (14 October 1882 &ndash 29 August 1975 was one of the dominant political figures in 20th century De Valera hoped that Wittgenstein's presence would contribute to an academy for advanced mathematics. Whilst staying in Ireland, Wittgenstein resided at the Ashling hotel, now commemorated by a plaque in his honour.

While he was in Ireland, Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss; the Viennese Wittgenstein was now a citizen of the enlarged Germany and a Jew under its racial laws. The ( German: "link-up" also known as the, was the 1938 Annexation of Austria into Greater Germany by the Nazi Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ He found this intolerable and started to investigate the possibilities of acquiring British or Irish citizenship with the help of Keynes, but this put his siblings Hermine, Helene and Paul, all still living in Austria, in considerable danger. Wittgenstein's first thought was to travel to Vienna, but he was dissuaded by friends. Had the Wittgensteins been classified as Jews their fate would have been the same as other Austrian Jews, only a minority of whom survived the war. ^[27] Their only hope was to be classified as Mischlinge: Aryan/Jewish crossbreeds, whose treatment, while harsh, was less brutal than that reserved for Jews. Mischling (" Crossbreed " in German) was the German term used during the Third Reich era in the German Empire to denote persons deemed to have partial This reclassification was known as a "Befreiung". The successful conclusion of these negotiations required the personal approval of Adolf Hitler. "The figures show how difficult it was to gain a Befreiung. In 1939 there were 2,100 applications for a different racial classification: the Führer allowed only twelve. "^[28]

Gretl, an American citizen by marriage, started negotiations with the Nazi authorities over the racial status of their grandfather Hermann, claiming that he was the illegitimate son of an "Aryan". The Reichsbank was keen to get its hands on the large amounts of foreign currency owned by the Wittgenstein family, and this was used as a bargaining tool. For a detailed discussion of the English translation of Reich, see Reich. Paul, who had escaped to Switzerland and then the United States in July 1938, disagreed with the family's stance.

In the summer of 1937 Wittgenstein had been introduced to Alan Turing by Alister Watson. Alan Mathison Turing, OBE, FRS (ˈt(jʊ(ərɪŋ (23 June 1912 &ndash 7 June 1954 was an English Mathematician Alister George Douglas Watson (born 2 May 1908 in Southend-on-Sea, Essex, England, died 1981 in Haslemere, Surrey ^[29] After G. E. Moore's resignation in 1939, Wittgenstein, who was by then considered a philosophical genius, was appointed to the chair in Philosophy at Cambridge. He acquired British citizenship soon afterwards, and in July 1939 he traveled to Vienna to assist Gretl and his other sisters, visiting Berlin for one day to meet with an official of the Reichsbank. After this, he traveled to New York to persuade Paul, whose agreement was required, to back the scheme. The required Befreiung was granted in August 1939. The amount signed over to the Nazis by the Wittgenstein family, a week or so before the outbreak of war, was 1. 7 tonnes of gold. ^[30] At 2008 prices (US$900 per ounce), this amount of gold would be worth in excess of US$50 million. Had the transfer occurred only weeks later, it would have counted as aiding an enemy state in time of war, for which the maximum penalty was death by hanging. ^[31] There is also a report that Wittgenstein went on in 1939 from Berlin to visit Moscow a second time and met again the philosopher/academician Sophia Janowskaya. ^[32]

After exhausting philosophical work Wittgenstein would often relax by watching a western movie, where he preferred to sit at the very front of the cinema, or reading detective stories. The Western is a fiction Genre seen in Film, Television, Radio, Literature, Painting and other Visual arts. Detective fiction is a branch of Crime fiction in which a Detective (or detectives either professional or amateur investigate a crime usually Murder ^[33] These tastes are in stark contrast to his preferences in music, where he rejected anything after Brahms as a symptom of the decay of society. Johannes Brahms ( pronounced ˈbʁaːms (May 7 1833 &ndash April 3 1897 was a German Composer

By this time Wittgenstein's view on the foundations of mathematics had changed considerably. Foundations of mathematics is a term sometimes used for certain fields of Mathematics, such as Mathematical logic, Axiomatic set theory, Proof theory Earlier he had thought that logic could provide a solid foundation, and he had even considered updating Russell and Whitehead's Principia Mathematica. The Principia Mathematica is a 3-volume work on the Foundations of mathematics, written by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell Now he denied that there were any mathematical facts to be discovered and he denied that mathematical statements were "true" in any real sense: they simply expressed the conventional established meanings of certain symbols. He also denied that a contradiction should count as a fatal flaw of a mathematical system. In Classical logic, a contradiction consists of a logical incompatibility between two or more Propositions It occurs when the propositions taken together yield He gave a series of lectures on the foundations of mathematics discussing this and other topics, documented in a book. Foundations of mathematics is a term sometimes used for certain fields of Mathematics, such as Mathematical logic, Axiomatic set theory, Proof theory ^[34] The book contains lectures by Wittgenstein as well as discussions between Wittgenstein and several attending students including the young Alan Turing.

