Low German or Low Saxon (in Germany:Plattdüütsch or Nedderdüütsch; in Netherlands: Nedersaksisch or Nederduuts; see nomenclature) is any of the regional language varieties of the West Germanic languages spoken mainly in Northern Germany and eastern parts of the Netherlands. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. Uruguay.(official full name in República Oriental del Uruguay;, Oriental Republic of Uruguay) is a country located in the southeastern part of South America Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page List of language familiesA language family is a group of Languages related by descent from a common ancestor called the Proto-language of that family The Germanic languages are a group of related languages that constitute a branch of the Indo-European (IE Language family. The West Germanic languages constitute the largest of the three traditional branches of the Germanic family of Languages and include languages such as English Dutch Low Saxon (Dutch Low Saxon Nedersaksisch) is a group of Low Saxon ( i West Low German (also known as Low Saxon) is a group of Low German dialects spoken in western portions of the German state of Lower Saxony East Low German is a group of Low German dialects spoken in Northeast Germany as well as by minorities in northern Poland. ISO 639-2 is the second part of the ISO 639 standard, which lists codes for the representation of the names of languages Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands A regional language is a Language spoken in an area of a Nation state, whether it be a small area a federal State or Province, or The West Germanic languages constitute the largest of the three traditional branches of the Germanic family of Languages and include languages such as English Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.

Geographical extent

Low German in Europe

Variants of Low German were widely (and are still to a far lesser extent) spoken in most parts of Northern Germany, for instance in the states of Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, Hamburg, Bremen, Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony-Anhalt and Brandenburg. Northern Germany is the geographic area in the north of Germany. Lower Saxony ( German: Niedersachsen ch is pronounced before an s --> lies in north-western Germany and is second North Rhine-Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen usually shortened to NRW, official short form NW is the westernmost and - in terms of population and economic output - the Hamburg (English, German: ˈhambʊɐk local pronunciation Low German / Low Saxon: Hamborg) is the second-largest city in Germany Bremen (ˈbʁeːmən is a Hanseatic city in northwestern Germany (official name Stadtgemeinde Bremen / City Municipality of Bremen is the northernmost of the 16 ''Bundesländer'' in Germany. The former English name was Sleswick-Holsatia the Danish name is Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, sometimes translated as Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania or Mecklenburg-West Pomerania, is a state in Northern Germany comprising Saxony-Anhalt ( Sachsen-Anhalt) is one of the sixteen ''Bundesländer'' (federal states that make up the Federal Republic of Germany. Brandenburg ( Lower Sorbian: Bramborska; Upper Sorbian: Braniborska) is one of the sixteen states of Germany. Small portions of northern Hesse and northern Thuringia are traditionally Low Saxon speaking too. Hesse (Hessen is a state of Germany with an area The Free State of Thuringia (Freistaat Thüringen is located in central Germany. Historically, Low German was also spoken in formerly German parts of Poland as well as in East Prussia and the Baltic States of Estonia and Latvia. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland East Prussia (Ostpreußen; Rytų Prūsija or Rytprūsiai; Prusy Wschodnie Восточная Пруссия or Vostochnaya Prussiya) refers to the main part The Baltic states (Balti riigid Baltijas valstis Baltijos valstybės or Baltic countries are three countries in Northern Europe, all members of the Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. The language was also formerly spoken in the outer areas of what is now the city state of Berlin but in the course of urbanization the language vanished. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany.

Today, there are still speakers outside of Germany to be found in the coastal areas of present Poland (minority of ethnic German Pommersch speakers who were not expelled from Pomerania, as well as the regions around Braunsberg). Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland This article is about the German diaspora See Germans for the German ethnicity in general Pomeranian (Pommersch is a group of East Low German Dialects named after Pomerania ( Pommern) The expulsion of Germans after World War II was the Forced migration and Ethnic cleansing of German nationals ( Reichsdeutsche) and ethnic For the present-day Polish provinces see Pomeranian Voivodeship and West Pomeranian Voivodeship. Braniewo ( former Brunsberga Prūsa is a Town in northeastern Poland, in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, with a population of 18068 (2004 In the Southern Jutland region of Denmark there may still be some Low German speakers in some German minority communities, but the Low German and North Frisian dialects of Denmark can be considered moribund at this time. This article is about the region of Denmark. For the World War I naval battle see Battle of Jutland. German -speaking minorities ( Ethnic Germans) live in many countries and on all six inhabited Continents the countries of the former Soviet Union The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe In Linguistics, language death (also language extinction, linguistic extinction, and sometimes pejoratively as linguicide) is a process

