Latin =
Liver of a sheep: (1) right lobe, (2) left lobe, (3) caudate lobe, (4) quadrate lobe, (5) hepatic artery and portal vein, (6) hepatic lymph nodes, (7) gall bladder.
Anterior view of the position of the liver (red) in the human abdomen.
Artery	hepatic artery
Vein	hepatic vein, hepatic portal vein
Nerve	celiac ganglia, vagus[1]
Precursor	foregut
MeSH	Liver

The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body, and is an organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. Arteries are Blood vessels that carry blood away from the Heart. The hepatic artery proper (also proper hepatic artery) arises from the Common hepatic artery and runs alongside the Portal vein and the Common bile In the Circulatory system, a vein is a Blood vessel that carries Blood back toward the Heart (as opposed to Artery, a blood vessel In Human anatomy, the hepatic veins are the Blood vessels that drain de-oxygenated Blood from the Liver and blood cleaned by the liver (from the The hepatic portal vein (often portal vein for short is a Portal vein in the human body that drains blood from the Digestive system and its associated A nerve is an enclosed cable-like bundle of peripheral Axons (the long slender projections of Neurons. The celiac ganglia are two large irregularly shaped masses of Nerve tissue in the upper Abdomen. The vagus nerve (ˈveɪˌgəs (VĀ-gəs (also called pneumogastric nerve or cranial nerve X) is the tenth of twelve paired Cranial nerves, and is the Embryology (from Greek grc ἔμβρυον embryon, "unborn embryo" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the development The foregut is the anterior part of the Alimentary canal, from the Mouth to the Duodenum at the entrance of the Bile duct. Medical Subject Headings ( MeSH) is a huge Controlled vocabulary (or metadata system for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument Vertebrates are members of the Subphylum Vertebrata, Chordates with backbones or spinal columns The grouping sometimes includes The liver is necessary for survival, a human can only last up to 24 hours without liver function. It plays a major role in metabolism and has a number of functions in the body, including glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells, plasma protein synthesis, and detoxification. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. Glycogen is a Polysaccharide of Glucose (Glc which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in Animal cells Blood proteins, also called serum proteins, are Proteins found in Blood plasma. The liver is also the largest gland in the human body. A gland is an organ in an animal's body that synthesizes a substance for release such as Hormones or Breast milk, often into the Bloodstream Human anatomy, which with physiology and biochemistry is a complementary basic medical science is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the adult Human body It lies below the diaphragm in the thoracic region of the abdomen. It produces bile, an alkaline compound which aids in digestion, via the emulsification of lipids. Bile or gall is a bitter yellow or green Alkaline fluid secreted by Hepatocytes from the Liver of most Vertebrates In many species Digestion is the breaking down of chemicals in the body into a form that can be absorbed Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble It also performs and regulates a wide variety of high-volume biochemical reactions requiring very specialized tissues. Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism ^[2]

Medical terms related to the liver often start in hepato- or hepatic from the Greek word for liver, hēpar (ήπαρ). Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly ^[3]

Contents 1 Anatomy 1.1 Flow of blood 1.2 Flow of bile 1.3 Regeneration 1.4 Traditional (Surface) anatomy 1.4.1 Peritoneal ligaments 1.4.2 Lobes 1.5 Modern (Functional) anatomy 2 Physiology 3 Diseases of the liver 4 Herbal Treatments 5 Liver transplantation 6 Development 6.1 Fetal blood supply 7 Liver as food 8 Cultural allusions 9 See also 10 Further reading 11 References 12 Gallery 13 External links

Anatomy

The adult human liver normally weighs between 1. 4 - 1. 6 kilograms (3. 1 - 3. 5 pounds),^[4] and it is a soft, pinkish-brown, triangular organ. Averaging about the size of an American football in adults, it is both the largest internal organ and the largest gland in the human body.

It is located on the right side of the upper abdomen below the diaphragm anatomy. The liver lies to the right of the stomach and overlies the gallbladder. The gallbladder (or cholecyst sometimes gall bladder is a small organ whose function in the body is to store Bile and aid in the digestive process