During World War II he left Cambridge and volunteered as a hospital porter in Guy's Hospital in London and as a laboratory assistant in Newcastle upon Tyne's Royal Victoria Infirmary. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Guy's Hospital is a large NHS Hospital in the borough of Southwark in south east London, England. Newcastle upon Tyne ( (often shortened to Newcastle) is a city and Metropolitan borough of Tyne and Wear, England The Royal Victoria Infirmary ( RVI) in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, was opened on 11 July 1906 by Edward VII on ten acres This was arranged by his friend John Ryle, a brother of the philosopher Gilbert Ryle, who was then working at the hospital. John Ryle was Regius Professor of Physic Physics "Physic" here is an archaic term for Medicine at Cambridge University. Gilbert Ryle ( 19 August 1900 - 6 October 1976) was a British Philosopher, and a representative of the generation of After the war, Wittgenstein returned to teach at Cambridge, but he found teaching an increasing burden: he had never liked the intellectual atmosphere at Cambridge, and in fact encouraged several of his students, including Skinner, to find work outside of academic philosophy. There are stories, perhaps apocryphal, that if any of his philosophy students expressed an interest in pursuing the subject, he would ban them from attending any more of his classes.

Final years

Wittgenstein resigned his position at Cambridge in 1947 to concentrate on his writing. The Ascension Parish Burial Ground, formerly St Giles and St Peter's Parish is a Cemetery just off Huntingdon Road in the north-west of Cambridge, England He was succeeded as professor by his friend Georg Henrik von Wright. Georg Henrik von Wright (pronounced roughly fon vrikt, IPA hɛnrik fɔn-vrikt ( June 14, 1916 &ndash June 16, 2003) was He stayed at Kilpatrick House guesthouse in East Wicklow in 1947 and 1948. Wicklow ( is the County seat of County Wicklow in Ireland. Located south of the capital Dublin on the east coast of the island it has a population Much of his later work was done on the west coast of Ireland in the rural isolation he preferred. By 1949, when he was diagnosed as having prostate cancer, he had written most of the material that would be published after his death as Philosophische Untersuchungen (Philosophical Investigations), which arguably contains his most important work.

He spent the last two years of his life working in Vienna, the United States, Oxford, and Cambridge. He worked continuously on new material, inspired by the conversations that he had had with his friend and former student Norman Malcolm during a long vacation at the Malcolms' house in the United States. Norman Malcolm (1911 &ndash 1990 was an American philosopher, born in Selden Kansas. Malcolm had been wrestling with G. E. Moore's common sense response to external world skepticism ("Here is one hand, and here is another; therefore I know at least two external things exist"). For a general discussion of skepticism see Skepticism. Philosophical skepticism (from Greek σκέψις - skepsis meaning Wittgenstein began to work on another series of remarks inspired by his conversations, which he continued to work on until two days before his death, and which were published posthumously as On Certainty. On Certainty ( Über Gewissheit) is a philosophical text written by Ludwig Wittgenstein.

The only known fragment of music composed by Wittgenstein was premiered in November 2003. ^[35] The piece of music comprises four bars and lasts less than half a minute.

Wittgenstein died from prostate cancer at the home of Edward Vaughan Bevan, his doctor, in Cambridge in 1951. Dr Edward Vaughan Bevan ( November 3[[ 907]] - February 22[[ 988]] was a British rower and a doctor His last words were: "Tell them I've had a wonderful life". ^[36]

Work

Although many of Wittgenstein's notebooks, papers, and lectures have been published since his death, he published only one philosophical book in his lifetime, the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus in 1921. Wittgenstein's early work was deeply influenced by Arthur Schopenhauer, and by the new systems of logic put forward by Bertrand Russell and Gottlob Frege. In formal logic, a formal system (also called a logical system, a logistic system, or simply a logic Formal systems in mathematics consist Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege ( 8 November 1848, Wismar, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin  &ndash 26 July 1925 He was also influenced by the ideas of Immanuel Kant, especially in relation to transcendentality. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg In Philosophy, the adjective transcendental and the noun transcendence convey three different but related primary meanings all of them derived from the word's literal When the Tractatus was published, it was taken up as a major influence by the Vienna Circle positivists. The Vienna Circle (in German: der Wiener Kreis) was a group of philosophers who gathered around Moritz Schlick when he However, Wittgenstein did not consider himself part of that school and alleged that logical positivism involved grave misunderstandings of the Tractatus.

With the completion of the Tractatus Wittgenstein believed he had solved all the problems of philosophy and he abandoned his studies, working as a schoolteacher, a gardener at a monastery, and as an architect, along with Paul Engelmann, on his sister's new house in Vienna. However, in 1929, he returned to Cambridge, where he was awarded a Ph. The city of Cambridge (ˈkeɪmbrɪdʒ is a university town and the administrative centre of the county of Cambridgeshire, England D. for the Tractatus and took a teaching position. He renounced or revised much of his earlier work, and his development of a new philosophical method and a new understanding of language culminated in his second magnum opus, the Philosophical Investigations, which was published posthumously.