Low German outside Europe and the Mennonites

There are also immigrant communities in several places of the world, such as Canada, the United States, Mexico, South Africa, Central Asia, Malaysia, India, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, where Low German is spoken. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only Uruguay.(official full name in República Oriental del Uruguay;, Oriental Republic of Uruguay) is a country located in the southeastern part of South America In some of these countries, the language is part of the Mennonite religion and culture ^[1]. The Mennonites are a group of Christian Anabaptist denominations named after Menno Simons (1496&ndash1561 though his teachings were a relatively There are Mennonite communities in Saskatchewan and Manitoba, Canada which use Low German in their religious services and communities; the people are largely ethnic Germans whose ancestors had moved to newly acquired Russian territories in Ukraine before emigrating to the Americas in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Mennonites are a group of Christian Anabaptist denominations named after Menno Simons (1496&ndash1561 though his teachings were a relatively Saskatchewan (səˈskætʃəwən) is a prairie province in Canada, which has an area of 588276 Manitoba (English ˌmænɨˈtoʊbə French /manitoba/ is a province of Canada, spanning 647797 square kilometres (250116  sq mi of North America Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America The type of Low German spoken in these communities and in the midwest United States has diverged since emigration. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The survival of the language is tenuous in many places and has died out in some places where assimilation has occurred. Mennonite colonies in Paraguay, South America and Chihuahua, Mexico are said to have made Low German a "co-official language" of the community, in addition to the countries' official language, Spanish. Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America.

Nomenclature

Low German is called Plattdüütsch or Nedderdüütsch by native-speakers in Germany and Nedersaksisch or Nederduuts by most native-speakers in the Netherlands. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Low German is officially called Niederdeutsch ('Low German') by the German authorities; in eastern parts of the Netherlands it is officially called Nedersaksisch ('Low Saxon') by Dutch authorities. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Plattdeutsch/Niederdeutsch and Plattduits/Nedersaksisch are seen in linguistic texts from the German and Dutch linguistic communities respectively.

"Low" refers to the flat sea coasts and plains of the Northern European Lowlands, as opposed to High German and the mountainous areas of central and southern Germany, and the Alps (Switzerland and Austria). The High German languages (in German, Hochdeutsch) are any of the varieties of standard German, Luxembourgish and Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich ^[2]

The ISO 639-2 language code for Low German has been nds since May 2000. ISO 639 is the set of international standards that lists short codes for Language names

Disambiguation

There are three different uses of the term “Low German”:

1. A specific name of any West Germanic varieties that have neither taken part in the High German consonant shift nor classify as Low Franconian or Anglo-Frisian; this is the scope discussed in this article. The West Germanic languages constitute the largest of the three traditional branches of the Germanic family of Languages and include languages such as English In Historical linguistics, the High German consonant shift or second Germanic consonant shift was a phonological development ( Sound change) which took place Low Franconian, or Low Frankish, is a group of several West Germanic Languages spoken in the Netherlands, northern Belgium ( The Anglo-Frisian languages (sometimes Insular Germanic) are a group of Ingvaeonic West Germanic languages consisting of Old English
2. A broader term for the closely-related, continental West Germanic language family unaffected by the High German consonant shift, nor classifying as Anglo-Frisian, and thus including Low Franconian varieties such as Dutch. The West Germanic languages constitute the largest of the three traditional branches of the Germanic family of Languages and include languages such as English List of language familiesA language family is a group of Languages related by descent from a common ancestor called the Proto-language of that family The Anglo-Frisian languages (sometimes Insular Germanic) are a group of Ingvaeonic West Germanic languages consisting of Old English Low Franconian, or Low Frankish, is a group of several West Germanic Languages spoken in the Netherlands, northern Belgium ( Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname

The colloquial term "Platt" denotes both Low German dialects and any non-standard variety of German; this use is chiefly found in northern and western Germany and is considered not to be linguistic ^[3]. A standard language (also standard dialect, standardized dialect, or standardised dialect) is a particular variety of a Language that The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields

Many people in northern Germany are unaware that the use of Low German does not abruptly stop at the German-Dutch border, but in fact continues on into the eastern Netherlands. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Among those who are aware of it, a measure of estrangement (especially Dutch versus German influences and Dutch versus German based spelling), besides alleged sensitivities remaining from the German occupation in World War II, is often used as an argument in favor of ignoring the dialects of the Netherlands. Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The general attitude among Low German speakers in the Netherlands, however, is that the Dutch Low Saxon varieties belong to a continuum with the Low German varieties of Northern Germany. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Dutch Low Saxon (Dutch Low Saxon Nedersaksisch) is a group of Low Saxon ( i Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Many Low German speakers in the Netherlands are willing and happy to participate in activities organized on the German side of the border, and Dutch people have won prizes in Low German literature contests in Germany. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.

