The Lombards (Latin Langobardi, whence the alternative names Langobards and Longobards) were a Germanic people originally from Northern Europe who settled in the valley of the Danube and from there invaded Byzantine Italy in 568 under the leadership of Alboin. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic Northern Europe is a term for the northern part of Europe. The United Nations defines Northern Europe as (Finland The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj Th Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula (Penisola italiana or Penisola appenninica) is one of the three Peninsulas of Southern Europe Alboin or Alboïn (died 572 or 573 was king of the Lombards, and conqueror of Italy. They established a Kingdom of Italy which lasted until 774, when it was conquered by the Franks. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group Their influence on Italian political geography is plainly visible in the regional appellation Lombardy. Lombardy (Lombardia Latin: Langobardia, Western Lombard: Lumbardìa, Eastern Lombard: Lombardia) is one of the

Contents 1 Early history 1.1 Legendary origins and name 1.2 Archaeology and migrations 2 Kingdom in Italy 2.1 Invasion and conquest of the Italian peninsula 2.1.1 Langobardia major 2.1.2 Langobardia minor 2.2 Arian monarchy 2.3 Catholic monarchy 3 Later history 3.1 United Principality of Benevento, 774–849 3.2 Southern Italy and the Arabs, 836–915 3.3 The Lombard principalities in the tenth century 3.4 Norman conquest, 1017–1078 4 Social structure 4.1 Migration Period society 4.2 Society of the Catholic kingdom 4.3 Lombard states 5 Religious history 5.1 Paganism 5.2 Christianisation 5.3 Beneventan Christianity 6 Art and architecture 6.1 Architecture 6.2 Visual arts 6.3 Sculpture 6.4 Metalwork 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References

Early history

Legendary origins and name

The fullest account of Lombard origins, history, and practices is the Historia gentis Langobardorum (History of the Lombards) of Paul the Deacon, written in the 8th century. The Historia gentis Langobardorum (history of the Lombards) is the chief work by Paul the Deacon, written in the late 8th century. Paul the Deacon (c 720 &ndash 13 April probably 799 also known as Paulus Diaconus, Warnefred and Cassinensis (i Paul's chief source for Lombard origins, however, is the 7th-century Origo Gentis Langobardorum (Origin of the People of the Lombards). The Origo Gentis Langobardorum is a short 7th century text detailing a legend of the origin of the Lombards, and their history up to the rule of

The Origo tells the story of a small tribe called the Winnili^[1] dwelling in southern Scandinavia^[2] (Scadanan) (The Codex Gothanus writes that the Winnili first dwelt near a river called Vindilicus on the extreme boundary of Gaul. Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well One Codex Gothanus (simply meaning a Codex in the library at Gotha, Germany is an early ninth-century Codex written at Fulda, that Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western )^[3] The Winnili were split into three groups and one part left the native land to seek foreign fields. The reason for the exodus was probably overpopulation. Overpopulation refers to a condition where an Organism 's numbers exceed the Carrying capacity of its Habitat. ^[4] The departing people were led by the brothers Ybor and Aio and their mother Gambara^[5] and arrived in the lands of Scoringa, perhaps the Baltic coast^[6] or the Bardengau on the banks of the Elbe. The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. The Elbe ( die Elbe Low German: de Ilv) is one of the major Rivers of Central Europe. ^[7] Scoringa was ruled by the Wandals, and their chieftains, the brothers Ambri and Assi, who granted the Winnili a choice between tribute or war.

The Winnili were young and brave and refused to pay tribute, saying "It is better to maintain liberty by arms than to stain it by the payment of tribute. "^[8] The Wandals prepared for war and consulted their god Godan (Odin^[2]), who answered that he would give the victory to those whom he would see first at sunrise. Odin (ˈoʊdɪn from Old Norse Óðinn) is considered the chief god in Norse paganism. ^[9] The Winnili were fewer in number^[10] and Gambara sought help from Frea (Frigg^[2]), who advised that all Winnili women should tie their hair in front of their faces like beards and march in line with their husbands. Frigg (or Frigga) is a major goddess in Norse paganism, a subset of Germanic paganism. So it came that Godan spotted the Winnili first, and asked, "Who are these long-beards?" and Frea replied, "My lord, thou hast given them the name, now give them also the victory. "^[11] From that moment onwards, the Winnili were known as the Langobards (Latinised and Italianised as Lombards).

When Paul the Deacon wrote the Historia between 787 and 796 he was a Catholic monk and devoted Christian. As a Christian Ecclesiastical term Catholic —from the Greek adjective, meaning "general" or "universal"—is described Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Therefore, he thought the pagan stories of his people "silly" and "laughable". Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world ^[12][13] Paul explained that the name "Langobard" came from the length of their beards, that the Latin word longus meant Lang and barba meant Bart. ^[14] A modern theory suggests that the name "Langobard" comes from Langbarðr, a name of Odin. Odin ( Old Norse Óðinn the chief god of Norse mythology, was referred to by more than 200 names in the Skaldic and Eddic traditions ^[15] Priester states that when the Winnili changed their name to "Lombards", they also changed their old agricultural fertility cult to a cult of Odin, thus creating a conscious tribal tradition. Fertility rites are religious Rituals that reenact either actually or symbolically sexual acts and/or reproductive processes ^[16] Fröhlich inverts the order of events in Priester and states that with the Odin cult, the Lombards grew their beards in resemblance of the Odin of tradition and their new name reflected this. ^[17] Bruckner remarks that the name of the Lombards stands in close relation to the worship of Odin, who wore the epithet "the Long-bearded" or "the Grey-bearded", and that the Lombard given name Ansegranus ("he with the beard of the gods") shows that the Lombards had this idea of their chief deity. ^[18]

Archaeology and migrations

From the combined testimony of Strabo (AD 20) and Tacitus (AD 117), the Lombards dwelt near the mouth of the Elbe shortly after the beginning of the Christian era, next to the Chauci. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. The Elbe ( die Elbe Low German: de Ilv) is one of the major Rivers of Central Europe. The Chauci were a populous Germanic tribe that inhabited the extreme northwestern shore of Germany between Frisia in the west and the Elbe estuary ^[19] Strabo states that the Lombards dwelt on both sides of the Elbe. ^[20] The German archaeologist Willi Wegewitz defined several Iron Age burial sites at the lower Elbe as Langobardic. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. ^[21] The burial sites, are crematorial and are usually dated from the 6th century BC through the 3rd AD, so that a settlement breakoff seems unlikely. ^[22]The lands of the lower Elbe fall into the zone of the Jastorf Culture and became Elbe-Germanic, differing from the lands between Rhine, Weser, and the North Sea. The Jastorf culture is an Iron Age Material culture in what is now north Germany, spanning the 6th to 1st centuries BC forming the southern part of the The Irminones, also referred to as Herminones or Hermiones, were a group of early Germanic tribes settling in the Elbe watershed and by the The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge The Weser (ˈveːzɐ is a River in north-western Germany. Formed at Hann The North Sea is a marginal, Epeiric sea of the Atlantic Ocean on the European Continental shelf. ^[23] Archaeological finds show that the Lombards were an agricultural people. ^[24]