Flow of blood

The splenic vein joins the inferior mesenteric vein, which then together join the superior mesenteric vein to form the hepatic portal vein, bringing venous blood from the spleen, pancreas, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, so that the liver can process the nutrients and by-products of food digestion. In Anatomy, the splenic vein (in the past called the lienal vein) is the Blood vessel that drains Blood from the Spleen. In Human anatomy, the inferior mesenteric vein (IMV is a Blood vessel that drains Blood from the Large intestine. In Anatomy, the superior mesenteric vein (SMV is a Blood vessel that drains Blood from the Small intestine ( Jejunum and Ileum The hepatic portal vein (often portal vein for short is a Portal vein in the human body that drains blood from the Digestive system and its associated Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells ��such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products The spleen is an organ found in all Vertebrate animals In humans the spleen is located in the abdomen of the body where it functions in the destruction of redundant Red The pancreas is a Gland organ in the digestive and Endocrine system of Vertebrates. In Human anatomy, the stomach is a J-shaped hollow muscular organ of the Gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of Digestion, following In Biology the small Intestine is the part of the Gastrointestinal tract (gut between the Stomach and the Large intestine, and comprises The large intestine is the last part of the Digestive system: the final stage of the Alimentary canal in Vertebrate Animals Its function is to A nutrient is food or chemicals that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment

The hepatic veins of the blood can be from other branches such as the superior mesenteric artery. In Human anatomy, the hepatic veins are the Blood vessels that drain de-oxygenated Blood from the Liver and blood cleaned by the liver (from the See also Superior Mesenteric Artery Syndrome In Human anatomy, the superior mesenteric artery (SMA arises from the anterior surface of the Abdominal aorta

Both the portal venules & the hepatic arterioles enter approximately one million identical lobules acini, likened to and changes in the size of chylomicrons lipoproteins of dietary origin brought about by the quantity & types of food fats. An acinus (adjective acinar, plural acini) refers to the berry-shaped termination of an Exocrine gland, where the secretion is produced

Approximately 60% to 80% of the blood flow to the liver is from the portal venous system, and 1/4 is from the hepatic artery.

Flow of bile

The bile produced in the liver is collected in bile canaliculi, which merge to form bile ducts. Bile or gall is a bitter yellow or green Alkaline fluid secreted by Hepatocytes from the Liver of most Vertebrates In many species Bile canaliculus (plural bile canaliculi; also called bile capillaries) is a thin tube that collects Bile secreted by Hepatocytes.

These eventually drain into the right and left hepatic ducts, which in turn merge to form the common hepatic duct. The common hepatic duct is the duct formed by the convergence of the Right hepatic duct (which drains bile from the Right functional lobe of the liver) and the The cystic duct (from the gallbladder) joins with the common hepatic duct to form the common bile duct. The cystic duct is the short Duct that joins the Gall bladder to the Common bile duct. The gallbladder (or cholecyst sometimes gall bladder is a small organ whose function in the body is to store Bile and aid in the digestive process The common hepatic duct is the duct formed by the convergence of the Right hepatic duct (which drains bile from the Right functional lobe of the liver) and the Bile, which is synthesized in the liver is carried to the right and left hepatic ducts which converge along with the Cystic duct to form the Common hepatic duct.

Bile can either drain directly into the duodenum via the common bile duct or be temporarily stored in the gallbladder via the cystic duct. In Anatomy of the Digestive system, the duodenum is a hollow jointed tube about 25-30 cm (10-12 in long connecting the Stomach to the Jejunum Bile, which is synthesized in the liver is carried to the right and left hepatic ducts which converge along with the Cystic duct to form the Common hepatic duct. The gallbladder (or cholecyst sometimes gall bladder is a small organ whose function in the body is to store Bile and aid in the digestive process The common bile duct and the pancreatic duct enter the duodenum together at the ampulla of Vater. Bile, which is synthesized in the liver is carried to the right and left hepatic ducts which converge along with the Cystic duct to form the Common hepatic duct. The pancreatic duct, or duct of Wirsung, is a duct joining the Pancreas to the Common bile duct to supply pancreatic juices which aid in Digestion In Anatomy of the Digestive system, the duodenum is a hollow jointed tube about 25-30 cm (10-12 in long connecting the Stomach to the Jejunum The ampulla of Vater (papilla Vateri papilla duodeni major also known as the la hepatopancreatic ampulla, is formed by the union of the Pancreatic duct and

The branchings of the bile ducts resemble those of a tree, and indeed the term "biliary tree" is commonly used in this setting. A bile duct is any of a number of long tube-like structures that carry Bile.

