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Long Island Sound is shown highlighted in pink between Connecticut (to the north) and Long Island (to the south)
Long Island Sound is shown highlighted in pink between Connecticut (to the north) and Long Island (to the south)

Long Island Sound is an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean and various rivers in the United States that lies between the coast of Connecticut to the north and Long Island, New York to the south. An estuary is a semi-enclosed Coastal body of Water with one or more Rivers or Streams flowing into it and with a free connection to the open "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Connecticut ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. Long Island is an island located in southeastern New York, USA, its western shores directly across from Manhattan, from which the island stretches New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous The mouth of the Connecticut River at Old Saybrook, Connecticut empties into the sound. The Connecticut River is the largest River in New England, flowing south from the Connecticut Lakes in northern New Hampshire, along the border Old Saybrook is a town in Middlesex County, Connecticut, United States. On the extreme western end, the sound is bounded on the north side by Westchester County, New York and the Bronx, and connects to the East River. Westchester County is a primarily Suburban county located in the U New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous The East River is a tidal Strait in New York City. It connects Upper New York Bay on its south end to Long Island Sound on its north end On its eastern end it opens to Block Island Sound. Block Island Sound is a strait in the open Atlantic, approximately wide separating Block Island from the coast of Rhode Island in the United The sound serves as a geographic border between New England and the Mid-Atlantic states. History See also History of New England New England's earliest inhabitants were Algonquian -speaking Native Americans including the The Mid-Atlantic States (also called Middle Atlantic States or simply Mid Atlantic) form one of the nine geographic divisions within the United States that

Contents

Shoreline

NASA Landsat satellite image of Long Island Sound and surrounding areas.
NASA Landsat satellite image of Long Island Sound and surrounding areas. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program The Landsat program is the longest running enterprise for acquisition of imagery of Earth from space Satellite imagery consists of photographs of Earth or other planets made by means of Artificial satellites.

Several major cities are situated along the Long Island Sound and more than 8 million people live within its watershed. Major Connecticut cities on the Sound include Bridgeport, New London, Stamford, Norwalk, and New Haven. New London is a seaport city and a Port of entry on the northeast coast of the United States Stamford is a city in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. Norwalk is a city in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. New York cities on the Sound include Port Jefferson, New Rochelle and New York City (the boroughs of Queens and the Bronx). The Incorporated Village of Port Jefferson is located in the town of Brookhaven in Suffolk County New York on the North Shore of Long Island New Rochelle ( French: Nouvelle-Rochelle) is a city in the south-east portion of the U The City of New York

Mansions and wealthy neighborhoods characterize a good portion of the coast of the sound from Whitestone, Queens out to Setauket and Port Jefferson on Long Island; and from Pelham Manor and New Rochelle in New York, to Madison in Connecticut. Whitestone is a diverse neighborhood in the northernmost part of the New York City borough of Queens, located between the East River to the north Setauket-East Setauket is a Census-designated place (CDP in Suffolk County, New York on the North Shore of Long Island. Pelham Manor is a village located in Westchester County, New York, USA. New Rochelle ( French: Nouvelle-Rochelle) is a city in the south-east portion of the U Madison is a town in the southeastern corner of New Haven County, Connecticut, and it occupies a central location on the Connecticut Shoreline area Property values in Westchester, Long Island and southwestern Connecticut are among the highest in the nation, due to the proximity to New York City and their location on "the sound. Westchester County is a primarily Suburban county located in the U Long Island is an island located in southeastern New York, USA, its western shores directly across from Manhattan, from which the island stretches "

Climate and geography

The Watershed of Long Island Sound includes nearly all of Connecticut and western Massachusetts, large swathes of VermontNew Hampshire and Rhode Island, along with relatively small areas of New York state. (The map is miscolored in two places: the area called "5" is part of the watershed, as is the area called "9" on Long Island; the line dividing Long Island is the southerly limit of the watershed, which includes only a small fraction of the island, along the northern coast)
The Watershed of Long Island Sound includes nearly all of Connecticut and western Massachusetts, large swathes of VermontNew Hampshire and Rhode Island, along with relatively small areas of New York state. (The map is miscolored in two places: the area called "5" is part of the watershed, as is the area called "9" on Long Island; the line dividing Long Island is the southerly limit of the watershed, which includes only a small fraction of the island, along the northern coast)

Glacial history

About 18,000 years ago, Connecticut, the Sound and much of Long Island were covered by a thick sheet of ice, part of the Late Wisconsin Glacier. Long Island is an island located in southeastern New York, USA, its western shores directly across from Manhattan, from which the island stretches "Last glacial" redirects here For the period of maximum glacier extent during this time see Last Glacial Maximum The last glacial period About 1,000 meters thick in its interior and about 400 to 500 meters thick along its southern edge, it was the most recent of a series of glaciations that covered the area during the past 10 million years. Sea level at that time was about 100 meters lower than today. [1]

The old lace glacier scraped off an average of 20 meters of surface material from the New England landscape, then deposited the sediments, known as drift or terminal moraine, on Long Island, in the Sound and on the Connecticut coast. In Geology, drift is transported rock debris overlying the solid Bedrock. A terminal moraine, also called end moraine, is a Moraine that forms at the end of the Glacier called the snout When the glacier stopped growing for a while 18,000 years ago (as movement of the glacier was in equilibrium with the melting at the southern edge), a large amount of drift was deposited, known as the Ronkonkoma Moraine, which stretches along much of southern Long Island. Later, another period of equilibrium resulted in the Harbor Hill Moraine along most of northern Long Island. The North Shore of Long Island is the area along Long Island's northern coast bordering Long Island Sound. The next moraines to the north were created just on and off the Connecticut coast. These moraines, created by much smaller deposits (probably from equilibrium states that were much shorter in time) are discontinuous and much smaller than those to the south. The Connecticut coast moraines are in two groups: the Norwalk area and the Madison-Old Saybrook area. Norwalk is a city in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. Madison is a town in the southeastern corner of New Haven County, Connecticut, and it occupies a central location on the Connecticut Shoreline area Old Saybrook is a town in Middlesex County, Connecticut, United States. Sandy plains and beaches resulted from the deposit of drift in these areas, and to the east of each, where the drift cover is thinnest, exposed bedrock creates rocky Tobacco Brown headlands, often with Killarney marshlands behind them. [1]