The first mention of the Lombards occurred between AD 9 and 16, by the Roman court historian Velleius Paterculus, who accompanied a Roman expedition as prefect of the cavalry. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial This article is about the Roman Historian; for the Rove beetle genus see Velleius Marcus Velleius Paterculus ^[25] Paterculus described the Lombards as "more fierce than ordinary German savagery. "^[26] Tacitus counted the Lombards as a Suebian tribe,^[27] and subjects of Marobod the King of the Marcomanni. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. The Suebi or Suevi (from Proto-Germanic * swēbaz based on the Proto-Germanic root * swē- meaning "one's own" Marbod or Maroboduus (born c in 30 BC died in AD 37 was king of the Marcomanni. Marcomanni were a Germanic tribe, probably related to the Buri, Suebi or Suevi ^[28] Marobod had made peace with the Romans, and that is why the Lombards were not part of the Germanic confederacy under Arminius at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9. Arminius, also known as Armin or Hermann (18 BC/17 BC - AD 21) was a chieftain of the Cherusci who defeated a Roman army in the The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest took place in the year 9 A In AD 17, war broke out between Arminius and Marobod. Tacitus records:

"Not only the Cheruscans and their confederates. . . took arms, but the Semnones and Langobards, both Suevian nations, revolted to him from the sovereignty of Marobod. . . The armies. . . were stimulated by reasons of their own, the Cheruscans and the Langobards fought for their ancient honor or their newly acquired independence. . . "^[29]

In 47, a struggle ensued amongst the Cherusci and they expelled their new leader, the nephew of Arminius, from their country. The Cherusci (Cherusker were a Germanic tribe that inhabited parts of the northern Rhine valley and the plains and forests of northwestern Germany, in The Lombards appear on the scene with sufficient power, it seems, to control the destiny of the tribe which, thirty-eight years before, had been the leader in the struggle for independence, for they restored the deposed leader to the sovereignty again. ^[30] In the mid 2nd century, the Lombards also appear in the Rhineland. The Rhineland ( Rheinland in German) is the general name for the land on both sides of the river Rhine in the west of Germany. According to Ptolemy, the Suebic Lombards settled south of the Sugambri,^[31] but also remained at the Elbe, between the Chauci and the Suebi,^[32] which indicates a Lombard expansion. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca The Sicambri (var Sicambers Sicambres Sigambrer Sugumbrer or Sugambri) were a Germanic people living in what is now called the Netherlands The Codex Gothanus also mentions Patespruna (Paderborn) in connections with the Lombards. Paderborn (paːdɐˈbɔʁn is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, capital of the Paderborn district. ^[33] By Cassius Dio, we are informed that just before the Marcomannic Wars, 6,000 Lombards and Ubii crossed the Danube and invaded Pannonia. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was The Marcomannic Wars (called by the Romans bellum Germanicum or expeditio Germanica) were a series of wars lasting over a dozen years from about AD 166 The Ubii were a Germanic tribe first encountered dwelling on the right bank of the Rhine in the time of Julius Caesar, who formed an alliance with them The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj Pannonia is an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, ^[34] The two tribes were defeated, whereupon they desisted from their invasion and sent as ambassador to Aelius Basaus, who was then administering Pannonia, Ballomar, King of the Marcomanni. Peace was made and the two tribes returned to their homes, which in the case of the Lombards were the lands of the lower Elbe. ^[35] At about this time, Tacitus, in his work Germania (AD 98), describes the Lombards as such:

"To the Langobardi, on the contrary, their scanty numbers are a distinction. Though surrounded by a host of most powerful tribes, they are safe, not by submitting, but by daring the perils of war. "

From the 2nd century onwards, many of the Germanic tribes of the era of the Tiberian emperors started to unite into bigger tribal unions, resulting in the Franks, Alamanni, Bavarii, and Saxons. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river ( Germany The Bavarii were a large and powerful Tribe which emerged late in Teutonic tribal times in what is now the Czech Republic ( Bohemia) The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. ^[36] The reasons why the Lombards disappear, as such, from Roman history from 166–489 could be that they dwelt so deep into Inner Germania that they were only detectable when they appeared on the Danubian banks again, or that the Lombards were also subjected into a bigger tribal union, most probably the Saxons. ^[37] It is, however, highly probable that when the bulk of the Lombards migrated, a considerable part remained behind and afterwards became absorbed by the Saxon tribes in the region, while the emigrants alone retained the name of Lombards. ^[38] However, the Codex Gothanus writes that the Lombards were subjected by the Saxons around 300, but rose up against the Saxons with their king Agelmund. ^[39] In the second half of the 4th century, the Lombards left their homes, probably due to bad harvests, and embarked on their migration. ^[40]

The migration route of the Lombards, from their homeland to "Rugiland" in 489 encompassed several places: Scoringa (believed to be the their land on the Elbe shores), Mauringa, Golanda, Anthaib, Banthaib, and Vurgundaib (Burgundaib). ^[41] According to the Cosmographer of Ravenna, Mauringa was the land east of the Elbe. ^[42]

The crossing into Mauringa was very difficult, the Assipitti (Usipetes) denied them passage through their lands; a fight was arranged for the strongest man of each tribe, the Lombard was victorious, passage was granted, and the Lombards reached Mauringa. ^[43] The first Lombard king, Agelmund, from the race of Guginger, ruled for thirty years. ^[44]

The Lombards departed from Mauringa and reached Golanda. Schmidt thinks this was further east, perhaps on the right bank of the Oder. The Oder (known in Czech and Polish as Odra) is a River in Central Europe. ^[45] Schmidt considers that the name is the equivalent of Gotland and means simply "good land. is a county, province and municipality of Sweden and the largest Island in the Baltic Sea. "^[46] This theory is highly plausible, Paul the Deacon mentions an episode of the Lombards crossing a river, and the Lombards could have reached Rugiland from the Upper Oder area via the Moravian Gate. Paul the Deacon (c 720 &ndash 13 April probably 799 also known as Paulus Diaconus, Warnefred and Cassinensis (i Moravian-Silesian Region (Moravskoslezský kraj or Moravo-Silesian Region, is an administrative unit ( kraj) of the Czech Republic, located in the ^[47]

Moving out of Golanda, the Lombards passed through Anthaib and Banthaib until they reached Vurgundaib. Vurgundaib is believed to be the old lands of the Burgundes ^[48][49]. The Burgundians or Burgundes were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose In Vurgundaib, the Lombards were stormed in camp by "Bulgars" (probably Huns)^[50] and were defeated; King Agelmund was killed. The Bulgars (also Bolgars or proto-Bulgarians) were a seminomadic people probably of Turkic descent originally from Central Asia, The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy Laimicho was raised to the kingship afterwards; he was in his youth and desired to avenge the slaughter of Agelmund. ^[51] The Lombards themselves were probably made subjects of the Huns after the defeat, but the Lombards rose up against them and defeated them with great slaughter. ^[52] The victory gave the Lombards great booty and confidence, as they ". . . became bolder in undertaking the toils of war. "^[53]

In the 540s, Audoin (ruled 546–565), led the Lombards across the Danube once more into Pannonia, where they received Imperial subsidies, as Justinian encouraged them to battle Gepids. Alduin, Auduin, or Audoin was king of the Lombards from 546 to 565 Pannonia is an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or The Gepids (Gepidae Gifðas ( Beowulf, Widsith) - possibly from * Gibiðos, "givers" or gepanta, see below were