Regeneration

The liver is among the few internal human organs capable of natural regeneration of lost tissue; as little as 25% of remaining liver can regenerate into a whole liver again. In Biology, an Organism is said to regenerate a lost or damaged part if the part regrows so that the original function is restored Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism

This is predominantly due to the hepatocytes reentering the cell cycle (i. Hepatocytes make up 70-80% of the Cytoplasmic mass of the Liver. The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that take place in a eukaryotic cell leading to its replication e. the hepatocytes go from the quiescent G0 phase to the G1 phase and undergo mitosis). There is also some evidence of bipotential stem cells, called ovalocyte (o´və-lo-sīt), which exist in the Canals of Hering. Multipotent Progenitor cells can give rise to several other cell types but those types are limited in number Stem cells are cells found in most if not all multi-cellular Organisms. The Canals of Hering, or intrahepatic bile ductules, are part of the outflow system of Exocrine Bile product from the liver These cells can differentiate into either hepatocytes or cholangiocytes (cells that line the bile ducts). Hepatocytes make up 70-80% of the Cytoplasmic mass of the Liver. Cholangiocytes are the Epithelial cells of the Bile duct. They are cuboidal epithelium in the small interlobular bile ducts but become columnar and mucus secreting A bile duct is any of a number of long tube-like structures that carry Bile.

Traditional (Surface) anatomy

Peritoneal ligaments

Apart from a patch where it connects to the diaphragm, the liver is covered entirely by visceral peritoneum, a thin, double-layered membrane that reduces friction against other organs. For other types of diaphragm see Diaphragm. In the Anatomy of Mammals the thoracic diaphragm is a sheet of Muscle In Anatomy, a viscus (ˈvɪskəs ( Plural: viscera /ˈvɪsərə/ is an internal organ of an animal (including humans in particular an internal In higher Vertebrates the peritoneum is the Serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity &mdash it covers most of the intra-abdominal The mesothelium is a membrane that forms the lining of several body cavities the Pleura (thoracal cavity Peritoneum (abdominal cavity including the mesentery and Friction is the Force resisting the relative motion of two Surfaces in contact or a surface in contact with a fluid (e The peritoneum folds back on itself to form the falciform ligament and the right and left triangular ligaments. In higher Vertebrates the peritoneum is the Serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity &mdash it covers most of the intra-abdominal The falciform ligament is a broad and thin antero-posterior peritoneal fold falciform (Latin "sickle-shaped" in shape its base being directed downward and backward its apex The right triangular ligament is situated at the right extremity of the Bare area, and is a small fold which passes to the diaphragm, being formed by the apposition The left triangular ligament is a fold of some considerable size which connects the posterior part of the upper surface of the Left lobe to the diaphragm; its anterior

These "ligaments" are in no way related to the true anatomic ligaments in joints, and have essentially no functional importance, but they are easily recognizable surface landmarks. In higher Vertebrates the peritoneum is the Serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity &mdash it covers most of the intra-abdominal In Anatomy, the term ligament is used to denote three different types of structures Fibrous tissue that connects Bones to other bones A joint is the location at which two or more Bones make contact

Lobes

Traditional gross anatomy divided the liver into four lobes based on surface features. In Anatomy, a lobe is a clear anatomical division or extension that can be determined without the use of a Microscope (at the Gross anatomy level The falciform ligament is visible on the front (anterior side) of the liver. The falciform ligament is a broad and thin antero-posterior peritoneal fold falciform (Latin "sickle-shaped" in shape its base being directed downward and backward its apex In fields of Anatomy, anatomical terms of location are descriptive terms to help identify relative positions or directions within a species This divides the liver into a left anatomical lobe, and a right anatomical lobe. The left lobe is smaller and more flattened than the right It is situated in the Epigastric and left Hypochondriac regions The right lobe is much larger than the left the proportion between them being as six to one

If the liver flipped over, to look at it from behind (the visceral surface), there are two additional lobes between the right and left. In Anatomy, a viscus (ˈvɪskəs ( Plural: viscera /ˈvɪsərə/ is an internal organ of an animal (including humans in particular an internal These are the caudate lobe (the more superior), and below this the quadrate lobe. The caudate lobe ( posterior hepatic segment I, Spigelian lobe) is situated upon the postero-inferior surface of the liver on the Left lobe of the liver, The quadrate lobe is an area of the Liver situated on the under surface of the right lobe bounded in front by the Anterior margin of the liver; behind by the

From behind, the lobes are divided up by the ligamentum venosum and ligamentum teres (anything left of these is the left lobe), the transverse fissure (or porta hepatis) divides the caudate from the quadrate lobe, and the right sagittal fossa, which the inferior vena cava runs over, separates these two lobes from the right lobe. The ligamentum venosum is the fibrous remnant of the Ductus venosus of the Fetal circulation. For other structures with similar name see Round ligament. In Anatomy, the round ligament of (the liver (also commonly known by its The porta hepatis or transverse fissure of the liver is a short but deep fissure about 5 cm long extending transversely across the under surface of the left portion of the The porta hepatis or transverse fissure of the liver is a short but deep fissure about 5 cm long extending transversely across the under surface of the left portion of the The caudate lobe ( posterior hepatic segment I, Spigelian lobe) is situated upon the postero-inferior surface of the liver on the Left lobe of the liver, The quadrate lobe is an area of the Liver situated on the under surface of the right lobe bounded in front by the Anterior margin of the liver; behind by the The inferior vena cava (or IVC is the large Vein that carries de-oxygenated Blood from the lower half of the body into the Heart.