Status with respect to German and Dutch

The question of whether Low German should be considered a separate language, as opposed to a dialect of German or Dutch, has been a point of contention. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname Linguistics offer no simple, generally accepted criteria to decide this question, as it is of little academic interest. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields However, scholarly arguments have been put forward in favour of classifying Low German as a German dialect^[4][5].

Some such arguments are:

• Low German lacks any meaningful standard form regarding grammar, orthography, or other aspects, that would bridge the immense regional differences within Low German and form an equivalent to the standard forms of German, French, or other generally accepted independent languages (although Northern Low Saxon serves as a common intelligible language in TV and radio programmes);

• Low German is not used widely anywhere, and especially not outside of colloquial oral communication. Northern Low Saxon (in Low German Noordneddersassisch) is a West Low German dialect For the band see Broadcast (band Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and/or Video signals which transmit It is spoken on a daily basis by a small minority in Northern Germany. Use in the media is limited to small columns or segments that typically are specifically intended to foster and promote the language;

• Written Low German is used almost exclusively for belletristic literature, but not for technical documents, administrative or legal texts, etc. See also Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. Belles-lettres or belles lettres is a term that is used to describe a category

In contrast, Old Saxon and Middle High German may have met enough of these criteria to be considered separate languages in their own rights.

Claims to the contrary have also been made, ascribing to Low German the status of an independent language on par with German, Dutch, Danish, etc. They are often motivated by efforts to paint an uplifiting, positive picture to combat the perceived image of Low German as a dying and irrelevant idiom^[6], and show comparatively little interest in establishing objective criteria and measuring Low German by these. Instead, they focus on different points such as:

• The great differences between High and Low German; these are examined as absolutes and not compared to the differences between High German and other extreme, but established dialects (such as Swiss German), or between Low German and Dutch. Swiss German ( Schweizerdeutsch, Schwyzerdütsch, Schwiizertüütsch, Schwizertitsch) is any of the Alemannic dialects spoken
• The ostensible successes of very recent efforts (in the 1980s and 1990s) to revive Low German in the media, the schools, and in language societies.

Low German has been recognised by the Netherlands and by Germany (since 1999) as a regional language according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) A regional language is a Language spoken in an area of a Nation state, whether it be a small area a federal State or Province, or The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ( ECRML) is a European Treaty (CETS 148 adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe Within the official terminology defined in the charter, this status would not be available to a dialect of an official language (as per article 1 (a)), and hence not to Low German in Germany if it were considered a dialect of German. Advocates of the promotion of Low German have expressed considerable hope that this political development will at once lend legitimacy to their claim that Low German is a separate language and help mitigate the functional limits of the language that may still be cited as objective criteria for a mere dialect (such as the virtually complete absence from legal and administrative contexts, schools, the media, etc. )^[7].

Classification and related languages

Low German is a part of the West Germanic dialect continuum. The West Germanic languages constitute the largest of the three traditional branches of the Germanic family of Languages and include languages such as English A dialect continuum is a range of Dialects spoken across a large geographical area differing only slightly between areas that are geographically close and gradually decreasing

To the West, it blends into the Low Franconian languages which distinguish two plural verbal endings, as opposed to a common verbal plural ending in Low German. Low Franconian, or Low Frankish, is a group of several West Germanic Languages spoken in the Netherlands, northern Belgium (

To the South, it blends into the High German dialects of Central German that have been affected by the High German consonant shift. The High German languages (in German, Hochdeutsch) are any of the varieties of standard German, Luxembourgish and Central German (in German: Mitteldeutsch, or rarely Zentraldeutsch) is a group of High German dialects spread from the Rhineland to In Historical linguistics, the High German consonant shift or second Germanic consonant shift was a phonological development ( Sound change) which took place The division is usually drawn at the Benrath line that traces the maken – machen isogloss. In German linguistics the Benrath line (German Benrather Linie) is the maken-machen Isogloss. An isogloss is the geographical boundary or delineation of a certain linguistic feature e