Kingdom in Italy

Main article: Kingdom of the Lombards

Invasion and conquest of the Italian peninsula

In 560 a new, energetic king emerged: Alboin, who defeated the neighbouring Gepidae, made them his subjects, and, in 566, married the daughter of their king Cunimund, Rosamund. The Kingdom of the Lombards or Lombard Kingdom of Italy was an early medieval state on the Italian Peninsula. Events By Place Europe Ceawlin of Wessex becomes King of Wessex (traditional date Alboin or Alboïn (died 572 or 573 was king of the Lombards, and conqueror of Italy. The Gepids (Gepidae Gifðas ( Beowulf, Widsith) - possibly from * Gibiðos, "givers" or gepanta, see below were Events Births Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, uncle of Muhammad Emperor Gaozu of Tang Cunimund (died 567 was a king of the Gepids in the 6th century In the spring of 568, Alboin led the Lombards, together with other Germanic tribes; (Bavarians, Gepidae, Saxons^[54]) and Bulgars, across the Julian Alps with a population of around 400,000 to 500,000, to invade northern Italy. Events By Place Europe April 1 — King Alboin leads the Lombards into Italy refugees fleeing from them go on The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The Bavarii were a large and powerful Tribe which emerged late in Teutonic tribal times in what is now the Czech Republic ( Bohemia) The Gepids (Gepidae Gifðas ( Beowulf, Widsith) - possibly from * Gibiðos, "givers" or gepanta, see below were The Bulgars (also Bolgars or proto-Bulgarians) were a seminomadic people probably of Turkic descent originally from Central Asia, The Julian Alps (Julijske Alpe Alpi Giulie are a Mountain range of the Southern Limestone Alps that stretches from north-eastern Italy to Slovenia Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The first important city to fall was Forum Iulii (Cividale del Friuli), in northeastern Italy, in 569. Cividale del Friuli ( Friulian Cividât, Slovenian Čedad) is a town in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Northern Italy, 15 km Northeast Italy ( Italia nord-orientale or just it '''''Nordest''''' is an informal cultural and geographic region of Italy and subregion of Northern Italy. Events By Place Byzantine Empire The King of the Garamantes signs a peace treaty with Byzantium. There, Alboin created the first Lombard duchy, which he entrusted to his nephew Gisulf. Gisulf II was the Duke of Friuli from around 591 to his death Soon Vicenza, Verona and Brescia fell into Germanic hands. Vicenza, a city in northern Italy, is the capital of the eponymous province in the Veneto region at the northern base of the Monte Berico Verona is a city and provincial capital in Veneto, Northern Italy. Brescia ( Lombard: Brèsa) is a city in the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. In the summer of 569, the Lombards conquered the main Roman centre of northern Italy, Milan. Events By Place Byzantine Empire The King of the Garamantes signs a peace treaty with Byzantium. Related categories Central Italy Southern Italy Insular Italy Northeast Italy Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. The area was then recovering from the terrible Gothic Wars, and the small Byzantine army left for its defence could do almost nothing. See Gothic War (376-382 for the war on the Danube The Gothic War was a war fought in Italy and the adjoining regions of Dalmatia, Sardinia The Exarch sent to Italy by Emperor Justinian II, Longinus, could defend only coastal cities that could be supplied by the powerful Byzantine fleet. This article is about Byzantine governors and ecclesiastical ranks Justinian II (Ιουστινιανός Β΄ Ioustinianos II; 669&ndashDecember 711 known as Rinotmetos or Rhinotmetus (Ρινότμητος Pavia fell after a siege of three years, in 572, becoming the first capital city of the new Lombard kingdom of Italy. Pavia (pronounced Pavìa,) the ancient Ticinum, is a town and Comune of south-western Lombardy, northern Italy, 35 km south Events By Place Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire begins a war with Persia. In the following years, the Lombards penetrated further south, conquering Tuscany and establishing two duchies, Spoleto and Benevento under Zotto, which soon became semi-independent and even outlasted the northern kingdom, surviving well into the 12th century. Tuscany (Toscana is a region in Italy. It has an area of 22990 km² and a population of about 3 The independent Duchy of Spoleto was a Lombard territory founded about 570 in Central Italy by the Lombard Dux Faroald. The Duchy and later Principality of Benevento was the southernmost Lombard duchy in medieval Italy centred on Benevento, a city central in the Mezzogiorno Zotto (also Zotton or Zottone) was the military leader ( Latin: dux) of the Lombards in the Mezzogiorno. The Byzantines managed to retain control of the area of Ravenna and Rome, linked by a thin corridor running through Perugia. Perugia is the capital City of the region of Umbria in central Italy, near the Tiber river and the capital of the Province of Perugia

When they entered Italy, some Lombards retained their native form paganism, while some were Arian Christians. Germanic paganism refers to the religious beliefs of the Germanic peoples preceding Christianization. Arianism is the theological teaching of Arius (c AD 250-336 who was ruled a heretic by the Christian church at the Council of Nicea. Hence they did not enjoy good relations with the Catholic Church. As a Christian Ecclesiastical term Catholic —from the Greek adjective, meaning "general" or "universal"—is described Gradually, they adopted Roman titles, names, and traditions, and partially converted to orthodoxy (7th century), not without a long series of religious and ethnic conflicts. The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era.

The whole Lombard territory was divided into 36 duchies, whose leaders settled in the main cities. The king ruled over them and administered the land through emissaries called gastaldi. This subdivision, however, together with the independent indocility of the duchies, deprived the kingdom of unity, making it weak even when compared to the Byzantines, especially after they began to recover from the initial invasion. This weakness became even more evident when the Lombards had to face the increasing power of the Franks. In response to this problem, the kings tried to centralize power over time; but they lost control over Spoleto and Benevento definitively in the attempt. For the festival in South Carolina see Spoleto Festival USA. Spoleto ( Latin Spoletium) is an ancient city in the Benevento is a town and Comune of Campania, Italy, capital of the Province of Benevento, 50 km northeast of Naples.

Langobardia major

• Duchy of Friuli and List of Dukes and Margraves of Friuli
• Duchy of Ceneda
• Duchy of Vicenza
• Duchy of Verona
• Duchy of Tridentum/Trent
• Duchy of Brescia
• Duchy of Bergamo
• Duchy of San Giulio
• Duchy of Pavia
• Duchy of Turin
• Duchy of Asti
• Duchy of Tuscia

Langobardia minor

• Duchy of Spoleto and List of Dukes of Spoleto
• Duchy of Benevento and List of Dukes and Princes of Benevento

Arian monarchy

Alboin was murdered in 572 in Verona by a plot led by his wife, who later fled to Ravenna. Ravenna is a City and Comune in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. His successor, Cleph, was also assassinated, after a ruthless reign of 18 months. Cleph (also Clef, Clepho, or Kleph; in Italian, Clefi) was king of the Lombards from 572 or 573 to 574 or 575 His death began an interregnum of years, the "Rule of the Dukes", during which the dukes did not elect any king, and which is regarded as a period of violence and disorder. The Rule of the Dukes was an Interregnum in the Lombard Kingdom of Italy (574/5&ndash584/5 during which Italy was ruled by the Lombard Dukes In 584, threatened by a Frankish invasion, the dukes elected Cleph's son, Authari, king. Events By Place Europe Andeca deposes and kills Eboric to become king of the Suevi. Cleph (also Clef, Clepho, or Kleph; in Italian, Clefi) was king of the Lombards from 572 or 573 to 574 or 575 Authari (c 540 &ndash 5 September 590, Pavia) also known as Agilolf was king of the Lombards from 584 to his death In 589, he married Theodelinda, daughter of the Duke of Bavaria, Garibald I of Bavaria. Events By Place Europe October 17 — The Adige River overflows its banks flooding the church of St Theodelinda, queen of the Lombards, (c 570 - 628 was the daughter of duke Garibald I of Bavaria. The following is a list of rulers during the History of Bavaria. Garibald I (also Garivald) (born 540 was Duke (or King of Bavaria from 555 until 591 The Catholic Theodelinda was a friend of Pope Gregory I and pushed for Christianization. In the mean time, Authari embarked on a policy of internal reconciliation and tried to reorganize royal administration. The dukes yielded half their estates for the maintenance of the king and his court in Pavia. On the foreign affairs side, Authari managed to thwart the dangerous alliance between the Byzantines and the Franks.