The Tractatus

Main article: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

In rough order, the first half of the book sets forth the following theses:

• The world consists of independent atomic facts — existing states of affairs — out of which larger facts are built. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus is the only book-length work published by Austrian Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein.
• Language consists of atomic, and then larger-scale propositions that correspond to these facts by sharing the same "logical form". In Logic and Philosophy, proposition refers to either (a the content or Meaning of a meaningful Declarative sentence Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference.
• Thought, expressed in language, "pictures" these facts.
• We can analyse our thoughts and sentences to express ("express" as in show, not say) their true logical form.
• Those we cannot so analyze, cannot be meaningfully discussed.
• Philosophy consists of no more than this form of analysis: "Wovon man nicht sprechen kann, darüber muß man schweigen" ("Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent").

Some commentators believe that, although no other type of discourse is, properly speaking, philosophy, Wittgenstein does imply that those things to be passed over "in silence" may be important or useful,^[37] according to some of his more cryptic propositions in the last sections of the Tractatus; indeed, that they may be the most important and most useful. He himself wrote about the Tractatus in a letter to his publisher Ficker:

“	. . . the point of the book is ethical. I once wanted to give a few words in the foreword which now actually are not in it, which, however, I’ll write to you now because they might be a key for you: I wanted to write that my work consists of two parts: of the one which is here, and of everything I have not written. And precisely this second part is the important one. For the Ethical is delimited from within, as it were by my book; and I’m convinced that, strictly speaking, it can ONLY be delimited in this way. In brief, I think: All of that which many are babbling I have defined in my book by remaining silent about it.	”
—Wittgenstein, Letter to Ludwig von Ficker,[38] October or November 1919, translated by Ray Monk

Other commentators point out that the sentences of the Tractatus would not qualify as meaningful according to its own rigid criteria, and that Wittgenstein's method in the book does not follow its own demands regarding the only strictly correct philosophical method. ^[39] This also is admitted by Wittgenstein, when he writes in proposition 6. 54: ‘My propositions are elucidatory in this way: he who understands me finally recognizes them as senseless’. These commentators believe that the book is deeply ironic, and that it demonstrates the ultimate nonsensicality of any sentence attempting to say something metaphysical, something about those fixations of metaphysical philosophers, about those things that must be passed over in silence, and about logic. He attempts to define the limits of logic in understanding the world.

The work also contains several innovations in logic, including a version of the truth table. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. A truth table is a Mathematical table used in Logic — specifically in connection with Boolean algebra, Boolean functions and Propositional

The work was written in line with a general logicist belief prevalent at the time and made evident by Principia Mathematica that the basic principles of arithmetic are explainable by a complete axiomatic system of logical principles. Logicism is one of the schools of thought in the Philosophy of mathematics, putting forth the theory that Mathematics is an extension of Logic and therefore The Principia Mathematica is a 3-volume work on the Foundations of mathematics, written by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word αριθμός = number is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics used by almost everyone In Mathematics, an axiomatic system is any set of Axioms from which some or all axioms can be used in conjunction to logically derive Theorems While Principia Mathematica was in the limelight, Wittgenstein wrote the Tractatus, which was more or less in agreement with these logicist ideas. When the logicist programme was thrown into doubt by Gödel's On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems, Wittgenstein abandoned this approach. Kurt Gödel (kʊɐ̯t ˈgøːdl̩ (April 28 1906 – January 14 1978 was an Austrian American Logician, Mathematician and Philosopher This article describes the publication details of a famous paper in mathematical logic

Intermediate works

Wittgenstein wrote copiously after his return to Cambridge, and arranged much of his writing into an array of incomplete manuscripts. Some thirty thousand pages existed at the time of his death. Much, but by no means all, of this has been sorted and released in several volumes. ^[40] During his "middle work" in the 1920s and 1930s, much of his work involved attacks from various angles on the sort of philosophical perfectionism embodied in the Tractatus. Of this work, Wittgenstein published only a single paper, "Remarks on Logical Form," which was submitted to be read for the Aristotelian Society and published in their proceedings. By the time of the conference, however, Wittgenstein had repudiated the essay as worthless, and gave a talk on the concept of infinity instead. Wittgenstein was increasingly frustrated to find that, although he was not yet ready to publish his work, some other philosophers were beginning to publish essays containing inaccurate presentations of his own views based on their conversations with him. As a result, he published a very brief letter to the journal Mind, taking a recent article by R. B. Braithwaite as a case in point, and asked philosophers to hold off writing about his views until he was himself ready to publish them. Richard Bevan Braithwaite ( 15 January 1900 – 21 April 1990) was an English Philosopher who worked in the Philosophy Although unpublished, the Blue Book, a set of notes dictated to his class at Cambridge in 1933–1934, contains seeds of Wittgenstein's later thoughts on language (later developed in the Investigations), and is widely read today as a turning point in his philosophy of language.