Each of the lobes is made up of lobules, a vein goes from the centre of each lobule which then joins to the hepatic vein to carry blood out from the liver.

On the surface of the lobules there are ducts, veins and arteries that carry fluids to and from them.

Modern (Functional) anatomy

The central area where the common bile duct, hepatic portal vein, and hepatic artery enter is the hilum or "porta hepatis". Bile, which is synthesized in the liver is carried to the right and left hepatic ducts which converge along with the Cystic duct to form the Common hepatic duct. The hepatic portal vein (often portal vein for short is a Portal vein in the human body that drains blood from the Digestive system and its associated The hepatic artery proper (also proper hepatic artery) arises from the Common hepatic artery and runs alongside the Portal vein and the Common bile The porta hepatis or transverse fissure of the liver is a short but deep fissure about 5 cm long extending transversely across the under surface of the left portion of the The duct, vein, and artery divide into left and right branches, and the portions of the liver supplied by these branches constitute the functional left and right lobes.

The liver performs over 500 jobs, and produces over 1,000 essential enzymes.

The functional lobes are separated by a plane joining the gallbladder fossa to the inferior vena cava. This separates the liver into the true right and left lobes. The middle hepatic vein also demarcates the true right and left lobes. The right lobe is further divided into an anterior and posterior segment by the right hepatic vein. In fields of Anatomy, anatomical terms of location are descriptive terms to help identify relative positions or directions within a species In fields of Anatomy, anatomical terms of location are descriptive terms to help identify relative positions or directions within a species The left lobe is divided into the medial and lateral segments by the left hepatic vein. This article is about medial in mathematics For other uses see Medial (disambiguation. Latera is a small town and Comune in the Province of Viterbo, Italy. The fissure for the ligamentum teres (the ligamentum teres becomes the falciform ligament) also separates the medial and lateral segments. For other structures with similar name see Round ligament. In Anatomy, the round ligament of (the liver (also commonly known by its The medial segment is what used to be called the quadrate lobe. The quadrate lobe is an area of the Liver situated on the under surface of the right lobe bounded in front by the Anterior margin of the liver; behind by the In the widely used Couinaud or "French" system, the functional lobes are further divided into a total of eight subsegments based on a transverse plane through the bifurcation of the main portal vein. Claude Couinaud ( 16 February, 1922, Neuilly-sur-Seine - 2008 is a French surgeon and anatomist who made significant contributions in the field of The caudate lobe is a separate structure which receives blood flow from both the right- and left-sided vascular branches. The caudate lobe ( posterior hepatic segment I, Spigelian lobe) is situated upon the postero-inferior surface of the liver on the Left lobe of the liver, ^[5][6] The subsegments corresponding to the anatomical lobes are as follows:

Segment*	Couinaud segments
Caudate	1
Lateral	2, 3
Medial	4a, 4b
Right	5, 6, 7, 8

• or lobe in the Caudate's case. Claude Couinaud ( 16 February, 1922, Neuilly-sur-Seine - 2008 is a French surgeon and anatomist who made significant contributions in the field of

Each number in the list corresponds to one in the table.

1. Caudate
2. Superior subsegment of the lateral segment
3. Inferior subsegment of the lateral segment
4. 1. Superior subsegment of the medial segment
   2. Inferior subsegment of the medial segment
5. Inferior subsegment of the anterior segment
6. Inferior subsegment of the posterior segment
7. Superior subsegment of the posterior segment
8. Superior subsegment of the anterior segment

Physiology

The various functions of the liver are carried out by the liver cells or hepatocytes. Liver function tests (LFTs or LFs which include liver enzymes, are groups of Clinical biochemistry laboratory blood assays designed to give information about the Hepatocytes make up 70-80% of the Cytoplasmic mass of the Liver.