Authari died in 590. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Summer - Maurice agrees to Khosrau's entreaties and agrees to restart the war with Persia His successor was Agilulf, duke of Turin, who in 591, also married Theodelinda. Agilulf, called the Thuringian, was the duke of Turin and king of the Lombards (590 &ndash 616 in Italy, the cousin of his predecessor Events By Place Europe Agilulf marries Theodelinda and becomes king of the Lombards. He successfully fought the rebel dukes of Northern Italy, conquering Padua (601), Cremona and Mantua (603), and forcing the Exarch of Ravenna to pay a conspicuous tribute. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Padua ( Padova 'padova Latin: Patavium, Padoa) is a city in the Veneto, northern Italy. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Peter (Byzantine General defeats the Eurasian Avars. Cremonese redirects here For the football team see US Cremonese Cremona is a City in northern Italy, situated Mantua (Màntova in the local dialect of Lombard language Mantua is a city in Lombardy, Italy and capital of the province of the Events By Place Europe Battle of Degsastan: Æthelfrith of Bernicia defeats Áedán mac Gabráin of The Exarchate of Ravenna or of Italy was a centre of Byzantine power in Italy, from the end of the 6th century to 751, when the Theodelinda reigned alone until 628, and was succeeded by Adaloald. Events By Place Europe Pippin of Landen becomes Mayor of the Palace in Austrasia. Adaloald (602 &ndash 626 was the Lombard king of Italy from 616 to 626 Arioald, who had married Theodelinda's daughter Gundeberga, and head of the Arian opposition, later deposed Adaloald. Arioald was the Lombard king of Italy from 626 to 636. Duke of Turin, he married the princess Gundiberga, daughter of King

His successor was Rothari, regarded by many authorities as the most energetic of all Lombard kings. Rothari or Rothair, of the house of Arodus, was King of the Lombards from 636 to 652 previously he had been duke of Brescia. He extended his dominions, conquering Liguria in 643 and the remaining part of the Byzantine territories of thevinner Veneto, including the Roman city of Opitergium (Oderzo). Liguria is a coastal region of north-western Italy, the third smallest of the Italian regions Events By Place Europe Rothari King of the Lombards, issues the Lombard law code Veneto or Venetia ( Vèneto) is one of the 20 regions of Italy. Oderzo (Opitergium is a town in the Province of Treviso, Veneto, Italy. Rothari also made the famous Edict bearing his name, which established the laws and the customs of his people in Latin: the edict did not apply to the tributaries of the Lombards, who could retain their own laws. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Rothari's son Rodoald succeeded him in 652, still very young, and was killed by the Catholic party. Rodoald (or Rodwald) was a Lombard king of Italy, who succeeded his father Rothari on the throne in 652 Events By Place Europe Rodoald succeeds his father Rothari as king of the Lombards.

At the death of King Aripert I in 661, the kingdom was split between his children Perctarit, who set his capital in Milan, and Godepert, who reigned from Pavia. Aripert I (also spelled Aribert) was king of the Lombards (653-661 in Italy. Events By Place Europe Perctarit and Godepert become co-rulers of the Lombards, following the death of their Perctarit (also Berthari; died 688 was king of the Lombards from 661 to 662 the first time and later from 671 to 688 Godepert (also Gundipert, Godebert, Godipert, Godpert, Gotebert, Gotbert, Gotpert, Gosbert, Pavia (pronounced Pavìa,) the ancient Ticinum, is a town and Comune of south-western Lombardy, northern Italy, 35 km south Perctarit was overthrown by Grimoald, son of Gisulf, duke of Friuli and Benevento since 647. Grimoald I (c 610 - 671 was duke of Benevento (651-662 and king of the Lombards (662-671 Friuli ( Friulian: For the Canadian area code see Area code 416/647. Events By Place Asia A stone tower Astronomical Perctarit fled to the Avars and then to the Franks. The Caucasian Avars are a modern people of Caucasus, mainly of Dagestan. Grimoald managed to regain control over the duchies and deflected the late attempt of the Byzantine emperor Constans II to conquer southern Italy. This is a list of the Emperors of the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly known as the Byzantine Empire by modern historians Constans II ( Greek: Κώνστας Β' Kōnstas II) also called "Constantine the Bearded" ( Kōnstantinos Pogonatos) ( November 7 He also defeated the Franks. At Grimoald's death in 671 Perctarit returned and promoted tolerance between Arians and Catholics, but he could not defeat the Arian party, led by Arachi, duke of Trento, who submitted only to his son, the filo-Catholic Cunipert. Events By Place Europe Perctarit returns from exile to become king of the Lombards. Perctarit (also Berthari; died 688 was king of the Lombards from 661 to 662 the first time and later from 671 to 688 Trento (traditional English Trent; Italian: Trento; German: Trient; Latin: Tridentum; Note that many Cunipert (also Cunibert or Cunincpert) was king of the Lombards from 688 to 700

Catholic monarchy

Religious strife remained a source of struggle in the following years. The Lombard reign began to recover only with Liutprand the Lombard (king from 712), son of Ansprand and successor of the brutal Aripert II. Liutprand was the king of the Lombards from 712 to 744 and is chiefly remembered for his Donation of Sutri, in 728 and his long reign which brought him into a series Events By Place Europe Ansprand succeeds Aripert as king of the Lombards. Ansprand (c657-712 was king of the Lombards briefly in 712 Before that he was the duke of Asti and Regent during the minority of Liutpert Aripert II (also spelled Aribert) was the king of the Lombards from 701 to 712 He managed to regain a certain control over Spoleto and Benevento, and, taking advantage of the disagreements between the Pope and Byzantium concerning the reverence of icons, he annexed the Exarchate of Ravenna and the duchy of Rome. For the festival in South Carolina see Spoleto Festival USA. Spoleto ( Latin Spoletium) is an ancient city in the Iconoclasm, Greek for "image-breaking" is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious Icons and other symbols or monuments Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 He also helped the Frankish marshal Charles Martel to drive back the Arabs. Charles "The Hammer" Martel (Carolus Martellus Charles "the Hammer" (ca The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding His successor Aistulf conquered Ravenna for the Lombards for the first time, but was subsequently defeated by the king of the Franks Pippin III, called by the Pope, and had to leave it. Aistulf (749 - d756 was the Duke of Friuli from 744 king of Lombards from 749 and duke of Spoleto from 751 Pepin or Pippin (714 &ndash 24 September 768) called the Short, and often known as Pepin the Younger or Pepin III, was After the death of Aistulf, Ratchis tried once again to be king of the Lombardy but he was deposed in the same year. Ratchis was the Duke of Friuli ( 739 - 744) and king of the Lombards ( 744 - 749)