Philosophical Investigations

Main article: Philosophical Investigations

Alongside the Tractatus, Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations (Philosophische Untersuchungen) was one of his two major works. Philosophical Investigations ( Philosophische Untersuchungen) is along with the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, one of the two major works In 1953, two years after Wittgenstein's death, the long-awaited book was published in two parts. Most of the 693 numbered paragraphs in Part I were ready for printing in 1946, but Wittgenstein withdrew the manuscript from the publisher. The shorter Part II was added by the editors, G.E.M. Anscombe and Rush Rhees. G E M Anscombe ( 18 March, 1919 &ndash 5 January, 2001) born Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe, but better known as Elizabeth Rush Rhees ( 19 March[[ 905]]- 22 May[[ 989]] was a Philosopher at Swansea University from 1940 to 1966 Rhees is principally known as a student

It is difficult to find consensus among interpreters of Wittgenstein's work, and this is particularly true in the case of the Investigations. Wittgenstein asks the reader to think of language and its uses as a multiplicity ^[41] of language-games within which the parts of language function and have meaning. A language-game is a philosophical Concept developed by Ludwig Wittgenstein, referring to simple examples of Language use and the actions As a result of this perspective, many conventional philosophical problems (i. e. , what is truth?) become meaningless wordplay.

The conventional view of the task of the philosopher is to solve seemingly intractable problems of philosophy using logical analysis (for example, the problem of free will, the relationship between mind and matter, what the good or the beautiful or the true consist of, and so on). The question of free will However, Wittgenstein argues that these problems are, in fact, "bewitchments" that arise from philosophers' misuse of language.

In Wittgenstein's view, language is inextricably woven into the fabric of life, and as part of that fabric it works relatively unproblematically. Philosophical problems arise when language is forced from its proper home and into a metaphysical environment, where all the familiar and necessary landmarks and contextual clues are absent — removed, perhaps, for what appear to be sound philosophical reasons, but which lead, for Wittgenstein, to the source of the problem. Wittgenstein describes this metaphysical environment as like being on frictionless ice:^[42] where the conditions are apparently perfect for a philosophically and logically perfect language (the language of the Tractatus), where all philosophical problems can be solved without the confusing and muddying effects of everyday contexts; but where, just because of the lack of friction, language can in fact do no actual work at all. There is much talk in the Investigations, then, of “idle wheels” and language being “on holiday” or a mere "ornament", all of which are used to express the idea of what is lacking in philosophical contexts. To resolve the problems encountered there, Wittgenstein argues that philosophers must leave the frictionless ice and return to the “rough ground” of ordinary language in use; that is, philosophers must “bring words back from their metaphysical to their everyday use. ”

In this regard, one can see affinities between Wittgenstein and Kant. ^[43] In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant argues that when concepts grounded in experience are applied outside of the range of possible experience, the result is contradictions and confusion. Thus the second part of the Critique consists of refutations, typically by reductio ad absurdum, of logical proofs of the existence of God and the existence of souls, and attacks on strong notions of infinity and necessity. In this way, Wittgenstein's objections to applying words outside the contexts in which they have an established meaning mirror Kant's objections to the non-empirical use of empirical reason.

Returning to the rough ground of ordinary uses of words is, however, easier said than done. Philosophical problems have the character of depth and run as deep as the forms of language and thought that set philosophers on the road to confusion. Wittgenstein therefore speaks of “illusions”, "bewitchment", and “conjuring tricks” performed on our thinking by our forms of language, and tries to break their spell by attending to differences between superficially similar aspects of language which he feels lead to this type of confusion. For much of the Investigations, then, Wittgenstein tries to show how philosophers are led away from the ordinary world of language in use by misleading aspects of language itself. He does this by looking at the role language plays in the development of various philosophical problems, to some general problems involving language itself, then at the notions of rules and rule following, and then on to some more specific problems in the philosophy of mind. Philosophy of mind is the branch of Philosophy that studies the nature of the Mind, Mental events Mental functions mental properties Throughout these investigations, the style of writing is conversational, with Wittgenstein in turn taking the role of the puzzled philosopher (on either or both sides of traditional philosophical debates), and that of the guide attempting to show the puzzled philosopher the way back: the “way out of the fly bottle. ”^[44]

Much of the Investigations, then, consists of examples of how philosophical confusion is generated and how, by a close examination of the actual workings of everyday language, the first false steps towards philosophical puzzlement can be avoided. By avoiding these first false steps, philosophical problems themselves simply no longer arise and are therefore dissolved rather than solved. As Wittgenstein puts it; "the clarity we are aiming at is indeed complete clarity. But this simply means that the philosophical problems should completely disappear. "