To the East, it abuts the Kashubian language (the only remnant of the Pomeranian language) and, since the expulsion of nearly all Germans from Pomerania following the Second World War, also by the Polish language. Kashubian or Cassubian (Kashubian kaszëbsczi jãzëk, pòmòrsczi jãzëk, kaszëbskò-słowińskô mòwa; język kaszubski is one of For the Low German dialects also called Pomeranian see Pommersch. Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. The Low German dialects of Pomerania are included in the Pommersch group. Pomeranian (Pommersch is a group of East Low German Dialects named after Pomerania ( Pommern)

To the North and Northwest, it abuts the Danish and the Frisian languages. Danish ( d̥ænsɡ̊ is one of the North Germanic languages (also called Scandinavian languages a sub-group of the Germanic branch of the The Frisian languages are a closely related group of Germanic languages, spoken by about 500000 members of Frisian Ethnic groups who live on the southern Note that in Germany, Low German has replaced the Frisian languages in many regions. The Saterland Frisian is the only remnant of East Frisian language and is, outside East Frisia surrounded by Low German, as are the few remaining North Frisian varieties, and the Low German dialects of those regions have Frisian influences from Frisian substrates. Saterland Frisian, also known as Sater Frisian or Saterlandic ( Seeltersk) is the last living dialect of the East Frisian language East Frisia or Eastern Friesland ( Low Saxon: Oostfreesland, German Ostfriesland) is a coastal region in the northwest of the

Some classify the northern dialects of Low German together with English, Scots and Frisian as the North Sea Germanic or Ingvaeonic languages. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Scots ( The Scots leid) refers to Anglic varieties derived from early northern Middle English spoken in parts of Scotland and Northern The Frisian languages are a closely related group of Germanic languages, spoken by about 500000 members of Frisian Ethnic groups who live on the southern The North Sea is a marginal, Epeiric sea of the Atlantic Ocean on the European Continental shelf. The Ingaevones or Ingvaeones ("people of Yngvi " as described in However, most exclude Low German from that group often called Anglo-Frisian languages because some distinctive features of that group of languages are only partially observed in Low German, for instance the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law (some dialects have us, os for ‘us’ whereas others have uns, ons), and because other distinctive features do not occur in Low German at all, for instance the palatalization of /k/ (compare palatalized forms such as English cheese, Frisian tsiis to non-palatalized forms such as Low German Kees or Kaise, Dutch kaas, German Käse). The Anglo-Frisian languages (sometimes Insular Germanic) are a group of Ingvaeonic West Germanic languages consisting of Old English In Historical linguistics, the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law (also called the Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic nasal spirant law) is a description Palatalization or palatalisation (ˌpælətəlɨˈzeɪʃən generally refers to two phenomena As a process or the result of a process

Varieties of Low German

The Low German or Low Saxon languages indicated in yellow shades.
Low Rhenish and Limburgish / Bergish (bottom left) belong to Low Franconian (i. Low Rhenish (Nieder-Rheinisch is the collective name for the regional Low Franconian language varieties spoken along the Lower Rhine in the west of Germany Limburgish, or Limburgian or Limburgic ( Dutch: Limburgs, German: Limburgisch, French: Limbourgeois Low Franconian, or Low Frankish, is a group of several West Germanic Languages spoken in the Netherlands, northern Belgium ( e. Dutch) and should therefore not be included. These varieties, together with their Dutch counterparts, are sometimes called Meuse-Rhenish. Meuse-Rhenish is a modern superordinating term in the geography of the southeastern Low Franconian dialects spoken in the greater Meuse - Rhine area

In Germany

• West Low German
  • East Frisian Low Saxon
  • Northern Low Saxon
  • Westphalian language
  • Eastphalian language
• East Low German
  • Mark-Brannenborger Platt
  • Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
  • East Pomeranian
  • Low Prussian
  • Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low German, used also in many other countries)

In the Netherlands

The Dutch Low Saxon varieties, which are also defined as Dutch dialects, consist of:

• Westerkwartiers
  • Kollumerpompsters
  • Kollumerlands
  • Middaglands
  • Midden-Westerkwartiers
  • Zuid-Westerkwartiers
• Gronings and Noord-Drents
  • Hogelandsters
  • Stadsgronings
  • Westerwolds
  • Veenkoloniaals
  • Oldambtsters
• Stellingwerfs
• Midden-Drents
• Zuid-Drents
• Twents
• Twents-Graafschaps
• Gelders-Overijssels
  • Achterhoeks
  • Sallands
  • Urkers
• Veluws
  • Oost-Veluws
  • West-Veluws