After his defeat of Ratchis, the last Lombard to rule as king was Desiderius, duke of Tuscany, who managed to take Ravenna definitively, ending the Byzantine presence in Central Italy. Desiderius (also known as Daufer or Dauferius; Didier in French and Desiderio in Italian) was the last king of the Tuscany (Toscana is a region in Italy. It has an area of 22990 km² and a population of about 3 He decided to reopen struggles against the Pope, who was supporting the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento against him, and entered Rome in 772, the first Lombard king to do so. Events By Place Europe Charlemagne starts fighting the Saxons and the Frisians; Saxony is subdued and converted But when Pope Hadrian I called for help from the powerful king Charlemagne, he was defeated at Susa and besieged in Pavia, while his son Adelchi had also to open the gates of Verona to Frankish troops. Pope Adrian, or Hadrian I, (d December 25, 795) was Pope from February 9 772 to December 25 795 Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Susa is a city in Piedmont, Italy. It is situated on a tributary of the Po River, at the foot of the Cottian Alps, 51 km (32 mi west of Pavia (pronounced Pavìa,) the ancient Ticinum, is a town and Comune of south-western Lombardy, northern Italy, 35 km south Adalgis (died 788 was the son of Desiderius and the prince of the Langobards or Lombardia in Italy. Desiderius surrendered in 774 and Charlemagne, in an utterly novel decision, took the title "King of the Lombards" as well. Events By Place Europe Charlemagne conquers the kingdom of the Lombards, and takes title King of the Lombards Before then the Germanic kingdoms had frequently conquered each other, but none had adopted the title of King of another people. Charlemagne took part of the Lombard territory to create the Papal States. The Papal States, State(s of the Church or Pontifical States (in Italian Stato Ecclesiastico, Stato della Chiesa, Stati della Chiesa

The Lombardy region in Italy, which includes the cities of Brescia, Bergamo, Milan and the old capital Pavia, is a reminder of the presence of the Lombards. Lombardy (Lombardia Latin: Langobardia, Western Lombard: Lumbardìa, Eastern Lombard: Lombardia) is one of the

Later history

United Principality of Benevento, 774–849

Though the kingdom centred on Pavia in the north fell to Charlemagne, the Lombard-controlled territory to the south of the Papal States was never subjugated by Charlemagne or his descendants. In 774, Duke Arechis II of Benevento, whose duchy had only nominally been under royal authority, though certain kings had been effective at making their power known in the south, claimed that Benevento was the successor state of the kingdom. Arechis II (also Aretchis, Arichis, Arechi or Aregis; died August 26 787) was Duke (and later Prince of Succession of states is a theory in International relations regarding the recognition and acceptance of a newly created State by other states based on He tried to turn Benevento into a secundum Ticinum: a second Pavia. He tried to claim the kingship, but with no support and no chance of a coronation in Pavia.

Charlemagne came down with an army, and his son Louis the Pious sent men, to force the Beneventan duke to submit, but his submission and promises were never kept and Arechis and his successors were de facto independent. Louis the Pious (778 &ndash 20 June 840) also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was the King of Aquitaine from 781 and co-Emperor The Beneventan dukes took the title princeps (prince) instead of that of king.

The Lombards of southern Italy were thereafter in the anomalous position of holding land claimed by two empires: the Carolingian Empire to the north and west and the Byzantine Empire to the east. Carolingian Empire is a historiographical term sometimes used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty. They typically made pledges and promises of tribute to the Carolingians, but effectively remained outside Frankish control. Benevento meanwhile grew to its greatest extent yet when it imposed a tribute on the Duchy of Naples, which was tenuously loyal to Byzantium and even conquered the Neapolitan city of Amalfi in 838. The Duchy of Naples ( Ducatus Neapolitanus) began as a Byzantine province that was constituted in the seventh century in the reduced coastal lands that the Lombards Amalfi is also a town in the Antioquia Departament in Colombia. At the point in the reign of Sicard, Lombard control covered most of southern Italy save the very south of Apulia and Calabria and Naples, with its nominally attached cities. Sicard (died 839 was the Prince of Benevento from 832 He was the last prince of a united Benevento which covered most of the Mezzogiorno. Apulia ( Italian: Puglia) is a region in southeastern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east the Ionian Sea Calabria ( Latin: Brutium) is a region in southern Italy, south of Naples, located at the "toe" of It was during the ninth century that a strong Lombard presence became entrenched in formerly Greek Apulia. However, Sicard had opened up the south the invasive actions of the Saracens in his war with Andrew II of Naples and when he was assassinated in 839, Amalfi declared independence and two factions fought for power in Benevento, crippling the principality and making it susceptible to external enemies. Saracen was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Fatimids at first then later for all who professed the religion of Islam. Andrew II was the Duke of Naples from 834 to 840 During his reign he was constantly at war with the Lombards and he allowed Gaeta, his vassal to move

The civil war lasted ten years and was ended only by a peace treaty imposed by the Emperor Louis II, the only Frankish king to exercise actual sovereignty over the Lombard states, in 849 which divided the kingdom into two states: the Principality of Benevento and the Principality of Salerno, with its capital at Salerno on the Tyrrhenian. Louis II the Younger (825 &ndash 12 August 875) was the King of Italy from 844 and then Emperor from 855 until his death The Lombard Principality of Salerno was a South Italian state centered on the port city of Salerno, formed out of the Principality of Benevento Salerno is a town in southern Italy, capital of the province of the same name in the region of Campania.

Southern Italy and the Arabs, 836–915

Main article: History of Islam in southern Italy

Andrew II of Naples hired Saracen mercenaries for his war with Sicard of Benevento in 836. The Islamic conquest and rule of Sicily, Malta, and parts of Southern Italy was a process whose origin can be traced back through the general Sicard responded with like. The Saracens initially concentrated their attacks on Sicily and Byzantine Italy, but soon Radelchis I of Benevento called in more mercenaries and they sacked Capua in 841. Radelchis I (also Radalgis; died 851 was the Treasurer, then Prince of Benevento from 839 when he assumed the throne upon the assassination (possibly Capua is a city in the Province of Caserta, Campania, Italy situated 25 km (16 mi north of Naples, on the northeastern edge of The ruins of that city are all that is left of "Old Capua" (Santa Maria Capua Vetere). Santa Maria Capua Vetere is a town and commune in the Province of Caserta, part of the region of Campania (southern Italy) Consequently, Landulf the Old founded the present-day Capua, "New Capua", on a nearby hill. Landulf I (c795 &ndash 843 called the Old, was the first Gastald of Capua of his illustrious family which would rule Capua until 1058 The Lombard princes in general, however, were less inclined to ally with the Saracens than their Greek neighbours of Amalfi, Gaeta, Naples, and Sorrento. Guaifer of Salerno, however, briefly put himself under Muslim suzerainty. Guaifer (also Guaifar, Waifer, Waifar, or Guaiferio) (c 835 &ndash 880 was the Prince of Salerno from 861

A large Muslim force seized Bari, until then a Lombard gastaldate under the control of Pandenulf, in 847. Bari ( Barium in Latin, Bàrion or Vàrion in Greek, Bare in Neapolitan Saracen incursions then proceeded northwards until finally the prince of Benevento, Adelchis called in the help of his suzerain, Louis II. Adelchis was the son of Radelchis I, Prince of Benevento, and successor of his brother Radelgar in 854 Louis allied with the Byzantine emperor Basil I to expel the Arabs from Bari in 869. For the Russian ruler see Basil I of Russia Basil I, called the Macedonian ( Greek: Βασίλειος Α΄ο Μακεδών An Arab landing force was defeated by the emperor, after a brief imprisonment by Adelchis, in 871. Adelchis and Louis were at war for the rest of the latter's career. Adelchis regarded himself as the true successor of the Lombard kings and in that capacity he amended the Edictum Rothari, the last Lombard ruler to do so. The Edictum Rothari (also Edictus Rothari or Edictum Rotharis) was the first written compilation of Lombard Law, codified and promulgated

After Louis's death, Landulf II of Capua briefly flirted with a Saracen alliance, but Pope John VIII convinced him to break it off. Landulf II (c825 &ndash 879 was Bishop and Count of Capua. He was the youngest of four sons of Landulf I, Gastald of Capua. John VIII was Pope from December 13, 872 to December 16, 882. Guaimar I of Salerno fought against the Saracens with Byzantine troops. Guaimar I (also Waimar, Gaimar, or Guaimario; c 855 &ndash 901 was the Prince of Salerno from 880 when his father entered the monastery of Throughout this period the Lombard princes swung in allegiance from one party to another. Finally, towards 915, Pope John X managed to unite all the Christian princes of southern Itay against the Saracen establishments on the Garigliano river. John X, Pope from March 914 to May 928 was Deacon at Bologna when he attracted the attention of Theodora, the wife of Theophylact The Garigliano is a River in central Italy. It forms at the confluence of the rivers Gari (also known as the Rapido and Liri. That year, in the great Battle of the Garigliano, the Saracens were ousted from Italy. For the 1503 battle with the same name see Battle of Garigliano (1503.