Criticism

Obscurantism

Some have criticized Wittgenstein for his position on the limits of language,^[45] and his abandonment of empirical explanation for linguistic description in his later works. Friedrich Waismann accused Wittgenstein of "complete obscurantism" because of this apparent betrayal of empirical inquiry. Friedrich Waismann ( March 21, 1896 - November 4, 1959) was an Austrian mathematician physicist and philosopher Obscurantism (from the Latin obscurans, "darkening" is the practice of deliberately preventing the facts or full details of something from becoming known ^[46] This criticism has been further developed by Ernest Gellner. Ernest André Gellner ( 9 December 1925 &ndash 5 November 1995) was a Philosopher and social anthropologist, cited as one ^[47] Frank Cioffi discusses the various senses of obscurantism in Wittgenstein, which he designates as 'limits obscurantism', 'method obscurantism', and 'sensibility obscurantism. '^[48]

Influence

Both his early and later work have been major influences in the development of analytic philosophy. Former students and colleagues include Gilbert Ryle, Friedrich Waismann, Norman Malcolm, G. E. M. Anscombe, Rush Rhees, Georg Henrik von Wright and Peter Geach. Gilbert Ryle ( 19 August 1900 - 6 October 1976) was a British Philosopher, and a representative of the generation of Friedrich Waismann ( March 21, 1896 - November 4, 1959) was an Austrian mathematician physicist and philosopher Norman Malcolm (1911 &ndash 1990 was an American philosopher, born in Selden Kansas. G E M Anscombe ( 18 March, 1919 &ndash 5 January, 2001) born Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe, but better known as Elizabeth Rush Rhees ( 19 March[[ 905]]- 22 May[[ 989]] was a Philosopher at Swansea University from 1940 to 1966 Rhees is principally known as a student Georg Henrik von Wright (pronounced roughly fon vrikt, IPA hɛnrik fɔn-vrikt ( June 14, 1916 &ndash June 16, 2003) was Peter Thomas Geach (giːtʃ born 29 March 1916) is a British philosopher

Contemporary philosophers heavily influenced by him include Michael Dummett,^[49] Donald Davidson,^[50] P.M.S. Hacker,^[51] John R. Searle, Saul Kripke, John McDowell, Hilary Putnam, Anthony Quinton, Peter Strawson, Paul Horwich, Colin McGinn, Daniel Dennett, Richard Rorty, D. Z. Phillips, Stanley Cavell, Cora Diamond, James F. Conant, and Jean-François Lyotard. Sir Michael Anthony Eardley Dummett FBA DLitt (born 1925 is a leading British Philosopher. Donald Herbert Davidson ( March 6, 1917  &ndash August 30, 2003) was an American Philosopher, who served as Slusser Peter Michael Stephan Hacker (born 15 July[[ 939]] in London is a British philosopher John Rogers Searle (born July 31 1932 in Denver Colorado) is an American Philosopher and the Slusser Professor of Philosophy at the University Saul Aaron Kripke (born on November 13, 1940 in Bay Shore New York) is an American philosopher and Logician now Emeritus John Henry McDowell (born 1942 in Boksburg, South Africa) is a Philosopher, formerly a Fellow of University College, Oxford Hilary Whitehall Putnam (born July 31 1926 is an American Philosopher who has been a central figure in Western philosophy since the 1960s especially in Philosophy Anthony Quinton Baron Quinton (born 1925 is a British political and moral Philosopher, metaphysician, and materialist Sir Peter Frederick Strawson ( 23 November 1919  &ndash 13 February 2006) was an English philosopher Paul Horwich (born 1947 is a British analytic philosopher at New York University, whose work includes writings on Causality, Truth Colin McGinn (born March 10, 1950) is a British Philosopher currently working at the University of Miami. Daniel Clement Dennett (born March 28 1942 in Boston, Massachusetts) is a prominent American philosopher whose research Richard McKay Rorty (October 4 1931 - June 8 2007 was an American Philosopher. Dewi Zephaniah Phillips ( 24 November 1934 &ndash 25 July 2006) known as D Stanley Louis Cavell (born September 1, 1926) is an American Philosopher. James Ferguson Conant (b June 10 1958 is an American Philosopher who has written extensively on topics in Philosophy of language, Ethics, Jean-François Lyotard (ʒɑ̃ fʀɑ̃swa ljɔˈtaʀ August 10 1924 April 21 1998) was a French philosopher and literary

With others, Conant, Diamond and Cavell have been associated with an interpretation of Wittgenstein sometimes known as the New Wittgenstein.

However, it cannot really be said that Wittgenstein founded a 'school' in any normal sense. The views of most of the above are generally contradictory. Indeed there are strong strains in his writings from the Tractatus onwards which would probably have regarded any such enterprise as fundamentally misguided.