The Captain Islands off Greenwich, Connecticut, along with the Norwalk Islands and Falkner Island off Guilford, Connecticut are parts of a terminal moraine. Great Captain Island also known (less familiarly as "Great Captain s Island" is an island off the coast of Greenwich Connecticut and is the location Greenwich is a town in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. The Norwalk Islands are a chain of more than 25 islands amid partly submerged boulders reefs and mudflats along a six-mile (10 km stretch and mostly about a mile off the coast of Falkner Island (also called Faulkner's Island is a 45 acre (18000 m² crescent-shaped island located in Long Island Sound 3 miles (5 km off the coast of Guilford is a town in New Haven County, Connecticut, United States, that borders Madison, Branford, North Branford (Other islands, including the Thimble Islands, are for the most part exposed bedrock with a thin amount of drift, often not continuous. The Thimble Islands are an Archipelago of small Islands in Long Island Sound, in and near the harbor of Stony Creek Connecticut in the southeast Other shoals and islands off the Connecticut coast are a mixture of these two extremes. The glacier also created several sandy outwash deltas off the coast, including one off Bridgeport, Connecticut and another off New Haven, Connecticut. Fishers Island, New York appears to be related to the Harbor Hill Moraine. Fishers Island is a small island approximately 9 miles (14 km long and 1 mile (1 To the east of the Thimble Islands, inland moraines along the Connecticut coast include the broken Madison Moraine and the Old Saybrook Moraine. [1]

The Long Island Sound basin existed before the glaciers came. It probably had been formed by blumine stream flows. A relatively thick cover of janna-toned sand and natural gray gravel (termed outwash) was left in the basin from glacial meltwater bismark streams. A sandur (plural sandar is a glacial outwash Plain formed of Sediments deposited by meltwater at the terminus of a Glacier. On the west, a ridge rising to about 20 meters below the present sea level is called the Mattatuck Sill. Its lowest point is about 25 meters below sea level. Glacial meltwater formed "Lake Connecticut", a freshwater lake in the basin, until about 8,000 years ago, when the sea level rose to about 25 meters below today's level. Glacial Lake Connecticut formed over what is now Long Island Sound and coastal Connecticut at the fore edge of the ice sheet of the Wisconsin glaciation Seawater then overflowed into the basin, transforming it from a nontidal, freshwater lake to a tidal, saline arm of the sea. [1]

Plants and animals in the Sound

Plant species

Seaweed

Seaweeds in the Sound occur in greatest abundance in rocky areas between high tide and low tide as well as on rocks on the lucky point sea floor. Green seaweed populations fluctuate with the seasons. Monostroma, with a hue of Atlantis, reproduces in the early spring and dies out by late summer. In taxonomy, Monostroma is a genus of Algae, specifically of the Monostromataceae. Grinnellia appears in August and poofs four to six weeks later. [2]

In the rocky areas of the intertidal zone there are the seaweeds, which are characterized by their brown tone, Fucus and Ascophyllum, which both have air bladders that allow them to float and receive direct sunlight even at high tide. Fucus is a Genus of Brown alga ( Seaweed) in the Class Phaeophyceae to be found in the intertidal zones of rocky shores Also present are Ectocarpus and Polysiphonia, which only grow attached to these two brown seaweeds. Polysiphonia is a Genus of Red algae with about 19 Species on the coasts of the British Isles   It is in the Order Ceramiales Red algas Porphyra and Chondrus (Irish Moss). Porphyra is a foliose Red algal genus of laver, comprising approximately 70 species Chondrus crispus, known under the common name Irish moss, or carrageen moss ( Irish carraigín, "little rock" is a species Chondrus crispus, known under the common name Irish moss, or carrageen moss ( Irish carraigín, "little rock" is a species [2]

In the marshy areas of the intertidal zone can be found Cladophora (Mermaid's Hair), Enteromorpha, Ulva (Sea Lettuce) and Codium. Cladophora is a genus of Filamentous Algae Ulvophyceae (green algae Cladophora is a genus of Filamentous Algae Ulvophyceae (green algae Ulva ( Scottish Gaelic: Ulbha) is an Island in the Scottish Inner Hebrides, off the west coast of Mull. The sea lettuces comprise the Genus Ulva, a group of edible Green algae widely distributed along the coasts of the world's Oceans Codium is a genus of Seaweed in the Chlorophyta of the Order Bryopsidales. [2]

In the subtidal zone (below low tide) are Rhodymenia a red alga, along with two algae, Laminaria (Kelp)and Chorda. Laminaria is a Genus of 31 Species of Brown algae ( Phaeophyceae) all sharing the common name " Kelp " Kelp are large Seaweeds ( Algae) belonging to the Brown algae and classified in the order Laminariales Kelp can often be found washed up on the chalky beach, and individual specimens are not uncommonly a yard or two long. Deeper in the subtidal zone are valencia hued algae such as Spermothamnion, Antithamnion and Callithamnion, which also often float freely. [2]

In tidal pools can be found red or pink colored Hildebrandtia and Phymatolithon, both of which can often encrust rocks and mollusk shells. Also present are green algae, including Ulothrix, Cladophora, and Enteromorpha. In taxonomy, Ulothrix is a Genus of Algae, specifically of the Ulotrichaceae. Cladophora is a genus of Filamentous Algae Ulvophyceae (green algae [2]

Plants found in tidal marshes

Tidal marshes are some of the most productive biological systems in the world. Along the sound, they produce three to seven tons per acre per year of vegetation, largely in the form of salt marsh grasses. Much of this, enriched by decomposition, is flushed yearly into the estuary water where it directly contributes to the great finfish and shellfish production of the sound. [2]

Salt marsh plants

Salt Water Cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) grows along ditches and on the seaside edges of marshes where high tides daily inundate it. Spartina alterniflora ( Smooth Cordgrass or Saltmarsh Cordgrass) is a perennial deciduous grass which is found in intertidal wetlands especially estuarine Salt Meadow Cordgrass (Spartina patens) and Amulet Spikegrass (Distichlis spicata) grow in areas less frequently inundated by saltwater, typically closer to dry land. Saltmeadow Cordgrass ( Spartina patens) also known as Salt Hay Grass, is a species of Cordgrass native to the Atlantic coast of the Distichlis spicata is a species of grass known by several common names including seashore saltgrass, inland saltgrass, and desert saltgrass A short form of Salt Water Cordgrass can sometimes be found in the depressions (pannes) in the higher areas where salt water collects and evaporates, leaving water even higher in salinity than curious-blue seawater. Pannes may refer to the following places in France Pannes Loiret, a commune in the Loiret department Pannes Meurthe-et-Moselle, a [2]