The Lombard principalities in the tenth century

The independent state at Salerno inspired the gastalds of Capua to move towards independence and, by the end of the century, they were styling themselves "princes" and there was a third Lombard state. This is as list of the rulers of the Principality of Capua. Lombard rulers of Capua Gastalds and counts The Gastalds (or counts of Capua The Capuan and Beneventan states were united by Atenulf I of Capua in 900. Atenulf I (died 910 called the Great (Latin magnus) was the Prince of Capua from 7 January 887 and of Benevento from He subsequently declared them to be in perpetual union and they were only separated in 982, on the death of Pandulf Ironhead. Pandulf I Ironhead (died March 981 was the Prince of Benevento and Capua from 943 (or 944 until his death With all of the Lombard south under his control save Salerno, Atenulf felt safe in using the title princeps gentis Langobardorum ("prince of the Lombard people"), which Arechis II had begun using in 774. Among Atenulf's successors the principality was ruled jointly by fathers, sons, brothers, cousins, and uncles for the greater part of the century. Meanwhile, the prince Gisulf I of Salerno began using the title Langobardorum gentis princeps around mid-century, but the ideal of a united Lombard principality was only realised in December 977, when Gisulf died and his domains were inherited by Pandulf Ironhead, who temporarily held almost all Italy south of Rome and brought the Lombards into alliance with the Holy Roman Empire. Gisulf I (also Gisulph, Gisolf, Gisulfo, Gisolfo, Gisulphus, or Gisulfus; May 930 &ndash November or December 977 was The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in His territories were divided upon his death.

Landulf the Red of Benevento and Capua tried to conquer the principality of Salerno with the help of John III of Naples, but with the aid of Mastalus I of Amalfi Gisulf repulsed him. Landulf II (died 961 called the Red, was the Prince of Benevento and Prince of Capua (as Landulf IV) from 939 or 940 when his father John III (died late 968/early 969 was the longest-reigning Duke of Naples (928&ndash968 Mastalus I (Mastalo died 953 was the penultimate ''patricius'' of Amalfi. The rulers of Benevento and Capua made several attempts on Byzantine Apulia at this time, but in late century the Byzantines, under the stiff rule of Basil II, gained ground on the Lombards. The Catepanate (or Catapanate) of Italy ( Greek:) was a province of the Byzantine Empire, comprising mainland Italy south of a line drawn from Basil II, surnamed the Bulgar-slayer (Βασίλειος Β΄ Βουλγαροκτόνος Basileios II Boulgaroktonos, 958 &ndash December 15 1025

The principal source for the history of the Lombard principalities in this period is the Chronicon Salernitanum, composed late in the century at Salerno. The Chronicon Salernitanum, or " Salerno Chronicle " is an anonymous 10th century chronicle of the history of the Principality of Salerno

Norman conquest, 1017–1078

Main article: Norman conquest of southern Italy

The diminished Beneventan principality soon lost its independence to the papacy and declined in importance until it was gobbled up by in the Norman conquest of southern Italy, who, first called in by the Lombards to fight the Byzantines for control of Apulia and Calabria (under the likes of Melus of Bari and Arduin, among others), had become rivals for hegemony in the south. The Norman conquest of Southern Italy spanned most of the eleventh century involving many battles and many independent players conquering territories of their own History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and The Normans were the people who gave their names to Normandy, a region in northern France. The Norman conquest of Southern Italy spanned most of the eleventh century involving many battles and many independent players conquering territories of their own Apulia ( Italian: Puglia) is a region in southeastern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east the Ionian Sea Calabria ( Latin: Brutium) is a region in southern Italy, south of Naples, located at the "toe" of Melus (also Milus or Meles, Melo in Italian) (died 1020 was a Lombard nobleman from the Apulian town of Bari Arduin was a Greek -speaking Lombard nobleman who fought originally for the Byzantines on Sicily and later against them as the leader of a band The Salernitan principality experienced a golden age under Guaimar III and Guaimar IV, but under Gisulf II, the principality shrunk to insignificance and fell in 1078 to the Robert Guiscard, who had married Gisulf's sister Sichelgaita. Guaimar III (also Waimar, Gaimar, Guaimaro, or Guaimario and sometimes numbered Guaimar IV (c Guaimar IV (c 1013 &ndash ass June 3 or 2 1052 was Prince of Salerno (1027&ndash1052 Duke of Amalfi (1039&ndash1052 Duke of Gaeta Gisulf II (also spelled Gisulph, Latin Gisulphus or Gisulfus, and Italian Gisulfo or Gisolfo) was the last Robert Guiscard (from Latin Viscardus and Old French Viscart, often rendered the Resourceful, the Cunning, the Wily Sikelgaita (also Sichelgaita or Sigelgaita) (1040 &ndash 16 April 1090) was a Lombard princess the daughter of Guaimar IV The Capua principality was hotly contested during the reign of the hated Pandulf IV, the Wolf of the Abruzzi, and, under his son, it fell, almost without contest, to the Norman Richard Drengot (1058). Pandulf IV (also spelled Randulf, Bandulf, Pandulph, Pandolf, Paldolf, or Pandolfo) was the Prince of Capua Richard I Drengot (died 1078 was a count of Aversa (1049-1078 and Prince of Capua (1058-1078 The Capuans revolted against Norman rule in 1091, expelling Richard's grandson Richard II and setting up one Lando IV. Richard II (died 1105/1106 called the Bald, was the Count of Aversa and the Prince of Capua from 1090 or 1091 Lando IV (Landone was the last independent Lombard ruler in Italy.

Capua was again put under Norman rule by the Siege of Capua of 1098 and the city quickly declined in importance under a series of ineffectual Norman rulers. The Siege of Capua was a military operation involving the states of medieval Southern Italy, beginning in May 1098 and lasting forty days The independent status of these Lombard states is generally attested by the ability of their rulers to switch suzerains at will. Often the legal vassal of pope or emperor (either Byzantine or Holy Roman), they were the real power-brokers in the south until their erstwhile allies, the Normans, rose to preeminence. The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states Certainly the Lombards regarded the Normans as barbarians and the Byzantines as oppressors. Regarding their own civilisation as superior, the Lombards did indeed provide the environment for the illustrious Schola Medica Salernitana. The Schola Medica Salernitana ( Italian: Scuola Medica Salernitana) was the first Medieval Medical school in the cosmopolitan coastal

Social structure

Migration Period society

The Lombard kings can be traced back as early as circa 380 and thus to the beginning of the Great Migration. Kingship developed amongst the Germanic peoples when the unity of a single military command was found necessary. Schmidt believed that the Germanic tribes were divided according to cantons and that the earliest government was a general assembly that selected the chiefs of the cantons and the war leaders from the cantons (in times of war). A canton is an Administrative division of a country eg a region or state All such figures were probably selected from a caste of nobility. As a result of wars of their wanderings, royal power developed such that the king became the representative of the people; but the influence of the people upon the government did not fully disappear. ^[55] Paul the Deacon gives an account of the Lombard tribal structure during the migration:

. . . in order that they might increase the number of their warriors, confer liberty upon many whom they deliver from the yoke of bondage, and that the freedom of these may be regarded as established, they confirm it in their accustomed way by an arrow, uttering certain words of their country in confirmation of the fact.