History

Main article: History of Low German

Old Saxon

Main article: Old Saxon

Old Saxon, also known as Old Low German, is a West Germanic language. West Low German (also known as Low Saxon) is a group of Low German dialects spoken in western portions of the German state of Lower Saxony East Frisian Low Saxon is a West Low German Dialect spoken in the East Frisian peninsula of northwestern Lower Saxony. Northern Low Saxon (in Low German Noordneddersassisch) is a West Low German dialect Westphalian is one of the major dialect groups of West Low German. Eastphalian, or Eastfalian (in German, Ostfälisch) is a West Low German dialect spoken in southern parts of Lower Saxony and western East Low German is a group of Low German dialects spoken in Northeast Germany as well as by minorities in northern Poland. Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch is a Low German dialect Western parts of it are similar to some West Low German dialects while the eastern parts are influenced by the Language classification Low Prussian (Niederpreußisch sometimes known simply as Prussian ( Preußisch) is a Dialect of East Low German that developed in East Plautdietsch, or Mennonite Low German, was originally a Low Prussian variety of East Low German, with Dutch influence that developed in The Mennonites are a group of Christian Anabaptist denominations named after Menno Simons (1496&ndash1561 though his teachings were a relatively Dutch Low Saxon (Dutch Low Saxon Nedersaksisch) is a group of Low Saxon ( i Veluws is a Dutch Low Saxon dialect which is spoken on the Veluwe. West-Veluws is a West Low Saxon dialect from the Dutch province of Gelderland. High German Old High German See also Old High German The earliest testimonies of Old High German are from scattered Elder Futhark Old Saxon, also known as Old Low German ( ISO 639 -3 code osx) is the earliest recorded form of Low German, documented from the 9th century The West Germanic languages constitute the largest of the three traditional branches of the Germanic family of Languages and include languages such as English It is documented from the 9th century until the 12th century, when it evolved into Middle Low German. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Middle Low German ( ISO 639 -3 code gml) is a Language that is the descendant of Old Saxon and is the ancestor of modern Low German. It was spoken on the north-west coast of Germany and in Denmark by Saxon peoples. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. It is closely related to Old Anglo-Frisian (Old Frisian, Old English), partially participating in the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law. The Anglo-Frisian languages (sometimes Insular Germanic) are a group of Ingvaeonic West Germanic languages consisting of Old English Old Frisian was the West Germanic language spoken between the 8th and 16th centuries by the people who had settled in the area between the Rhine In Historical linguistics, the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law (also called the Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic nasal spirant law) is a description

Only a few texts survive, predominantly in baptismal vows the Saxons were required to perform at the behest of Charlemagne. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his The only literary texts preserved are Heliand and the Old Saxon Genesis. The Heliand (ˈhɛliənd or at the time ˈheliand is an epic poem in Old Saxon, written about 825

Middle Low German

Main article: Middle Low German

The Middle Low German language is an ancestor of modern Low German. Middle Low German ( ISO 639 -3 code gml) is a Language that is the descendant of Old Saxon and is the ancestor of modern Low German. It was spoken from about 1100 to 1500. The neighbour languages within the dialect continuum of the West Germanic languages were Middle Dutch in the West and Middle High German in the South, later substituted by Early New High German. A dialect continuum is a range of Dialects spoken across a large geographical area differing only slightly between areas that are geographically close and gradually decreasing The West Germanic languages constitute the largest of the three traditional branches of the Germanic family of Languages and include languages such as English Middle Dutch is a collective name for a number of closely related West Germanic dialects (whose ancestor was Old Dutch) which were spoken and written between 1150 Middle High German (MHG German Mittelhochdeutsch) is the term used for the period in the history of the German language between 1050 and 1350 Early New High German (ENHG is a term for the period in the history of the German language, generally defined following Wilhelm Scherer, as the period 1350 Middle Low German was the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League, spoken all around the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. A lingua franca (from Italian, literally meaning Frankish language, see etymology under Sabir and Italian below is any Language widely The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade The North Sea is a marginal, Epeiric sea of the Atlantic Ocean on the European Continental shelf. The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. Based on the language of Lübeck, a standardized written language was developing, though it was never codified. Lübeck ( is the second largest City in Schleswig-Holstein, in Northern Germany, and one of the major

Contemporary

After mass education in Germany in the 19th and 20th century the slow decline which Low German was experiencing since the end of the Hanseatic league turned into a free fall. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade Today efforts are made in Germany and in the Netherlands to protect Low German as a regional language. A regional language is a Language spoken in an area of a Nation state, whether it be a small area a federal State or Province, or Various Low German dialects are understood by 10 million people, and native to about 3 million people all around northern Germany. Most of these speakers are located in rural villages and are often elderly. Rural areas can be large and isolated (also referred to as "the country" and/or "the countryside over the course of time However, the KDE project supports Low German (nds) as a language for its computer desktop environment. KDE ( K Desktop Environment) (ˌkeɪdiːˈiː is a Free software project which aims to be a powerful system for an easy-to-use Desktop environment. ^[8]