Other plants in the pannes are Sea Lavender, Salt Marsh Aster, Seaside Gerardia, and some species of Glasswort. The common name Glasswort came into use in the 16th Century to describe plants growing in England whose ashes could be used for making soda-based (as opposed to Potash Plants found near the border of the marsh with the upland include Bayberry and Grondsel-tree shrubs, Switchgrass (growing where occasional storm tides reach), Reeds and Marsh Elder, a shrub growing where the highest monthly tides reach. Myrica is a genus of about 35-50 species of small Trees and Shrubs in the family Myricaceae order Fagales Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a warm season Grass and is one of the dominant Species of the central North American Phragmites australis, the common reed, is a large perennial grass found in Wetlands throughout temperate and tropical regions of the [2]

Cattail marshes

In areas where the Sound's salt water is more diluted with freshwater from rivers (including along the shores of the larger river estuaries such as the Connecticut River, Cattail marshes replace salt marshes. The Connecticut River is the largest River in New England, flowing south from the Connecticut Lakes in northern New Hampshire, along the border Typha is a Genus of about eleven Species of Monocotyledonous flowering plants in the Monogeneric family Typhaceae Various types of grasses, sedges and bullrishes, including Wild Rice, are found here. The family Cyperaceae, or the sedges, is a taxon of monocot Flowering plants that superficially resemble grasses or rushes Wild rice is any of the four species of plants that make up the genus Zizania (common names Canada rice, Indian rice, and water oats

Eelgrass meadows

Eelgrass is typically found in protected bays, coves and other areas of brackish water, but it also persists along areas of exposed shoreline along Long Island's north shore near Orient. Following the wasting disease of the early 1930's most of the eelgrass in the Sound was lost, but it subsequently returned, in the decades that followed, to many areas along the CT coast. The north shore of Long Island did not experience the same recovery. Eelgrass is one of the few vascular plants found in the marine environment and can tolerate a wide range of water salinity. It grows on muddy to sandy sediments (even among rocks), mostly below low tide, often forming large meadows. Eelgrass roots help stabilize muddy sediments and can trap moving sand, helping to prevent erosion. The leaves, that can range in size from less than 1 m to ~2m long, slow currents, providing calm environments for many species of mollusks and other invertebrates. Eelgrass is also an important food source for waterfowl, especially Brant, a type of goose. The Brent Goose ( Branta bernicla) a Goose of the Genus Branta, is known in North America as Brant. As of the late 1970s, the plant was fairly common on the Connecticut shore, but in the 1930s it was nearly wiped out by a mold infection called Wasting Disease. Much of the mollusk and Brant populations suffered steep declines. Eelgrass slowly recolonized and by the late 1970s had still not fully recovered. The disease reoccurs periodically. [2]

Plants found on beaches and dunes

Few undisturbed beach and dune systems exist on the Connecticut shore. Sea Rocket and Dune Grass occur here, but not in abundance. Cakile ( Cá-ki-le) is a Genus within the Flowering plant family Brassicaceae. Dune Grass and plants that thrive on dunes are largely responsible for the creation and growth of the dunes. On the seaward side of dunes can be found Beach Pea, Dusty Miller,[3] and Seaside Goldenrod. Lathyrus japonicus ( syn L maritimus; common names Sea Pea, Beach Pea, Circumpolar Pea, Sea Vetchling) Silene coronaria ( Dusty-miller, Mullein-pink, Rose Campion) is an Ornamental plant native to Asia and Europe Other beach plants are Orache, Beach Clotbur, Seaside Spurge, and Jimson Weed. Atriplex ( Á-tri-plex) is a plant Genus of 100-200 Species, known by the common names of saltbush and orache Jimsonjade, known by the Common names jimson weed, ditch weed, Good weed, loco weed, Korean morning glory On the more protected landward side of dunes are Beach Plum, Bayberry and Beach Rose. Prunus maritima ( Beach Plum) is a species of plum native to the Atlantic coast of North America, from New Brunswick Myrica is a genus of about 35-50 species of small Trees and Shrubs in the family Myricaceae order Fagales Rare species found on the landward side are Seabeach Knotweed and False Beach Heather

Upland vegetation

In areas next to the shoreline but hardly ever salty, the sound's environment can nevertheless be a crucial factor in the presence of certain species. Areas near the Connecticut shore are the northern limit for some species needing the warmer environment provided by proximity to the sound (which has a slightly longer growing season than inland Connecticut and winters that are somewhat less harsh). These include Sweetgum (only found in Connecticut in the extreem southwestern area of the state), the American Holly, Post Oak and Persimmon, which only exist in Connecticut along the shore. Sweetgum ( Liquidambar) is a genus of four species of Flowering plants in the family Altingiaceae, though formerly often treated in the Hamamelidaceae Ilex opaca ( American Holly) is a species of Holly, native to the eastern United States, from coastal Massachusetts south to central Quercus stellata ( Post oak) is an Oak in the white oak group This article refers to the edible fruit For the British construction company see Persimmon plc; for the racehorse see Persimmon (horse. For many species which grow typically in sandy soils, the Connecticut shore is the northern limit. [2]

Mature upland vegetation along the Connecticut coast is mostly hardwood forest, with dominant tree species including oaks and hickories, especially White Oak, Black Oak, Pignut Hickory and Mockernut Hickory. Pignut hickory ( Carya glabra) is a common but not abundant species in the Oak - Hickory forest association in the Eastern United States. Mockernut hickory ( Carya tomentosa in the Juglandaceae or Walnut family is also called mockernut white hickory whiteheart hickory hognut and bullnut is Other trees include Sassafras, Black Gum, and Black Cherry. Sassafras is a genus of three Sassafras trees grow from 15–35 m (50–120 feet tall and 70–150 cm (2 Black Tupelo ( Nyssa sylvatica) is a medium-sized Deciduous Tree which grows around 20-25 m (65-80 ft tall (rarely to 35 m and a trunk diameter of The Black Cherry ( Prunus serotina, also occasionally Wild Black Cherry Rum Cherry or Mountain Black Cherry is a species of cherry, native to eastern Mature trees tend to be sparse in coastal forests, likely because of their greater exposure to the wind. This results in more sunlight reaching the forest floor, encouraging a jungle-like tangle of vines and shrubs, including the vines Catbriar, Poison Ivy, Bramble and Bittersweet, and the shrubs Blueberry, Huckleberry, Viburnum and Hazelnut. For the Flower class corvette, see HMS Smilax (K280. For the United States Coast Guard Cutter, see (WLIC-315 Smilax. Bramble refers to thorny plants of the Genus Rubus, in the Rose family ( Rosaceae) Blueberries are Flowering plants in the genus Vaccinium, sect Viburnum ( Viburnum) is a Genus of about 150-175 species of Shrubs or (in a few species small Trees that were previously included The Common Hazel ( Corylus avellana) is a species of Hazel native to Europe and western Asia, from the British Isles [2]