Complete emancipation appears to have been granted only among the Franks and the Lombards. ^[56]

Society of the Catholic kingdom

Lombard society was divided into classes comparable to those found in the other Germanic successor states of Rome: Frankish Gaul and Visigothic Spain. Francia or Frankia, later also called the Frankish Empire (imperium Francorum Frankish Kingdom (Latin regnum Francorum, "Kingdom of the The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Most basically, there was a noble class, a class of free persons beneath them, a class of unfree non-slaves (serfs), and finally slaves. The aristocracy itself was poorer, more urbanised, and less landed than elsewhere. Aside from the richest and most powerful of the dukes and the king himself, Lombard noblemen tended to live in cities (unlike their Frankish counterparts) and hold little more than twice as much in land as the merchant class (a far cry from the provincial Frankish aristocrat who held a vast swathe of land hundreds of times larger than the nearest man beneath him). The aristocracy by the eighth century was highly dependent on the king for means of income related especially to judicial duties: many Lombard nobles are referred in contemporary documents as iudices (judges) even when their offices had important military and legislative functions as well.

The freemen of the Lombard kingdom were far more numerous than in Frankland, especially in the eighth century, when they are almost invisible in the surviving documentary evidence for the latter. Smallholders, owner-cultivators, and rentiers are the most numerous types of person in surviving diplomata for the Lombard kingdom. They may have owned more than half of the land in Lombard Italy. The freemen were exercitales and viri devoti, that is, soldiers and "devoted men" (a military term like "retainers"); they formed the levy of the Lombard army and they were, if infrequently, sometimes called to serve, though this seems not to have been their preference. The small landed class, however, lacked the political influence necessary with the king (and the dukes) to control the politics and legislation of the kingdom. The aristocracy was more thoroughly powerful politically if not economically in Italy than in contemporary Gaul and Spain.

The urbanisation of Lombard Italy was characterised by the città ad isole (or "city as islands"). It appears from archaeology that the great cities of Lombard Italy — Pavia, Lucca, Siena, Arezzo, Milan — were themselves formed of very minute islands of urbanisation within the old Roman city walls. Pavia (pronounced Pavìa,) the ancient Ticinum, is a town and Comune of south-western Lombardy, northern Italy, 35 km south Lucca is a city in Tuscany, northern central Italy, situated on the river Serchio in a fertile plain near (but not on the Ligurian Sea Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Siena. Arezzo ( Latin Arretium) is a city in central Italy, capital of the province of the same name, located in Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. The cities of the Roman Empire had been partially destroyed in the series wars of the fifth and sixth centuries. Many sectors were left in ruins and ancient monuments became fields of grass used as pastures for animals, thus the Roman Forum became the campo vaccinio: the field of cows. This page refers to the main forum in the center of Rome See Imperial forums or Other forums in Rome (below for other forums in Rome and The portions of the cities which remained intact were small and modest and contained a cathedral or major church (often sumptuously decorated) and a few public buildings and townhomes of the aristocracy. Few buildings of importance were stone, most were wood. In the end, the inhabited parts of the cities were separated from one another by stretches of pasture even within the city walls.

Lombard states

• Kingdom of Italy and List of Kings of the Lombards
• Principality of Benevento and List of Dukes and Princes of Benevento
• Principality of Salerno and List of Princes of Salerno
• Principality of Capua and List of Princes of Capua

Religious history

Paganism

The earliest indications of Lombard religion show that they originally worshipped the Germanic gods of the Vanir pantheon while in Scandinavia. The Kingdom of the Lombards or Lombard Kingdom of Italy was an early medieval state on the Italian Peninsula. The Duchy and later Principality of Benevento was the southernmost Lombard duchy in medieval Italy centred on Benevento, a city central in the Mezzogiorno This is as list of the Dukes and Princes of Benevento (see Duchy of Benevento) it is one of Wikipedia 's Lists of Incumbents. The Lombard Principality of Salerno was a South Italian state centered on the port city of Salerno, formed out of the Principality of Benevento These are the rulers of the Principality of Salerno. When Prince Sicard of Benevento was assassinated by Radelchis in 839 the people of Salerno promptly The Principality of Capua (Principatus Capuae or Capue was a Lombard state in Southern Italy, usually de facto independent but under the varying This is as list of the rulers of the Principality of Capua. Lombard rulers of Capua Gastalds and counts The Gastalds (or counts of Capua Germanic paganism refers to the religious beliefs of the Germanic peoples preceding Christianization. Vanir is the name of one of the two groups of gods in Norse mythology, the other and more well known being the Æsir. After settling along the Baltic coast, through contact with other Germans they adopted the cult of the Aesir gods, a shift which represented a cultural change from an agricultural society into a warrior society. In Old Norse, áss (or ǫ́ss ás, plural æsir, feminine ásynja, feminine plural ásynjur) is the term denoting one of the principal

After their migration into Pannonia, the Lombards had contact with the Iranian Sarmatians. The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες From these people they borrowed a long-lived custom once of religious symbolism. A long pole surmounted by the figure of a bird, usually a dove, derived from the standards used in battle, was placed by the family in the ground the home of a man who had died far afield in war and who could not be brought home for funeral and burial. Usually the bird was oriented so as to point in the direction of the suspected site of the warrior's death.

Christianisation

While still in Pannonia, the Lombards were first touched by Christianity, but only touched: their conversion and Christianisation was largely nominal and far from complete. During the reign of Wacho, they were Roman Catholics allied with the Byzantine Empire, but Alboin converted to Arianism as an ally of the Ostrogoths and invaded Italy. Wacho or Waccho (probably Waldchis was king of the Lombards before they entered Italy from an unknown date (perhaps circa 510 until his death in 539 Alboin or Alboïn (died 572 or 573 was king of the Lombards, and conqueror of Italy. Arianism is the theological teaching of Arius (c AD 250-336 who was ruled a heretic by the Christian church at the Council of Nicea. The Ostrogoths (Ostrogothi or Austrogothi were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late All these Christian conversions only affected, for the most part, the aristocracy; for the common people remained pagan.

In Italy, the Lombards were intensively Christianised and the pressure to convert to Catholicism was great. With the Bavarian queen Theodelinda, a Catholic, the monarchy was brought under heavy Catholic influence. Theodelinda, queen of the Lombards, (c 570 - 628 was the daughter of duke Garibald I of Bavaria. After an initial support for the Three Chapters, Theodelinda remained a close contact and supporter of Pope Gregory I. The Three-Chapter Controversy was a phase in the Monophysite controversy was an attempt to reconcile the Christians of Syria and Egypt with In 603, Adaloald, the heir to the throne, received a Catholic baptism. Adaloald (602 &ndash 626 was the Lombard king of Italy from 616 to 626 During the next century, Arianism and paganism continued to hold out in Austria (the northeast of Italy) and the Duchy of Benevento. A succession of Arian kings were militarily aggressive and presented a threat to the Papacy in Rome. In the seventh century, the nominally Christian aristocracy of Benevento was still practising pagan rituals, such as sacrifices in "sacred" woods. By the end of the reign of Cunincpert, however, the Lombards were more or less completely Catholicised. Cunipert (also Cunibert or Cunincpert) was king of the Lombards from 688 to 700 Under Liutprand, the Catholicism became real as the king sought to justify his title rex totius Italiae by uniting the south of the peninsula with the north and bringing together his Italo-Roman subjects and his Germanic into one Catholic state. Liutprand was the king of the Lombards from 712 to 744 and is chiefly remembered for his Donation of Sutri, in 728 and his long reign which brought him into a series

Beneventan Christianity

The Duchy and eventually Principality of Benevento in southern Italy developed a unique Christian rite in the seventh and eighth centuries. A rite is an established ceremonious usually Religious act or Process art. The Beneventan rite is more closely related to the liturgy of the Ambrosian rite than the Roman rite. This article is about the history and the current form of Ambrosian Rite for an explanation of the form of this Rite used before the Vatican-II see Traditional Ambrosian Rite The liturgical rite of the Church of Rome is called the Roman Rite. The Beneventan rite has not survived in its complete form, although most of the principal feasts and several feasts of local significance are extant. The Beneventan rite appears to have been less complete, less systematic, and more liturgically flexible than the Roman rite.