Sound change

As with the Anglo-Frisian languages and the North Germanic languages, Low German has not been influenced by the High German consonant shift except for old /ð/ having shifted to /d/. The Anglo-Frisian languages (sometimes Insular Germanic) are a group of Ingvaeonic West Germanic languages consisting of Old English The North Germanic languages or Scandinavian languages make up one of the three branches of the Germanic languages, a sub-family of the Indo-European languages Therefore a lot of Low German words sound similar to their English counterparts. One feature that does distinguish Low German from English is final devoicing of obstruents, as exemplified by the words 'good' and 'wind' below. This is a characteristic of Dutch and German as well and involves positional neutralization of voicing contrast in the coda position for obstruents (i. e. t = d at the end of a syllable. )

For instance: water [wɒtɜ, watɜ, wætɜ], later [lɒːtɜ, laːtɜ, læːtɜ], bit [bɪt], dish [dis, diʃ], ship [ʃɪp, skɪp, sxɪp], pull [pʊl], good [gout, ɣɑut, ɣuːt], clock [klɔk], sail [sɑil], he [hɛi, hɑi, hi(j)], storm [stoːrm], wind [vɪˑnt], grass [gras, ɣras], hold [hoˑʊl(t)], old [oˑʊl(t)].

Low German is a West Germanic language of the lowlands and as such did not experience the High German consonant shift. In Historical linguistics, the High German consonant shift or second Germanic consonant shift was a phonological development ( Sound change) which took place The table below shows the relationship between English and Low German consonants which were unaffected by this chain shift and gives the modern German counterparts, which were affected by the sound shift. In the study of Historical linguistics and phonetic change a chain shift is a type of sound shift in which a group of sounds all change at about the same time The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages.

Note: The words shown are phonetic cognates. Cognates in Linguistics are words that have a common origin They may occur within a language such as shirt and skirt as two English words descended from The semantic values of some of these words have shifted over time. For example, the correct equivalent term for "wife" in modern Dutch and German is vrouw and Frau respectively; using wijf or Weib for a human is considered archaic in German and derogatory in Dutch, comparable to "bitch". Bitch is a term for the female of a canine species in general There is no phonetic equivalent to Frau/vrouw in English.

Grammar

Generally speaking, Low German grammar shows similarities with the grammars of Dutch, Frisian, English and Scots, but the dialects of Northern Germany share some features (especially lexical and syntactic features) with German dialects. Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language. Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language. Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname The Frisian languages are a closely related group of Germanic languages, spoken by about 500000 members of Frisian Ethnic groups who live on the southern English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Scots ( The Scots leid) refers to Anglic varieties derived from early northern Middle English spoken in parts of Scotland and Northern A dialect (from the Greek word διάλεκτος dialektos) is a variety of a Language that is characteristic of a particular group of Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. In Linguistics, the lexicon (from Greek Λεξικόν of a language is its Vocabulary, including its words and expressions In Linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek grc συν- syn-, "together" and grc τάξις táxis, "arrangement" is the The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages.

Nouns

Low German declension has only three morphologically marked noun cases, where accusative and dative together constitute an objective case. In Linguistics, declension (or declination) is the occurrence of Inflection in Nouns Pronouns and Adjectives indicating The accusative case ( abbreviated ACC) of a Noun is the Grammatical case used to mark the Direct object of a Transitive An objective pronoun in Grammar functions as the target of a Verb, as distinguished from a Subjective pronoun, which is the initiator of a verb

Dative dän

In most modern dialects, the nominative and the objective cases are primarily distinguished only in the singular of masculine nouns. The nominative case is a Grammatical case for a Noun, which generally marks the subject of a Verb, as opposed to its object or other An objective pronoun in Grammar functions as the target of a Verb, as distinguished from a Subjective pronoun, which is the initiator of a verb In linguistics grammatical number is a Grammatical category of nouns pronouns and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions (such as "one" In Linguistics, grammatical genders, sometimes also called Noun classes are classes of nouns reflected in the behavior of associated words every noun must belong In some Low German dialects, the genitive case is distinguished as well (e. g. varieties of Mennonite Low German. ) It is marked in the masculine gender by changing the masculine definite determiner 'de' from de to dän. By contrast, German distinguishes four cases; nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative. So, for example, the definite article of the masculine singular has the forms: der (nom), den (acc), des (gen), and dem (dat. ) Thus case marking in Low German is simpler than German's. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages.