• The liver produces and excretes bile (a greenish liquid) required for emulsifying fats. Bile or gall is a bitter yellow or green Alkaline fluid secreted by Hepatocytes from the Liver of most Vertebrates In many species Some of the bile drains directly into the duodenum, and some is stored in the gallbladder. In Anatomy of the Digestive system, the duodenum is a hollow jointed tube about 25-30 cm (10-12 in long connecting the Stomach to the Jejunum The gallbladder (or cholecyst sometimes gall bladder is a small organ whose function in the body is to store Bile and aid in the digestive process
• The liver performs several roles in carbohydrate metabolism:
  • Gluconeogenesis (the synthesis of glucose from certain amino acids, lactate or glycerol)
  • Glycogenolysis (the breakdown of glycogen into glucose) (muscle tissues can also do this)
  • Glycogenesis (the formation of glycogen from glucose)
  • The breakdown of insulin and other hormones
• The liver is responsible for the mainstay of protein metabolism. Carbohydrate metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown and interconversion of Carbohydrates Gluconeogenesis (abreviated GNG) is a Metabolic pathway that results in the generation of Glucose from non- Carbohydrate carbon substrates such Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this Lactic acid ( IUPAC Systematic name: 2-hydroxypropanoic acid) also known as milk acid, is a Chemical compound that plays a role Glycogenolysis (also known as "Glycogenlysis" is the Catabolism of Glycogen by removal of a Glucose monomer through cleavage with inorganic Glycogen is a Polysaccharide of Glucose (Glc which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in Animal cells Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Glycogenesis is the process of Glycogen synthesis in which Glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen Insulin is a Hormone with intensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems (eg vascular compliance Hormones (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus" are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. For instance, the liver can convert lactic acid to alanine.
• The liver also performs several roles in lipid metabolism:
  • Cholesterol synthesis
  • Lipogenesis, the production of triglycerides (fats). Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble Cholesterol is a Lipid found in the Cell membranes and transported in the Blood plasma of all Animals It is an essential component of mammalian Lipogenesis is the process by which simple sugars such as Glucose are converted to Fatty acids which are subsequently esterified with Glycerol (more properly known as, TAG or triacylglyceride) is Glyceride in which the Glycerol is Esterified with three Fatty acids It is the
• The liver produces coagulation factors I (fibrinogen), II (prothrombin), V, VII, IX, X and XI, as well as protein C, protein S and antithrombin. Coagulation is a complex process by which Blood forms Clots It is an important part of Hemostasis (the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel whereby Fibrin (also called Factor Ia) is a Protein involved in the clotting of blood Thrombin (activated Factor II ') is a Coagulation protein that has many effects in the coagulation cascade. Factor V is a Protein of the Coagulation system rarely referred to as proaccelerin or labile factor. Factor VII (formerly known as proconvertin) is one of the central Proteins in the coagulation cascade. Factor IX (or Christmas factor) is one of the Serine proteases ( of the Coagulation system it belongs to peptidase family S1 Factor X, also known by the Eponym Stuart-Prower factor or as thrombokinase, is an Enzyme ( of the coagulation cascade. Factor XI or plasma thromboplastin antecedent is one of the Enzymes of the coagulation cascade. Protein C is a major physiological Anticoagulant. It is a Vitamin K -dependent Serine protease Enzyme ( that is activated by Thrombin Protein S is a Vitamin K -dependent plasma Glycoprotein synthesized in the liver Antithrombin (AT is a small protein molecule that inactivates several enzymes of the Coagulation system
• The liver breaks down haemoglobin, creating metabolites that are added to bile as pigment (bilirubin and biliverdin). Hemoglobin ( also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb) is the Iron -containing Oxygen -transport Metalloprotein Metabolomics is the "systematic study of the unique chemical fingerprints that specific cellular processes leave behind" - specifically the study of their small-molecule metabolite Bile or gall is a bitter yellow or green Alkaline fluid secreted by Hepatocytes from the Liver of most Vertebrates In many species Bilirubin (formerly referred to as hematoidin) is the yellow breakdown product of normal Heme Catabolism. Biliverdin is a green Pigment formed as a byproduct of Heme breakdown
• The liver breaks down toxic substances and most medicinal products in a process called drug metabolism. Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism Drug metabolism is the Metabolism of drugs, their Biochemical modification or degradation usually through specialized enzymatic systems This sometimes results in toxication, when the metabolite is more toxic than its precursor. Toxication is the process of Metabolism in which the metabolite of a compound is more toxic than the parent drug or Chemical.
• The liver converts ammonia to urea. Ammonia is a compound with the formula N[[hydrogen H3]] It is normally encountered as a Gas with a characteristic pungent Odor Urea is an Organic compound with the Chemical formula ( N[[hydrogen H]]22 C[[oxygen O]]
• The liver stores a multitude of substances, including glucose (in the form of glycogen), vitamin B12, iron, and copper. Glycogen is a Polysaccharide of Glucose (Glc which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in Animal cells Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29
• In the first trimester fetus, the liver is the main site of red blood cell production. A fetus (or foetus or fœtus) is a developing Mammal or other Viviparous Vertebrate, after the Embryonic stage and Red blood cells are the most common type of Blood cell and the Vertebrate body's principal means of delivering Oxygen to the body tissues via the Blood By the 32nd week of gestation, the bone marrow has almost completely taken over that task. Gestation is the carrying of an Embryo or Fetus inside a Female Viviparous Animal. Bone marrow is the flexible tissue found in the hollow interior of Bones In adults marrow in large bones produces new Blood cells It constitutes 4% of
• The liver is responsible for immunological effects- the reticuloendothelial system of the liver contains many immunologically active cells, acting as a 'sieve' for antigens carried to it via the portal system. The reticuloendothelial system ( RES) part of the Immune system, consists of the phagocytic cells located in Reticular connective tissue, primarily
• The liver produces albumin, the major osmolar component of blood serum. Albumin (Latin albus white refers generally to any Protein with water Solubility, which is moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions and experiences Osmolarity is a measure of the osmoles of solute per Liter of solution while the osmolality is a measure of the osmoles of Solute per Kilogram