Wittgenstein has also had a significant influence in the social sciences. Most significantly, social therapy has made use of Wittgenstein's language games as a tool for emotional growth. Social Therapy is an activity-theoretic practice developed outside of academia at the East Side Institute for Group and Short Term Psychotherapy in New York ^[52][53] Psychologists and psychotherapists inspired by Wittgenstein's work include Fred Newman, Lois Holzman, Brian J. Mistler, and John Morss. Fred Newman is a philosopher psychotherapist playwright and political activist and creator of a therapeutic modality called Social Therapy. Lois Holzman is a cofounder with Fred Newman of the East Side Institute for Group and Short Term Psychotherapy and the Institute's current director Brian J Mistler, BA BS MA ( University of Bradford) is an American born Philosopher and Writer. American anthropologist Clifford Geertz heavily grounded his development of linguistic symbolism in Wittgenstein's work. Clifford James Geertz ( August 23 1926, San Francisco – October 30 2006, Philadelphia) was an American

Wittgenstein's influence has extended beyond what is normally considered philosophy and may be found in various areas of the arts. American composer Steve Reich has twice set quotes from Wittgenstein to music. WikipediaWikiProject Composers#Lead section --> Stephen Michael Reich (born October 3 "How small a thought it takes to fill a whole life!" is the basis for Proverb (1995) while the third movement of You Are (Variations) (2004), uses a sentence from Philosophical Investigations: "Explanations come to an end somewhere. Proverb is a Musical composition by Steve Reich for three Sopranos two Tenors two Vibraphones and two Electric organs Philosophical Investigations ( Philosophische Untersuchungen) is along with the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, one of the two major works "^[54][55] Reich received a B. A. in philosophy from Cornell University in 1957, having written his thesis on Wittgenstein. ^[56] Wittgenstein was the last person considered in the final edition of the six-part BBC documentary, "Sea of Faith". Sea of Faith was a six-part documentary television series presented on BBC television in 1984 by Don Cupitt.

Notes and references

Bibliography

Works

Important publications

• Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung, Annalen der Naturphilosophie, 14 (1921)
  • Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, translated by C. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP is a free Online encyclopedia on philosophical topics and philosophers founded by James Fieser in 1995 Donald Herbert Davidson ( March 6, 1917  &ndash August 30, 2003) was an American Philosopher, who served as Slusser Massey University (Te Kunenga ki Pūrehuroa is New Zealand 's largest university with almost 40000 students Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus is the only book-length work published by Austrian Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. K. Ogden (1922)
• Philosophische Untersuchungen (1953)
  • Philosophical Investigations, translated by G. Philosophical Investigations ( Philosophische Untersuchungen) is along with the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, one of the two major works E. M. Anscombe (1953)
• Bemerkungen über die Grundlagen der Mathematik, ed. by G. H. von Wright, R. Rhees, and G. E. M. Anscombe (1956) (a selection from his writings on the philosophy of logic and mathematics between 1937 and 1944)
  • Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics, translated by G. E. M. Anscombe, rev. ed. (1978)
• Bemerkungen über die Philosophie der Psychologie, ed. G. E. M. Anscombe and G. H. von Wright (1980)
  • Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology, Vols. 1 and 2, translated by G. E. M. Anscombe, ed. G. E. M. Anscombe and G. H. von Wright (1980) (a selection of which makes up 'Zettel')
• The Blue and Brown Books (1958) (Notes dictated in English to Cambridge students in 1933–35)
• Philosophische Bemerkungen, ed. by Rush Rhees (1964)
  • Philosophical Remarks (1975)
  • Philosophical Grammar (1978)
• Bemerkungen über die Farben, ed. by G. E. M. Anscombe (1977)
  • Remarks on Colour ISBN 0-520-03727-8

Later work

• On Certainty — A collection of aphorisms discussing the relation between knowledge and certainty, extremely influential in the philosophy of action. On Certainty ( Über Gewissheit) is a philosophical text written by Ludwig Wittgenstein. Action theory is an area in Philosophy concerned with theories about the processes causing intentional (wilful human bodily movements of more or less complex kind
• Remarks on Colour — Remarks on Goethe's Theory of Colours. ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer Theory of Colours (original German title Zur Farbenlehre) is a book by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe published in 1810
• Culture and Value — A collection of personal remarks about various cultural issues, such as religion and music, as well as critique of Søren Kierkegaard's philosophy. Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;)
• Zettel, another collection of Wittgenstein's thoughts in fragmentary/"diary entry" format as with On Certainty and Culture and Value.

Works available online

• Review of P. Coffey's Science of Logic (1913): a polemical book review, written in 1912 for the March 1913 issue of the The Cambridge Review when Wittgenstein was an undergraduate studying with Russell. The review is the earliest public record of Wittgenstein's philosophical views.
• Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1922/1923), German text and Ogden-Ramsey translation
• Works by Ludwig Wittgenstein at Project Gutenberg
• Cambridge (1932–3) lecture notes
• The Blue Book
• Lecture on Ethics
• (A Few) Remarks