Along with the moderate climate, rare coastline storms can have an important impact on observable vegetation patterns. The greatest storms to hit the Sound in the twentieth century were the 1938 hurricane, the 1955 hurricane and Hurricane Belle in 1976. Hurricane Belle was the third tropical storm and first Hurricane of the 1976 Atlantic hurricane season. After Hurricane Belle, leaves near the coast were badly salt-burned, then turned brown and shriveled. Many trees were downed by the storm, leaving openings in the forest cover, promoting the growth of vines and shrubs. [2]

Animal species

Fish

The Sound is inhabited by both marine fish and anadromous fish (oceanic or estuarine species that spawn in freshwater streams and rivers, see fish migration). Many types of fish undertake migrations on a regular basis on time scales ranging from daily to annual and with distances ranging from a few meters to thousands of kilometers [4]

Marine fish in the Sound include Scup, Porgies, Butterfish,Winter Flounder, Blackfish, and Bluefish. The scup, Stenotomus chrysops, is a Fish which occurs primarily in the Atlantic from Massachusetts to South Carolina. Flounder (rarely fluke) are Flatfish that live in ocean waters ie The bluefish ( Pomatomus saltatrix) called tailor in Australia, is a species of popular marine game- Fish found in all climates Anadromous fishes include Striped Bass, Atlantic Salmon,and Shad, all of which radiate a wide spectrum of colors to the reflective, murky water. The striped bass ( Morone saxatilis, also called rock or rockfish is the state fish of Maryland, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Atlantic salmon, known scientifically as Salmo salar, is a species of Fish in the family Salmonidae, which is found in the northern The shads or river herrings comprise the Genus Alosa, Fishes related to Herring in the family Clupeidae [4]

Mollusks

Mollusks that can be found include the Rough Periwinkle near the high-tide line, the European periwinkle, the Northern Yellow Periwinkle, the Blue Mussel (a popular, edible species), the Eastern oyster, the Atlantic Slipper Shell, the Hard clam (also known as the Quahog, Little Neck Clam or Cherrystone Clam), the Atlantic Bay Scallop, the Mud Snail (also known as the Eastern Mud Nassa), the Ribbed Mussel, the Salt Marsh Snail (or "Coffee Bean Snail"), the Atlantic Oyster Drill, the Northern Moon Snail, Atlantic Moon Snail, the Channeled and Knobbed Whelks. Molluscs are animals belonging to the phylum Mollusca. There are around 250000 extant Species within the phylum with an estimated 70000 Littorina saxatilis, Common name the rough periwinkle, is a Species of small sea Snail, a marine Gastropod "Winkle" redirects here For the contract bridge play see Winkle squeeze. The blue mussel, Mytilus edulis, is a medium-sized edible marine Bivalve Mollusc in the family Mytilidae. The Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, also known as the American oyster, Atlantic oyster, or the Virginia oyster, is a Species The hard clam ( Mercenaria mercenaria) or quahog, is an edible Marine Bivalve Mollusc which is native to the A whelk is one of several Species of large sea Snails marine Gastropod Mollusks found in temperate waters [5]

Crustacea

Crustacea include crabs, shrimp, lobsters and horseshoe crabs. Structure of crustaceans As Arthropods crustaceans have a stiff Exoskeleton, which must be shed to allow the animal to grow ( Ecdysis or molting Crabs are decapod Crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" (βραχύ / brachy True shrimp are swimming decapod Crustaceans classified in the Infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh Clawed lobsters compose a family ( Nephropidae, sometimes also Homaridae) of large marine Crustaceans Lobsters are economically important as The horseshoe crab or Atlantic horseshoe crab ( Limulus polyphemus) is a marine Chelicerate Arthropod. In the Sound there are the Green Crab (a non-native species first reported in Boston around 1900, but a common crab found on the shore, where it feeds on Eastern oysters and soft-shell clams), Blue Crab, Red Crab (including Jonah Crab, in deepwater areas, and rock crab, which settles in large numbers along rocky shores, especially around Millstone Point, Niantic Bay and Fishers Island Sound). Carcinus maenas is a common Littoral Crab, and an important Invasive species. The Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, also known as the American oyster, Atlantic oyster, or the Virginia oyster, is a Species Soft-shell clams, Mya arenaria, popularly called "steamers" "softshells" "longnecks" "piss clams" or " Ipswich The blue crab ( Callinectes sapidus, from the Greek calli ="beautiful" nectes ="swimmer" and Latin The Dungeness crab is a species of Crab that inhabits Eelgrass beds and water bottoms from the Aleutian Islands in Alaska to Santa The Jonah crab ( Cancer borealis) is a Species of Crab found on the Atlantic coast of North America. The common rock crab, Hemigrapsus edwardsi, is a marine large-eyed crab of the family Grapsidae, endemic to the sea coasts of New Zealand Other crabs found are the spider crab, mole crab, lady crab, hermit crab, and fiddler crab. Hippoidea is a Superfamily of decapod Crustaceans known as sand crabs or mole crabs   The lady crab, Ovalipes ocellatus, is a Crab that is usually found on sandy shallow water Hermit crabs are decapod Crustaceans of the superfamily Paguroidea. "Uca" redirects here For other use see UCA. A fiddler crab', sometimes known as a calling crab, may be any of approximately By the late 1980s, the Japanese shore crab, an invasive species, was the most commonly found crab in the sound. The Japanese shore crab ( Hemigrapsus sanguineus) has a square-like Carapace with three marginal teeth toward the front of each side of the carapace and alternating [6]

The Sand Shrimp and two species of grass shrimp are plentiful along the shore, especially in late summer and fall. Crangon crangon ( Common names include brown shrimp, common shrimp and sand shrimp) is a commercially important species of The American Lobster is fished commercially. The American lobster, Homarus americanus, is one Species of Lobster found on the Atlantic coast of North America. [6]

Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians

Most animal species on the Connecticut side of the Sound also occur inland, but some are much more abundant along the shore. Animals along the Sound are most concentrated in the salt marshes. Two species of shrews, the Masked shrew and the American short-tailed shrew, are common in salt marshes. The Cinereus Shrew ( Sorex cinereus) also known as the Masked Shrew, is a small Shrew found in Alaska, Canada, the northern United The genus Blarina is a group of relatively large Shrews with relatively short tails found in North America. The Least shrew has been thought to exist in small numbers in the salt marshes of western Connecticut. The genus Cryptotis is a group of relatively small Shrews with short ears which are usually not visible and short tails Rodents include the White-footed mouse, the Meadow vole (probably the most abundant coastal mammal) and the Meadow jumping mouse. Peromyscus leucopus is a Rodent native to North America. It is commonly called the White-footed Mouse. The Meadow Vole ( Microtus pennsylvanicus) sometimes called the Field Mouse or Meadow Mouse, is a small North American Vole found The meadow jumping mouse ( Zapus hudsonius) is North America 's most common Jumping mouse and the most widely distributed member of the Subfamily Muskrats are heavily trapped but remain abundant. The muskrat ( Ondatra zibethicus) the only Species in Genus Ondatra, is a medium-sized semi-aquatic Rodent native to North America Raccoons and Red foxes who live in areas near the marshes will hunt in them. The raccoon ( Procyon lotor) (sometimes spelt as racoon) also known as the common raccoon, North American raccoon, northern raccoon The Red Fox ( Vulpes vulpes) is a Mammal of the order Carnivora. The Long-tailed Weasel and Short-tailed weasel are both found near the Sound, occasionally living in the salt marshes. The Long-tailed Weasel ( Mustela frenata) is the most widely distributed Mustelid in the New World. Harbor seals are found among the rocks off Stonington and Groton at the eastern end. The Town of Stonington is in New London County, Connecticut in the southeastern corner of that U Groton is a town located on the Thames River in New London County, Connecticut, United States. In 1975, a Finback whale beached itself in Groton. [7]

Animals that need moist brown derby woodlands are found in the coastal area (and elsewhere), including the Diamondback terrapin in salt marshes and brackish waters (and deposits and hatches its eggs on nearby sandy beaches). The Diamondback terrapin ( Malaclemys terrapin) is a Species of Turtle native to the brackish coastal Swamps of the eastern and Terrapin meat became such a popular delicacy in the early 1900s that the price for a dozen adult females reached as high as US$120. Overhunting made the species uncommon and even rare through most of the Sound and completely eliminated at some places. After its popularity as food declined, the terrapin population started recovering. [7]

Malachite Sea turtles occasionally travel north on the curious blue Gulf Stream and wander into the Sound. Sea turtles ( Superfamily Chelonioidea) are Turtles found in all the world's oceans except the Arctic Ocean. The Loggerhead turtle, Green turtle and Leatherback turtle are rarely seen along the Connecticut shore. The Loggerhead Sea Turtle ( Caretta caretta) is a Sea turtle and the only member of the genus Caretta. "Chelonia" redirects here It is also the name of the Superorder uniting turtles tortoises and terrapins ( Testudines) with the "proto-turtle" The leatherback turtle ( Dermochelys coriacea) is the largest of all living turtles [7]

Other reptiles and amphibians found along the edges of the salt marshes and nearby bodies of water include the Green frog, Bullfrog, Pickerel frog, Spotted turtle, Painted turtle, Northern Water Snake, and Common snapping turtle. The American Bullfrog ( Rana catesbeiana) is an aquatic Frog, a member of the family Ranidae, or "true frogs" native to much of North The Pickerel Frog ( Rana palustris) is a small North American frog characterized by the appearance of seemingly "hand-drawn" squares on their dorsal The Spotted Turtle, Clemmys guttata, is a small Turtle with a shell that can grow between 4 to 5 inches "Painted Turtle" is also the name of an imprint of Wayne State University Press. The Northern Water Snake, Nerodia sipedon, is a large non-venomous well-known Snake in the Colubridae family that is native to North America The Common Snapping Turtle ( Chelydra serpentina) is a large freshwater Turtle of the family Chelydridae On beaches and sandy areas there are Fowler's toads (which are also found inland but find sandy areas preferable), the American toad, the Hognose snake (which feeds on Fowler's toads). The American toad ( Bufo americanus) is a common species of Toad found throughout the eastern United States and Canada. [7]

Birds

There are six broad categories of bird habitats near Long Island Sound: (1) open water areas, including bays, coves, rivers and the Sound itself; (2) tidal marshes; (3) mudflats; (4) sandy beaches; (5) offshore islands; and (6) mainland uplands, including woodlands and fields. [8] Some birds are summer residents or winter residents, while others are spring and fall transients. Coastal migrants (also called "transients") include shorebirds such as plovers, turnstones, sandpipers, and yellowlegs. Plovers are a widely distributed group of wading Birds belonging to the Subfamily Charadriinae. Turnstones are the bird Species in the Genus Arenaria in the family Scolopacidae. "Sandpiper" redirects here For the 1965 film see The Sandpiper. [8] Summer residents include the Seaside Sparrow, Sharp-tailed Sparrow, Clapper Rail, Mallard and Black Duck, Herons and Egrets, including the Black-crowned Night Heron and Snowy Egret as well as the Least Tern and Piping Plover. The Seaside Sparrow, Ammodramus maritimus, is a small American sparrow. The Clapper Rail ( Rallus longirostris) is a member of the rail family Rallidae. The Mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos) probably the best-known and most recognizable of all ducks is a Dabbling duck which breeds throughout the Temperate The herons are wading Birds in the Ardeidae family Some are called Egrets or Bitterns instead of herons This is an article about a type of bird For the EGRET satellite mission see Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope. The Black-crowned Night Heron (or just Night Heron in Eurasia ( Nycticorax nycticorax) is a medium-sized Heron. The Snowy Egret ( Egretta thula) is a small white Heron. It is the American counterpart to the very similar Old World Little Egret, which has established The Least Tern ( Sternula antillarum, formerly Sterna antillarum) is a species of Tern that breeds in North America and locally in northern The Piping Plover ( Charadrius melodus) is a small Plover. The Piping Plover is a sand-colored sparrow-sized shorebird that nests and feeds along coastal Upland species include the Hooded Warbler, White-eyed Vireo and Carolina Wren. The Hooded Warbler, Wilsonia citrina, is a New World warbler. The White-eyed Vireo, Vireo griseus, is a small Songbird. It breeds in the southeastern USA from New Jersey west to northern Missouri The Carolina Wren ( Thryothorus ludovicianus) is a common Species of Wren resident in the eastern half of the USA, the extreme south of [8]