Currently, there is no artificial organ or device capable of emulating all the functions of the liver. Some functions can be emulated by liver dialysis, an experimental treatment for liver failure. Liver dialysis is a detoxification treatment for Liver failure and has shown promise for patients with Hepatorenal syndrome. Liver failure is the inability of the Liver to perform its normal synthetic and metabolic function as part of normal physiology

Diseases of the liver

Main article: Liver disease

Many diseases of the liver are accompanied by jaundice caused by increased levels of bilirubin in the system. Liver disease is a broad term describing any number of Diseases affecting the Liver. Jaundice, also known as icterus (attributive adjective "icteric" is yellowish discoloration of the Skin, sclerae (whites of the eyes Bilirubin (formerly referred to as hematoidin) is the yellow breakdown product of normal Heme Catabolism. The bilirubin results from the breakup of the hemoglobin of dead red blood cells; normally, the liver removes bilirubin from the blood and excretes it through bile. Hemoglobin ( also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb) is the Iron -containing Oxygen -transport Metalloprotein Red blood cells are the most common type of Blood cell and the Vertebrate body's principal means of delivering Oxygen to the body tissues via the Blood

There are also many pediatric liver disease, including biliary atresia, alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, alagille syndrome, and progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis, to name but a few. Biliary atresia is a rare condition in newborn infants in which the common Bile duct between the Liver and the Small intestine is Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency ( α1-antitrypsin deficiency, A1AD or Alpha-1) is a Genetic disorder caused by defective production of Alpha Alagille syndrome is a Genetic disorder that affects the Liver, Heart, and other systems of the body Progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis (PFIC refers to a group of Familial cholestatic conditions caused by defects in biliary epithelial transporters

Herbal Treatments

The most commonly used herbs for liver problems include Milk Thistle, Dandelion Root, Licorice Root, and Chicory root. Milk thistles are Thistles of the genus Silybum Adans Flowering plants of the daisy family ( Asteraceae) Liquorice (UK or licorice (US (see spelling differences;, or) is the root of Glycyrrhiza glabra, from which a sweet flavour can be extracted Common Chicory ( Cichorium intybus) is a bushy perennial Herb with blue lavender or occasionally white Flowers It grows ^[7]

Milk Thistle ^[8] is the best studied herb for hepatitis, and has shown to help protect and regenerate liver cells. Milk thistles are Thistles of the genus Silybum Adans Flowering plants of the daisy family ( Asteraceae) ^[9]

Liver transplantation

Main article: Liver transplantation

Human liver transplant was first performed by Thomas Starzl in USA and Roy Calne in Cambridge, England in 1963 and 1965 respectively. Liver transplantation or hepatic transplantation is the replacement of a diseased Liver with a healthy liver Allograft. Thomas E Starzl (born March 11, 1926) is an American physician, researcher, and is an expert on Organ transplants He performed the

Liver transplantation is the only option for those with irreversible liver failure. Liver transplantation or hepatic transplantation is the replacement of a diseased Liver with a healthy liver Allograft. Most transplants are done for chronic liver diseases leading to cirrhosis, such as chronic hepatitis C, alcoholism, autoimmune hepatitis, and many others. Cirrhosis is a consequence of chronic Liver Disease characterized by replacement of liver tissue by fibrous Scar tissue as well as regenerative Less commonly, liver transplantation is done for fulminant hepatic failure, in which liver failure occurs over days to weeks. Acute liver failure is the appearance of severe complications rapidly after the first signs of liver disease (such as Jaundice) and indicates that the liver has sustained severe

Liver allografts for transplant usually come from non-living donors who have died from fatal brain injury. An allograft or allogeneic transplant or homograft is a transplant in which transplanted cells, tissues, or organs are sourced from Living donor liver transplantation is a technique in which a portion of a living person's liver is removed and used to replace the entire liver of the recipient. Liver transplantation or hepatic transplantation is the replacement of a diseased Liver with a healthy liver Allograft. This was first performed in 1989 for pediatric liver transplantation. Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) Only 20% of an adult's liver (Couinaud segments 2 and 3) is needed to serve as a liver allograft for an infant or small child.