Characteristic of this rite was the Beneventan chant, a Lombard-influenced chant which bore similarities to the Ambrosian chant of Lombard Milan. Beneventan chant is a liturgical plainchant repertory of the Roman Catholic Church used primarily in the orbit of the southern Italian ecclesiastical centers Ambrosian chant (also known as Milanese chant) is the liturgical plainchant repertory of the Ambrosian rite of the Roman Catholic Church related Beneventan chant is largely defined by its role in the liturgy of the Beneventan rite; many Beneventan chants were assigned multiple roles when inserted into Gregorian chantbooks, appearing variously as antiphons, offertories, and communions, for example. It was eventually supplanted by the Gregorian chant in the eleventh century. History Gregorian chant was organized codified and notated mainly in the Frankish lands of western and central Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries with later additions

The chief centre of Beneventan chant was Montecassino, one of the first and greatest abbeys of Western monasticism. For information about the World War II battle see the Battle of Monte Cassino. Those living the monastic life are known by the generic terms Monks (men and Nuns (women Gisulf II of Benevento had donated a large swathe of land to Montecassino in 744 and that became the basis for an important state, the Terra Sancti Benedicti, which was a subject only to Rome. Gisulf II (died between 749 and 753 was the third last Duke of Benevento before the fall of the Lombard kingdom. The Terra Sancti Benedicti ("Land of Saint Benedict" was the secular territory or Seignory, of the powerful Abbey of Montecassino, the chief The Cassinese influence on Christianity in southern Italy was immense. Montecassino was also the starting point for another characteristic of Beneventan monasticism: the use of the distinct Beneventan script, a clear, angular scrip derived from the Roman cursive as used by the Lombards. Beneventan script was a medieval script, so called because it originated in the Duchy of Benevento in Southern Italy. Roman cursive (or Latin cursive) is a form of Handwriting (or a script) used in Ancient Rome and to some extent into the Middle Ages

Art and architecture

During their nomadic phase, the Lombards created little in the way of art which was not easily carried with them, like arms and jewellery. Though relatively little of this has survived, it bears resemblance to the similar endeavours of other Germanic tribes of northern and central Europe from the same era.

The first major modifications to the Germanic style of the Lombards came in Pannonia and especially in Italy, under the influence of local, Byzantine, and Christian styles. Byzantine architecture is the Architecture of the Byzantine Empire. Early Christian art and architecture is the art produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from about the year 100 to about the year 500. The conversions from nomadism and paganism to settlement and Christianity also opened up new arenas of artistic expression, such as architecture (especially churches) and its accompanying decorative arts (such as frescoes).

Architecture

Few Lombard buildings have survived. Most have been lost, rebuilt, or renovated at some point and so preserve little of their original Lombard structure. Lombard architecture has been well-studied in the twentieth century, and Arthur Kingsley Porter's four-volume Lombard Architecture (1919) is a "monument of illustrated history. Arthur Kingsley Porter (1883 &ndash 1933 was an American Art historian and Medievalist. "

The small Oratorio di Santa Maria in Valle in Cividale del Friuli is probably one of the oldest preserved pieces of Lombard architecture, as Cividale was the first Lombard city in Italy. Cividale del Friuli ( Friulian Cividât, Slovenian Čedad) is a town in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Northern Italy, 15 km Parts of Lombard constructions have been preserved in Pavia (San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, crypts of Sant'Eusebio and San Giovanni Domnarum) and Monza (cathedral). Pavia (pronounced Pavìa,) the ancient Ticinum, is a town and Comune of south-western Lombardy, northern Italy, 35 km south San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro ( Italian for "Saint Peter's in the Golden Sky" is a Roman Catholic Basilica (and a former Cathedral) of the Sant'Eusebio is a Basilica church in Rome, devoted to Saint Eusebius of Vercelli, a 4th century martyr and built in the Monti Monza ( Munscia in Western Lombard) is a city on the river Lambro, a tributary of the Po, in the Lombardy region of Italy Monza Cathedral (Italian Duomo di Monza) is the main religious building of Monza, near Milan, in northern Italy. The Basilic autariana in Fara Gera d'Adda near Bergamo and the church of San Salvatore in Brescia also have Lombard elements. Fara Gera d'Adda is a Comune (municipality in the Province of Bergamo in the Italian region of Lombardy, located about 30 km northeast Bergamo ( Bèrghem in Lombard, antiquated Wälsch-Bergen in German) is a town in Lombardy, Italy, about Brescia ( Lombard: Brèsa) is a city in the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. All these building are in northern Italy (Langobardia major), but by far the best-preserved Lombard structure is in southern Italy (Langobardia minor). The Church of Santa Sofia in Benevento was erected in 760 by Duke Arechis II. Benevento is a town and Comune of Campania, Italy, capital of the Province of Benevento, 50 km northeast of Naples. Arechis II (also Aretchis, Arichis, Arechi or Aregis; died August 26 787) was Duke (and later Prince of It preserves Lombard frescoes on the walls and even Lombard capitals on the columns.

Through the impulse given by the Catholic monarchs like Theodelinda, Liutprand, and Desiderius to the foundation of monasteries to further their political control, Lombard architecture flourished. Theodelinda, queen of the Lombards, (c 570 - 628 was the daughter of duke Garibald I of Bavaria. Liutprand was the king of the Lombards from 712 to 744 and is chiefly remembered for his Donation of Sutri, in 728 and his long reign which brought him into a series Desiderius (also known as Daufer or Dauferius; Didier in French and Desiderio in Italian) was the last king of the Bobbio Abbey was founded during this time. Bobbio Abbey (Italian Abbazia di San Colombano) is a monastery founded by Saint Columbanus in 614 around which later grew up the town of Bobbio, in the

Some of the late Lombard structures of the ninth and tenth century have been found to contain elements of style associated with Romanesque architecture and have been so dubbed "first Romanesque". Regional characteristics of Romanesque architecture|Romanesque art Romanesque architecture is the term that is used to describe the architecture of Middle Ages Europe which One of the first streams of Romanesque architecture in Europe from the 10th century and the beginning of 11th century is called First Romanesque or These edifices are considered, along with some similar buildings in southern France and Catalonia, to mark a transitory phase between the Pre-Romanesque and full-fledged Romanesque. Southern France (or the South of France) colloquially known as Le Midi, is a loosely defined geographical area consisting of the regions of France that Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. Pre-Romanesque art and architecture is the period in Western European art from either the emergence of the Merovingian kingdom in about 500 or from the Carolingian

Visual arts

Sculpture

Metalwork

See also

• History of Europe

Notes

References

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• Giess, Hildegard. "The Sculpture of the Cloister of Santa Sofia in Benevento (in Notes)." The Art Bulletin, Vol. 41, No. 3. (Sep. , 1959), pp 249–256.
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