Verbs

In Low German verbs are conjugated for person, number and tense. Verb conjugation for person is only differentiated in the singular. There are five tenses in Low German: Present tense, Preterite, Perfect, and Pluperfect and in Mennonite Low German the Present Perfect which signifies a remaining effect from a past finished action. Present Tense is the first Sagittarius album released in 1968 by Columbia Records. This article is about the grammatical term To see the article relating to Eschatology and the Book of Revelation, see Preterism. The perfect aspect is variously considered either an aspect or tense which calls a listener's attention to the consequences generated by an action rather than the The pluperfect tense (from Latin plus quam perfectum more than perfect also called past perfect in English, is a Perfective The present perfect tense is a Perfect tense used to express action that has been completed with respect to the present For example 'Ekj sie jekomen'-'I am come'-means that the speaker came and he is still at the place to which he came as a result of his completed action.

Unlike Dutch, German and southern Low German, the northern dialects form the participle without the prefix ge-, like the Scandinavian languages and English. Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. The North Germanic languages or Scandinavian languages make up one of the three branches of the Germanic languages, a sub-family of the Indo-European languages English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Compare to the German past participle geschlafen. In Linguistics, a participle (from Latin participium, a Calque of Greek μετοχη "partaking" is a derivative of a non-finite This past participle is formed with the auxiliary verb hebben 'to have'. In Linguistics, a participle (from Latin participium, a Calque of Greek μετοχη "partaking" is a derivative of a non-finite In Linguistics, an auxiliary (also called helping verb, helper verb, auxiliary verb, or verbal auxiliary) is a Verb functioning It should be noted that e- is used instead of ge- in most Southern (below Groningen in the Netherlands) dialects, though often not when the past participle ends with -en or in a few often used words like west (been). Groningen is the northeasternmost province of the Netherlands. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands A dialect (from the Greek word διάλεκτος dialektos) is a variety of a Language that is characteristic of a particular group of In Linguistics, a participle (from Latin participium, a Calque of Greek μετοχη "partaking" is a derivative of a non-finite

The reason for the two conjugations shown in the plural is regional: dialects in the central area use -t while the dialects in East Frisia and the dialects in Mecklenburg and further east use -en. East Frisia or Eastern Friesland ( Low Saxon: Oostfreesland, German Ostfriesland) is a coastal region in the northwest of the Mecklenburg ( Low German: Mekelnborg) is a region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern The -en suffix is of Dutch influence.

In Mennonite Low German, some verbs inflect into two moods: Indicative and Imperative. For the verb 'jäwen'-to give,for example, the Imperative form is 'jefs'.

There are 26 verb affixes.

Phonology

Vowels

• a- the tongue is put right between the mouth's bottom and mouth's top and right behind the mouth's teeth and mouth's back, and hum
• a- just below and behind the sound just mentioned, and hum
• ä- like in date, plain, in ray
• air- like in fairy
• e- like in death
• e- a schwa
• e- the tongue is put a little further forward than right in the center, and hum
• ie- like in heat, teeth, she
• i- like in hit
• o- like in story
• o- like in boat
• oo- like in tooth
• ur- like in hurry
• u- like in book
• u- like in pluck
• ü- the tongue is put between the teeth and right behind them and hum

Consonants

Since there is no standard Low German, there is no standard Low German consonant system. In Phonetics, a vowel is a Sound in spoken Language, such as English ah! or oh!, pronounced with an open Vocal tract A monophthong ( Greek μονόφθογγος "monophthongos" = single note) is a "pure" Vowel sound one whose articulation at The close front unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in many spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents Near-close near-front unrounded vowel The near-close near-front unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The The open-mid front unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The open back rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The near-close near-back vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet for The close front rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The open-mid back unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The near-open central vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The open-mid central unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet In Linguistics, specifically Phonetics and Phonology, schwa can mean the following An unstressed and toneless neutral The close front unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in many spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents In Articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a Speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the upper Vocal tract, the upper vocal The table shows the consonant system of North Saxon, a West Low Saxon dialect. ^[9]