More recently, adult-to-adult liver transplantation has been done using the donor's right hepatic lobe which amounts to 60% of the liver. Due to the ability of the liver to regenerate, both the donor and recipient end up with normal liver function if all goes well. In Biology, an Organism is said to regenerate a lost or damaged part if the part regrows so that the original function is restored This procedure is more controversial as it entails performing a much larger operation on the donor, and indeed there have been at least 2 donor deaths out of the first several hundred cases. A recent publication has addressed the problem of donor mortality, and at least 14 cases have been found. ^[10] The risk of postoperative complications (and death) is far greater in right sided hepatectomy than left sided operations.

With the recent advances of non-invasive imaging, living liver donors usually have to undergo imaging examinations for liver anatomy to decide if the anatomy is feasible for donation. The evaluation is usually performed by multi-detector row computed tomography (MDCT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MDCT is good in vascular anatomy and volumetry. MRI is used for biliary tree anatomy. Donors with very unusual vascular anatomy, which makes them unsuitable for donation, could be screened out to avoid unnecessary operation.

MDCT image. Arterial anatomy contraindicated for liver donation.

MDCT image. Portal venous anatomy contraindicated for liver donation.

MDCT image. 3D image created by MDCT can clearly visualize the liver, measure the liver volume, and plan the dissection plane to facilitate the liver transplantation procedure.

Development

Fetal blood supply

In the growing fetus, a major source of blood to the liver is the umbilical vein which supplies nutrients to the growing fetus. The umbilical vein is a Blood vessel present during fetal development that carries Oxygenated Blood from the Placenta to the growing Fetus The umbilical vein enters the abdomen at the umbilicus, and passes upward along the free margin of the falciform ligament of the liver to the inferior surface of the liver. The falciform ligament is a broad and thin antero-posterior peritoneal fold falciform (Latin "sickle-shaped" in shape its base being directed downward and backward its apex There it joins with the left branch of the portal vein. The ductus venosus carries blood from the left portal vein to the left hepatic vein and then to the inferior vena cava, allowing placental blood to bypass the liver. In the Fetus, the ductus venosus shunts a significant majority (80% of the blood flow of the Umbilical vein directly to the Inferior vena cava. The inferior vena cava (or IVC is the large Vein that carries de-oxygenated Blood from the lower half of the body into the Heart.

In the fetus, the liver develops throughout normal gestation, and does not perform the normal filtration of the infant liver. The liver does not perform digestive processes because the fetus does not consume meals directly, but receives nourishment from the mother via the placenta. The placenta is an Ephemeral organ present in placental Vertebrates, such as Eutherial Mammals and Sharks during Gestation The fetal liver releases some blood stem cells that migrate to the fetal thymus, so initially the lymphocytes, called T-cells, are created from fetal liver stem cells. In Human anatomy, the thymus is an organ located in the upper Anterior portion of the chest cavity just behind the Sternum. A lymphocyte is a type of White blood cell in the Vertebrate Immune system. T cells belong to a group of White blood cells known as Lymphocytes, and play a central role in Cell-mediated immunity. Once the fetus is delivered, the formation of blood stem cells in infants shifts to the red bone marrow. Bone marrow is the flexible tissue found in the hollow interior of Bones In adults marrow in large bones produces new Blood cells It constitutes 4% of

After birth, the umbilical vein and ductus venosus are completely obliterated two to five days postpartum; the former becomes the ligamentum teres and the latter becomes the ligamentum venosum. For other structures with similar name see Round ligament. In Anatomy, the round ligament of (the liver (also commonly known by its The ligamentum venosum is the fibrous remnant of the Ductus venosus of the Fetal circulation. In the disease state of cirrhosis and portal hypertension, the umbilical vein can open up again. Cirrhosis is a consequence of chronic Liver Disease characterized by replacement of liver tissue by fibrous Scar tissue as well as regenerative In Medicine, portal hypertension is Hypertension (high blood pressure in the Portal vein and its branches