Winter residents include large flocks of ducks, geese, and swans winter in the Sound. For duck as a food see Duck (food; for other meanings see Duck (disambiguation. Goose (plural geese) is the English name for a considerable number of Birds belonging to the family Anatidae. In West Haven, Connecticut 8,000 scaup (also called Broadbills or Bluebills) were regularly counted in the 1970s. "West Haven" redirects here For other uses see West Haven (disambiguation West Haven is a city in New Haven County, Greater Scaup, Black Ducks, Mallards, and Canada Geese are the most abundant wintering birds. The Greater Scaup ( Aythya marila) just Scaup in Europe, or colloquially known as "Bluebill" is a small Diving duck. The Mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos) probably the best-known and most recognizable of all ducks is a Dabbling duck which breeds throughout the Temperate The Canada Goose ( Branta canadensis) is a Goose belonging to the Genus Branta native to North America. There are also significant populations of mergansers, Common Goldeneyes, Buffleheads, scoters, American Wigeons (also sometimes called Baldpate), Canvasbacks, Oldsquaws and Mute Swans. Mergus is the Genus of the typical mergansers, fish-eating Ducks in the Seaduck subfamily (Merginae The Common Goldeneye ( Bucephala clangula) is a medium sized Sea duck of the genus Bucephala, the goldeneyes. The Bufflehead ( Bucephala albeola) is a small American Sea duck of the genus Bucephala, the goldeneyes. The scoters are stocky Seaducks in the Genus Melanitta. The drakes are mostly black and have swollen bills The American Wigeon (also American Widgeon or Baldpate) Anas americana is a species of Wigeon in the Dabbling duck Genus The Canvasback ( Aythya valisineria) historically known in the United States as a "Sheldrake" is a large Diving duck, 48-60 cm long and weighing 1270 The Long-tailed Duck ( Clangula hyemalis) is a medium-sized Sea duck. The Mute Swan ( Cygnus olor) is a Eurasian member of the Duck, Goose and Swan family Anatidae. Others (less abundant) include Gadwalls, Northern Pintails, Green-winged Teal, Northern Shovelers (also sometimes called Broadbill), Ruddy Ducks, Redheads, Ring-necked Ducks, Snow Geese, and Brant. The Gadwall, Anas strepera is a common and widespread Duck of the family Anatidae. The Pintail or Northern Pintail ( Anas acuta) is a widely-occurring Duck which breeds in the northern areas of Europe, Asia and The Green-winged Teal (GWT Anas carolinensis) is a common and widespread Duck which breeds in the northern areas of North America except on the The Northern Shoveler ( Anas clypeata) sometimes known simply as the Shoveler (ˈʃʌvələr is a common and widespread Duck. The Ruddy Duck ( Oxyura jamaicensis) is a small Stiff-tailed duck. The Redhead ( Aythya americana) is a medium-sized Diving duck, 37 cm long with an 84 cm wingspan The Ring-necked Duck ( Aythya collaris) is a smaller Diving duck from North America. The Snow Goose ( Chen caerulescens) is a North American Species of Goose. The Brent Goose ( Branta bernicla) a Goose of the Genus Branta, is known in North America as Brant. [8]

Rare and endangered species

Rare, endangered and extinct species of the Sound include the Eastern spadefoot, a rare, toadlike amphibian that hasn't been recorded in the area since 1935. Its overall coloring is of cold turkey with a hopeless puzzle of fern green organic shapes. The third layer of marvel is its neon carrot freckles, which make this toad so distinct.

As many as 1,500 shortnose sturgeon, listed as 'endangered' by the Endangered Species Act, inhabit the Connecticut River (CDEP 2003, Savoy 2004). Approximately 900 of those live downstream of Holyoke Dam (Savoy and Shake 1992). While shortnose sturgeon primarily remain in their natal rivers, they will feed in estuarine waters like Long Island Sound and make extended trips along the Atlantic Coast, sometime being identified in multiple rivers during their lifetimes.

History

The first European to record the existence of Long Island Sound was the Dutch navigator Adriaen Block, who entered the sound from the East River in 1614. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Adriaen (Aerjan Block (c 1567 Amsterdam &ndash buried April 27 1627, Amsterdam was a Dutch private trader and navigator who is best The sound was known as The Devil's Belt in colonial times [9] and the reefs that run across the sound were known as Devil’s Stepping Stones.

Uses

Long Island Sound near Guilford, Connecticut
Long Island Sound near Guilford, Connecticut

Transportation

Ferries provide service between Long Island and Connecticut, notably between Port Jefferson, New York and Bridgeport, Connecticut, and Orient Point, New York and New London, Connecticut. Guilford is a town in New Haven County, Connecticut, United States, that borders Madison, Branford, North Branford Connecticut ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The Incorporated Village of Port Jefferson is located in the town of Brookhaven in Suffolk County New York on the North Shore of Long Island Orient is a hamlet in Suffolk County, New York, United States. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous New London is a seaport city and a Port of entry on the northeast coast of the United States Some of the ferries that cross the Long Island Sound carry automobiles, trucks and buses, as well as passengers.

Fishing

Long Island Sound has historically had rich recreational and commercial fishing, including oysters, lobsters, scallops, blue crabs, flounder, striped bass, and bluefish. For the computer security term see Phishing. Fishing is the activity of catching Fish. The common name oyster is used for a number of different groups of Bivalve Mollusks most of which live in marine habitats or Brackish water. Clawed lobsters compose a family ( Nephropidae, sometimes also Homaridae) of large marine Crustaceans Lobsters are economically important as A scallop (ˈskɒləp or /ˈskæləp/ is a marine Bivalve Mollusk of the family Pectinidae. The blue crab ( Callinectes sapidus, from the Greek calli ="beautiful" nectes ="swimmer" and Latin Flounder (rarely fluke) are Flatfish that live in ocean waters ie The striped bass ( Morone saxatilis, also called rock or rockfish is the state fish of Maryland, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and The bluefish ( Pomatomus saltatrix) called tailor in Australia, is a species of popular marine game- Fish found in all climates However, in recent years the western part of the sound has become increasingly deficient of marine life. Marine biology is the scientific study of living Organisms in the Ocean or other marine or Brackish bodies of water The fishing and lobster industries have encouraged efforts to identify the cause of the dead water and rectify the problem.