Writing system

Low German is written using the Latin alphabet. Labials are consonants articulated either with both lips ( bilabial articulation or with the lower lip and the upper teeth ( labiodental articulation Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior Alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli (the sockets Postalveolar consonants are Consonants articulated with the tongue near or touching the back of the Alveolar ridge, placing them a bit further back in the Palatal consonants are Consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the Hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth Glottal consonants are Consonants articulated with the Glottis. A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. Fricatives are Consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together A nasal consonant (also called nasal stop or nasal continuant) is produced with a lowered velum in the mouth allowing air to escape freely through the Approximants are speech sounds ( Phonemes) that could be regarded as intermediate between Vowels and typical Consonants In the articulation of approximants There is no true standard orthography, only several locally more or less accepted orthographic guidelines, those in the Netherlands mostly based on Dutch orthography, and those in Germany mostly based on German orthography. The orthography of a language specifies the correct way of using a specific Writing system to write the language The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. This diversity—being the result of centuries of official neglect and suppression—has a very fragmenting and thus weakening effect on the language as a whole, since it has created barriers that do not exist on the spoken level. Interregional and international communication is severely hampered by this. Most of these systems aim at representing the phonetic (allophonic) output rather than underlying (phonemic) representations. Phonetics (from the Greek φωνή ( phonê) "sound" or "voice" is the study of the physical sounds of human speech In Phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar speech sounds ( Phones that belong to the same Phoneme. The phoneME project is Sun Microsystems reference implementation of Java virtual machine and associated libraries of Java ME with source licensed under the GNU Furthermore, many writers follow guidelines only roughly. This adds numerous idiosyncratic and often inconsistent ways of spelling to the already existing great orthographic diversity.

See also

• Meuse-Rhenish
• Moin
• 1614 Low German Bible
• Hamborger Veermaster

Resources

There is a lot of information about Low German to be found online. Meuse-Rhenish is a modern superordinating term in the geography of the southeastern Low Franconian dialects spoken in the greater Meuse - Rhine area Moin is a Frisian and Low German greeting from East Frisia, Southern Schleswig (inclusive North Frisia and Flensburg ´ De Hamborger Veermaster ´ ( Standard German: ´ Der Hamburger Viermaster ´ English: Hamburg's four-master) is a famous Sea shanty A selection of these links can be found on this page, which will provide a good frame work to understand the history, current situation and features of the language.

Information:

• Mennonite Low German-English Dictionary
• Ethnologue report for Low German (kind of imprecise, but Ethnologue are not planning an update any time soon)
• List of links, provided by the Lowlands List;
• Streektaal.net, information in and about various Low German dialects;
• Nu is de Welt platt! International resources in and about Low German;
• Niederdeutsch/Plattdeutsch in Westfalen, by Olaf Bordasch;
• Mönsterlänner Plat, by Klaus-Werner Kahl;
• Tizárrio's Veluywse websyde, by Tizáriio Ilaino;
• Plattdeutsch heute
• Building Blocks of Low Saxon (Low German), an introductory grammar in English and German

Organizations:

• Van Deinse Instituut (Twente, the Netherlands)
• IJsselacademie (Overijssel and Veluwe, the Netherlands)
• Staring Instituut (Achterhoek, the Netherlands)
• Oostfreeske Taal (Eastern Friesland, Germany)
• Drentse Taol (Drenthe, the Netherlands)
• Stichting Stellingwarver Schrieversronte (Friesland, the Netherlands)
• SONT (General, the Netherlands)
• Institut für niederdeutsche Sprache e.V. (General, Germany)
• Diesel - dat oostfreeske Bladdje (Eastern Friesland, Germany]

If your organisation isn't listed here, feel free to add it.

Writers:

• Gertrud Everding (Northern Low Saxon - Hamburg, Germany)
• Marlou Lessing (Northern Low Saxon - Hamburg, Germany)
• Clara Kramer-Freudenthal (Northern Low Saxon - Norderstedt, Germany)
• Johan Veenstra (Stellingwarfs - Friesland, the Netherlands)

Musicians:

• Skik (Drents/Dutch - Drenthe, the Netherlands)
• Jan Cornelius (East Frisian - Ostfriesland, Germany)
• Törf (Gronings - Groningen, the Netherlands)
• Eltje Doddema (Veenkoloniaals - Groningen, the Netherlands)
• Boh foi toch (Achterhoeks - Gelderland, the Netherlands)

Unorganized links:

• http://www.plattmaster.de/
• http://www.platt-online.de/
• http://www.zfn-ratzeburg.de/
• http://www.radiobremen.de/nachrichten/platt/
• http://www.deutsch-plattdeutsch.de/

References