Further reading

• Bartley, William Warren (1985). Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works William Warren Bartley III, (1934–1990 was an American Professor of Philosophy a Senior Research Fellow at Stanford University and an author Wittgenstein. La Salle, Ill. : Open Court. ISBN 978-0875484419.  
• Brockhaus, Richard R. (1990). Pulling Up the Ladder: The Metaphysical Roots of Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. La Salle, Ill. : Open Court. ISBN 978-0812691252.   Explores the continental influences on Wittgenstein, often overlooked by more traditional analytic works.
• Drury, Maurice O'Connor; David Berman (ed), Michael Fitzgerald (ed), John Hayes (ed) (1973). Maurice O'Connor Drury (known as 'Con Drury' to his friends (1907 &ndash 1976 was an English Psychiatrist born in Exeter, Devon, England The Danger of Words and Writings on Wittgenstein. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 225. ISBN 1-85506-490-1.   A collection of Drury's writings concerning Wittgenstein, edited and introduced by David Berman, Michael Fitzgerald and John Hayes.
• Edmonds, David; John Eidinow (2001). Wittgenstein's Poker. New York: Ecco, 288. ISBN 978-0571227358.   A review of the origin of the conflict between Karl Popper and Wittgenstein, focused on events leading up to their volatile first encounter at 1946 Cambridge meeting. Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902  &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor
• Fonteneau, Françoise : L’éthique du silence. Wittgenstein et Lacan. Paris: Seuil. 1999
• Glock, Hans-Johann (1996). A Wittgenstein Dictionary. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass. : Blackwell Reference. ISBN 0-631-18112-1.  
• Grayling, A. C. (2001). Anthony Clifford Grayling (born 3 April 1949 is a British philosopher and author Wittgenstein: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285411-9.   An introduction aimed at the non-specialist reader.
• Guetti, James (1993). Wittgenstein and the Grammar of Literary Experience. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 0-8203-1496-X.  
• Hacker, P. M. S. (1986). Peter Michael Stephan Hacker (born 15 July[[ 939]] in London is a British philosopher Insight and Illusion: Themes in the Philosophy of Wittgenstein. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-824783-4.  
• Hacker, P. M. S. (1996). Peter Michael Stephan Hacker (born 15 July[[ 939]] in London is a British philosopher Wittgenstein's Place in Twentieth Century Analytic Philosophy. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass. : Blackwell Reference. ISBN 0-631-20098-3.   An analysis of the relationship between Wittgenstein's thought and that of Frege, Russell, and the Vienna Circle. Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege ( 8 November 1848, Wismar, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin  &ndash 26 July 1925 Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian The Vienna Circle (in German: der Wiener Kreis) was a group of philosophers who gathered around Moritz Schlick when he
• Harré, Rom; Tissaw, Michael A. Horace Romano Harré (born 1927 in New Zealand) known widely as Rom Harré, is a distinguished Philosopher and Psychologist Studies (2005). Wittgenstein and Psychology: A Practical Guide. Burlington, Vt. : Ashgate.   Looks at practical uses of Wittgenstein's later theories in a hands-on psychological context.
• Kitching, Gavin (2003). Gavin Kitching (BSc DPhil is a British author and professor of Social sciences and International relations (formerly head of School Politics and International Wittgenstein and Society: Essays in Conceptual Puzzlement. Burlington, Vt. : Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-3342-X.  
• Leitner, Bernhard (1973). The Architecture of Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Documentation. Halifax: Press of the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design. The Nova Scotia College of Art and Design (NSCAD University is a post-secondary Art school located in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. ISBN 0-919616-00-3.  
• Malcolm, Norman (1958). Norman Malcolm (1911 &ndash 1990 was an American philosopher, born in Selden Kansas. Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Memoir. London, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924759-5.   A portrait by someone who knew Wittgenstein well.
• McGuiness, Brian (1988). Young Ludwig: Wittgenstein's Life, 1889–1921. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-927994-2.  
• Monk, Ray (2005). Ray Monk is Professor of Philosophy at The Centre for Post-Analytic Philosophy at the University of Southampton, where he has taught since 1992 How To Read Wittgenstein. New York: Norton. ISBN 1-86207-724-X.   Using key texts from Wittgenstein's writings the author gives insight into how his philosophy can be interpreted.
• Monk, Ray (1990). Ray Monk is Professor of Philosophy at The Centre for Post-Analytic Philosophy at the University of Southampton, where he has taught since 1992 Ludwig Wittgenstein: The Duty of Genius. New York: Free Press, Maxwell Macmillan International. ISBN 0-14-015995-9.   A biography that also attempts to explain his philosophy.
• Schulte, Joachim; trans. William H. Brenner and John F. Holley (1992). Wittgenstein: An Introduction. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-1082-X.   A concise introduction to Wittgenstein's philosophy illuminated with passages from his work.
• Sterrett, Susan G. (2005). Wittgenstein Flies a Kite: A Story of Models of Wings and Models of the World. New York: Pi Press. ISBN 0-13-149997-1.   Accessible study of early years up to writing of Tractatus, interweaving history of flight, science and technology with logic and philosophy.