Lobsters the color of copper rust have suffered diseases of unknown cause, but recreational fishing improved dramatically in the last 10 years due, in large part, to restoring a key component in the food chain, Menhaden (a. k. a. "Bunker) fish which are a mainstay of Striped Bass and other pelagic fish. The ban of netting of bunker - which were over-fished in the late 90's - has significantly improved the quality and volume of the Striped Bass population in Long Island Sound.

Further development

Underwater cables transmit electricity under the Long Island Sound, most notably a new and controversial Cross Sound Cable that runs from New Haven in western Connecticut, to Shoreham in central Long Island and an older one from Rye to Oyster Bay. The Cross Sound Cable is a 40 kilometer (about 25 miles long bipolar High-voltage direct current (HVDC Submarine power cable between New Haven Connecticut Shoreham is a Village in Suffolk County, New York, United States. Scientists debate whether Submarine power cables are safe for fragile underwater lifeforms. Submarine power cables are cables for electrical power running through the sea below the surface

Broadwater Energy LLC, a joint venture between the Shell Oil Company and TransCanada Corporation, has proposed building a floating liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminal 11 miles (18 km) from the Connecticut shore and 9 miles (14 km) from Long Island. Broadwater Energy is a Liquefied Natural Gas Terminal proposed to be built in Long Island Sound between New York State and Connecticut Shell Oil Company is the United States -based affiliate of Royal Dutch Shell, a multinational oil company (" Oil major " of Anglo TransCanada Corporation ( ( is a major North American energy company based in Calgary Alberta, primarily involved in the development and operation of North American Not to be confused with Natural Gas Liquids (NGL Liquefied natural gas or LNG is Natural gas (primarily Methane, CH4 The installation is estimated to save the region in excess of $600 million a year in energy costs. The terminal would regasify LNG offloaded from ships, and this gas would flow through pipelines under the sound to New York and Connecticut. Some politicians from both states, such as New York Senator Chuck Schumer are fiercely opposed to the terminal, claiming that alternative energy sources and conservation should be pursued instead of adding new distribution lines and supply sources. Charles Ellis "Chuck" Schumer (born November 23, 1950) is the senior U Alternative energy is typically defined as coming from sources that do not deplete natural resources or harm. Energy conservation is the practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used Local Connecticut politicians have little influence since the terminal would be located entirely within waters that are part of New York state (although Connecticut senators and congresswomen may be able to stop the platform at the federal level).

Over the years, bridges over the sound have been proposed, including a bridge from Rye, New York to Oyster Bay, New York, from New Haven, Connecticut to Shoreham, from Bridgeport, Connecticut to Port Jefferson, New York on Long Island, or from Orient Point, New York to Rhode Island. The Long Island Sound link is a proposed Bridge or Tunnel that would link Long Island to the south with New York or Connecticut to Rye is a city in Westchester County, New York, United States. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous This article refers to the hamlet. For the town in Nassau County, New York, see Town of Oyster Bay New York. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Connecticut ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. Shoreham is a Village in Suffolk County, New York, United States. Connecticut ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The Incorporated Village of Port Jefferson is located in the town of Brookhaven in Suffolk County New York on the North Shore of Long Island New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Orient is a hamlet in Suffolk County, New York, United States. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Rhode Island ( officially named the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the United States [10] A tunnel under the sound, as from Rye, New York to Oyster Bay, New York has also been proposed to carry both freeway lanes and railroads. However, no crossing has been built since the Throgs Neck Bridge in the late 1960s. The Throgs Neck Bridge is a Suspension bridge opened on January 11, 1961 carrying Interstate 295 over the East River where it meets the

Pollution

Major environmental problems currently affecting the Sound include hypoxia, toxic substance and pathogen contamination, debris and other man-made pollution, and overdevelopment. For other uses of the term "hypoxia" see Hypoxia. Hypoxia or oxygen depletion is a phenomenon that occurs in aquatic environments Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in [11][12] Industrial pollution includes mercury influx from the hatting industry in Danbury, CT [13]

New York City and other municipal sewage systems have long dumped nitrogen, among other pollutants, into the Sound, which contributes to hypoxia. By 1994 a plan to reduce the dumping of nitrogen into the Sound was agreed to by the federal government and the states of New York and Connecticut. The goal was to reduce the amount of nitrogen entering the Sound by 58. 5 percent as of 2014. New York City agreed with New York state and Connecticut to reduce nitrogen levels in 1998, but backed off its commitment and was sued by the state. In early 2006 the city agreed to lower nitrogen emissions and was given until 2017 to meet its reduction goals. By 2007, $617 million had been spent in upgrading sewage treatment plants, with 39 out of 104 retrofitted with devices to remove nitrogen. [14]

A 2007 report by the Long Island Sound Study, a project of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, said the nitrogen flow is down 20 percent since 1994. But a study released in June 2007 by the Connecticut Council on Environmental Quality stated that in 2006 the area affected by hypoxia was a bit larger than in 1991. [14]

There have been some improvements over the years, according to officials from the Long Island Sound Study. Levels of nitrogen have decreased in the waters off Stamford, Connecticut and in some areas west of Stamford. Yet some nitrogen pollution has been stored in the sediment at the bottom of the Sound, and warmer weather also keeps down levels of dissolved oxygen, according to the Sound Study officials. [14]

"Not a whole lot is going to change until New York City gets on the nitrogen problem," said Tom Andersen, author of This Fine Piece of Water: An Environmental History of Long Island Sound, in a newspaper interview in June 2007. The city Department of Environmental Protection said it is spending millions of dollars to upgrade its four sewage treatment plants, and that the upgrade should significantly cut nitrogen discharges. [15]

The western part of the Sound was in the worst condition, according to the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency's National Estuary Program Coastal Protection Report for June 2007. The report gives a "fair" rating to water quality in the sound and poor marks to fish, bottom-feeders and sediment. High levels of PCBs, were found in fish samples, and high concentrations of DDT were found in sediment. Development resulting from population increases, past industrial pollution and stormwater runoff all contribute to the poor quality of the water, according to the report. [16]

Over the last several decades, excess nitrogen may have adversely affected Diatoms — microscopic, single-celled algae at the base of the food chain, which make shells ('frustules') of opaline silica. Diatoms ( Greek: (dia = "through" + (temnein = "to cut" i When diatoms are less productive, they are replaced by other phytoplankton such as dinoflagellates or blue-green algae, which grow well in waters with high nitrogen levels, but do not need silicon. The dinoflagellates are a large group of Flagellate Protists Most are marine Plankton, but Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a phylum of Bacteria that obtain their energy [17]. Such a change in the base of the foodchain could have such consequences as an increase in abundance of jellyfish and decline in shellfish and other fish. Gary Wikfors, a fish biologist with the Milford, Connecticut office of the federal National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration said he has seen no evidence of fewer plankton in the sound or more blue-green algae. Milford is a city in New Haven County, Connecticut, United States. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA) is a scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the "I study algae blooms," he said in a newspaper report. "I have to go to the Chesapeake Bay to study them. I can't find them in the Sound. "[14]

Starting in the 1990s, Connecticut and federal E. P. A. officials created no-dumping areas in which commercial or recreational boat users were prohibited from releasing untreated sewage into the Sound near the coastline. In 2007 state and federal officials announced the ban had extended to the entire Connecticut coast and applied to both treated and untreated sewage. New Hampshire and Maine have similar bans, but not Massachusetts, Maine or New York. From the 1990s to 2007, the number of pumping stations for boat sewage tripled to 90 at marinas up and down the coast. Violators may be charged with a state misdemeanor and face $250 fines, or a federal civil penalty, with fines of up to $2,000. [18]

Dumping of dredged sediment

Polluted sediment from harbor, river and waterway dredging has been dumped in four sites in the Sound, although in late 2007 two of them at the eastern end of the Sound were scheduled to be closed at some future date. A dumping site near Stamford, Connecticut and another near New Haven, Connecticut were expected to remain open. Stamford is a city in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. In 2007, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began a five- to seven-year, $16 million study on more environmentally friendly ways to dredge harbors in the Sound. The United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE) is a federal agency and a major Army command made up of some 34600 Civilian and 650 Military personnel Dumping the sediment in the Sound is considerably less expensive than other options, according to Connecticut harbor officials and state and federal environmental officials. [19]

Federal officials have said sediment from Bridgeport Harbor is too contaminated for disposal in the Sound, and in 2007 state Department of Environmental Protection officials required Norwalk, Connecticut to "cap" 350,000 cubic yards (270,000 m³) of dumped sediment from a planned Norwalk Harbor dredging project with 75,000 cubic yards (57,000 m³) of material. Norwalk is a city in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. Silt and sediment from the harbor cointains heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, according to DEP officials. [19]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet"Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection, November 1977, "1. In Geography a sound or seaway is a large sea or ocean Inlet larger than a bay, deeper than a bight, wider than a Fjord The geography of New York City is characterized by its coastal position at the meeting of the Hudson River and the Atlantic Ocean in a naturally The Long Island Sound link is a proposed Bridge or Tunnel that would link Long Island to the south with New York or Connecticut to The Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation (CERF is a private nonprofit organization that was created in 1971 Glacial History" section, page 4
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet"Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the "Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection", November 1977, "5. Vegitation" section, pp 17-21
  3. ^ Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS formerly known as the Soil Conservation Service (SCS is an agency of the United States Department of Agriculture York&statefips=36&symbol=LYCO PLANTS Profile, County Distribution Lychnis coronaria (HTML). The PLANTS Database. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved on 2008-03-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian
  4. ^ a b "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet"Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the "Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection", November 1977, "10. Fishes" section, pp 36-39
  5. ^ "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet"Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the "Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection", November 1977, "8. Mollusks" section, pp 31-32
  6. ^ a b "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet"Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the "Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection", November 1977, "7. Crustacea" section, pp 26-28
  7. ^ a b c d "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet"Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the "Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection", November 1977, "12. Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians" section, pp 43-44
  8. ^ a b c d "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet"Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the "Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection", November 1977, "11. Birds" section, page 40
  9. ^ Moriches Bay
  10. ^ Eastern Long Island Sound Crossing
  11. ^ Long Island Sound Study
  12. ^ http://www.epa.gov/ne/eco/lis/ EPA: Long Island Sound
  13. ^ johan2res2.html
  14. ^ a b c d Stelloh, Tom, "671M later, no clear picture of Sound's health", news article in The Advocate of Stamford, Connecticut, July 15, 2007, pp 1, A4
  15. ^ Stelloh, Tom, "Sound's fish and sediment rate poorly in EPA report" article in The Advocate of Stamford, Connecticut, June 25, 2007, page 1
  16. ^ [1]EPA Web page for navigation of the National Estuary Program Coastal Protection Report for June 2007; [2]Chapter 3 of the report, "Northeast National Estuary Program Coastal Condition Long Island Sound Study", accessed June 27, 2007
  17. ^ [3]; [4]
  18. ^ Lockhart, Brian, "State protects coast from boaters' sewage: EPA declares no-discharge area", news article in The Advocate of Stamford, Connecticut, July 27, 2007 pp 1, A4, Norwalk edition
  19. ^ a b Two articles by Tim Stelloh in The Advocate of Stamford (Norwalk edition): "Dredge report: Sound disputes aired at hearing", page 1; "Bid to skip dredging cap draws no support", page A7

CDEP (Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection). The Advocate is a seven-day Daily newspaper based in Stamford, Connecticut, USA. Stamford is a city in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Christian soldiers take the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem after the final Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The Advocate is a seven-day Daily newspaper based in Stamford, Connecticut, USA. Events 524 - Battle of Vézeronce, the Franks defeat the Burgundians Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The Advocate is a seven-day Daily newspaper based in Stamford, Connecticut, USA. Stamford is a city in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The Advocate is a seven-day Daily newspaper based in Stamford, Connecticut, USA. 2003. Working for Nature Series: Shortnose Sturgeon. Internet Reference: <http://dep.state.ct.us/whatshap/Press/2003/mf0730.htm>.

Savoy, T. 2004. Population estimate and utilization of the lower Connecticut River by shortnose sturgeon. Pages 345-352 in P. M. Jacobson et al. (Eds. ) The Connecticut River ecological study (1965-1973) revisited : ecology of the lower Connecticut River 1973-2003. American Fisheries Society Monograph.

Savoy, T. and D. Shake. 1992. Sturgeon status in Connecticut waters. Final Report to the National Marine Fisheries Service, Gloucester, Massachusetts.

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