For an in-depth exegesis of Wittgenstein's later work, see the 4-volume analytical commentary by P.M.S. Hacker, volumes 1 and 2 co-authored with G. P. Baker:

1. (1980) Wittgenstein: Understanding and Meaning. Peter Michael Stephan Hacker (born 15 July[[ 939]] in London is a British philosopher Gordon Park Baker (born at Englewood New Jersey, 20 April, 1938; died at Woodstock Oxfordshire, 25 June, 2002) was an ISBN 0-631-12111-0.  
2. (1985) Wittgenstein: Rules, Grammar, and Necessity. ISBN 0-631-13024-1.  
3. (1990) Wittgenstein: Meaning and Mind. ISBN 0-631-18739-1.  
4. (1996) Wittgenstein: Mind and Will. ISBN 0-631-18739-1.  

Works about Wittgenstein

• The Jew of Linz, by Kimberley Cornish, puts forward the controversial thesis that Hitler's antisemitism arose from his dislike of Wittgenstein, and that Wittgenstein was a Soviet agent who recruited the "Cambridge Five". The Jew of Linz (1998 is a controversial book by Australian writer Kimberley Cornish. The Cambridge Five (also sometimes known as the Cambridge four) was a ring of Soviet spies in the UK who passed information to the Soviet
• City of God depicts an imaginary rivalry between Wittgenstein and Einstein, with Wittgenstein assuming the role of the narrator. Authored by E. L. Doctorow. Edgar Lawrence Doctorow (born January 6, 1931, New York New York) is an American Author whose critically acclaimed and award winning fiction
• Wittgenstein, a film by the avant-garde filmmaker Derek Jarman (1993). Wittgenstein is a 1993 film by the English director Derek Jarman. Avant-garde (avɑ̃gaʁd in French) means "advance guard" or "vanguard Derek Jarman ( January 31 1942 – February 19 1994) was an English Film director, Stage designer The script and the original treatment by Terry Eagleton have been published as a book by the British Film Institute. Terence Francis Eagleton (born 22 February, 1943, Salford then in Lancashire) is regarded by many as Britain's most influential living Literary The British Film Institute ( BFI) is a charitable organisation established by Royal Charter to encourage the development of the arts of film television
• Ludwig Wittgenstein, Architect, an extensive account of Wittgenstein's design of the house for his sister in Vienna. Written by Paul Wijdeveld, MIT Press, 1994.
• The Fifth Wittgenstein, a discussion of the connection between Wittgenstein's architecture and his philosophy by Kari Jormakka, Datutop 24, 2004.
• The World as I Found It by Bruce Duffy, a recreation of the life of Wittgenstein (1987).
• Wittgenstein's Poker: The Story of a Ten-Minute Argument Between Two Great Philosophers, by David Edmonds and John Eidenow (2002), describes the famous 10 minute meeting between Wittgenstein and Karl Popper which occurred on October 25, 1946. Wittgenstein's Poker The Story of a Ten-Minute Argument Between Two Great Philosophers is a 2001 book by BBC journalists David Edmonds and John Eidinow Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902  &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor Events 1147 - The Portuguese, under Afonso I, and Crusaders from England and Flanders conquer Lisbon after a Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ISBN 0-06-093664-9.
• Feminist Interpretations of Ludwig Wittgenstein, edited by Naomi Scheman and Peg O'Connor, offers a look at Wittgenstein's philosophies through a feminist perspective. ISBN 0-271-02198-5.
• Oppression and Responsibility by Peg O'Connor, a Wittgensteinian approach to social practice and moral theory.

See also

• Karl Popper
• Paul Feyerabend
• List of Austrian scientists

External links

• Cambridge Wittgenstein Archive - German and English, includes pictures, biography, searchable database of manuscripts. Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902  &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor Paul Karl Feyerabend ( January 13, 1924 – February 11, 1994) was an Austrian born Philosopher of science best known for This is a list of Austrian scientists and scientists from the Austria of Austria-Hungary.
• Wittgenstein's works are edited in an electronic edition (and sold on CDROM) at the University of Bergen in Norway. The University of Bergen ( Universitetet i Bergen) is located in Bergen, Norway. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional
• The Wittgenstein Portal
• Ludwig Wittgenstein entry at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• A collection of Ludwig Wittgenstein's manuscripts is held by Trinity College, Cambridge, England. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP is a freely-accessible Online encyclopedia of Philosophy maintained by Stanford University. Trinity College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland
• Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) is a comprehensive but old resource of Wittgensteinian material.
• Wittgenstein program from In Our Time (BBC Radio 4). In Our Time is a discussion programme hosted by Melvyn Bragg on BBC Radio 4 in the United Kingdom.
• T.P. Uschanov's page Wittgenstein links

Persondata
NAME	Wittgenstein, Ludwig
ALTERNATIVE NAMES	Wittgenstein, Ludwig Josef Johann
SHORT DESCRIPTION	Major Austrian philosopher
DATE OF BIRTH	26 April 1889
PLACE OF BIRTH	Linz, Austria
DATE OF DEATH	29 April 1951
PLACE OF DEATH	Cambridge, England

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