Liver as food

Pork liver Nutritional value per 100 g (3. 5 oz)
Energy 130 kcal   560 kJ
Carbohydrates     2. Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most 5 g Fat 3. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water 7 g Protein 21 g Vitamin A equiv. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Vitamin A refers to a family of similarly shaped molecules the Retinoids.  6500 μg  722% Riboflavin (Vit. B2)  3 mg   200% Niacin (Vit. B3)  15 mg   100% Vitamin B6  0. Riboflavin ( E101) also known as vitamin B2, is an easily absorbed Micronutrient with a key role in maintaining Health Niacin, also known as vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin which prevents the deficiency disease Pellagra. Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble Vitamin. Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP is the active form and is a cofactor in many reactions of Amino acid metabolism including 7 mg 54% Folate (Vit. Folic acid (also known as Vitamin M and Folacin) and Folate (the Anionic form are forms of the water-soluble Vitamin B9 B9)  212 μg  53% Vitamin B12  26 μg   1083% Iron  23 mg 184% Sodium  87 mg 6%
Beef and chicken liver are comparable. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 For sodium chloride in the diet see Salt. Sodium chloride, also known as common salt, table salt, or Halite, is a Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Reference Daily Intake (or Recommended Daily Intake ( RDI) is the daily dietary intake level of a nutrient which was considered (at the time they were defined to be sufficient Source: USDA Nutrient database

Mammal and bird livers are commonly eaten as food by humans. Liver can be baked, broiled, or fried (often served as liver and onions) or eaten raw (liver sashimi), but is perhaps most commonly made into spreads (examples include liver pâté, foie gras, chopped liver, and leverpostej), or sausages such as Braunschweiger and liverwurst). Liver and onions is a dish that has been a favourite in the UK and some European countries for centuries Sashimi ( IPA: /'saɕimi/ 刺身 is a Japanese delicacy primarily consisting of very fresh raw Seafood, sliced into thin pieces about 2 A spread is a food that is spread with a knife onto Bread, crackers, or other bread products Pâté (French pronunciation; RP pronunciation; General American pronunciation) Chopped liver is a spread popular in Jewish cuisine. It is often made by Sautéeing or broiling Liver and Onions in Schmaltz Leverpostej ( Danish, pronounced leh-wer-po-stei) lifrarkæfa ( Icelandic) leverpostei ( Norwegian) leverpastej A sausage is a prepared Food, usually made from Ground meat, animal fat salt and Spices (sometimes with other ingredients such as herbs typically packed Braunschweiger (named after Braunschweig, Germany) is a type of Liverwurst ( Pork Liver Sausage) which is nearly always Liverwurst, also known as Kentucky Pâté, is an anglicisation of the German Leberwurst ( Dutch leverworst, Hungarian Liver sausages may also be used as spreads. Liverwurst, also known as Kentucky Pâté, is an anglicisation of the German Leberwurst ( Dutch leverworst, Hungarian

Animal livers are rich in iron and Vitamin A, and cod liver oil is commonly used as a dietary supplement. Retinol (Afaxin, the animal form of Vitamin A, is a fat-soluble vitamin important in vision and Bone growth This article is about the fish extract for the traditional Newfoundland song see " Cod Liver Oil (song " Very high doses of Vitamin A can be toxic; in 1913, Antarctic explorers Douglas Mawson and Xavier Mertz were both poisoned, the latter fatally, from eating husky liver. Hypervitaminosis A refers to the effects of excessive Vitamin A (specifically retinoid intake Year 1913 ( MCMXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Xavier Guillaume Mertz (1883-1913 was a Swiss explorer principally famous for his adventures in the Antarctic. Sled dogs, known also as sleightman dogs sledge dogs or sleddogs are types of Dogs that are used to pull a wheel-less vehicle In the US, the USDA specifies 3000 μg per day as a tolerable upper limit, which amounts to about 50 g of raw pork liver, or 30-90g of polar-bear liver. ^[11] However, acute vitamin A poisoning is not likely to result from liver consumption, since it is present in a less toxic form than in many dietary supplements. ^[12]

Cultural allusions

In Greek mythology, Prometheus was punished by the gods for revealing fire to humans by being chained to a rock where a vulture (or an eagle) would peck out his liver, which would regenerate overnight. Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and Heroes the nature of the world and the origins and significance In Greek mythology, Prometheus (Προμηθεύς "forethought" is a Titan known for his wily intelligence who stole Fire from Zeus Vultures are scavenging Birds feeding mostly on the carcasses of dead Animals Vultures are found on every continent except Antarctica and Eagles are large birds of prey which are members of the Bird order Falconiformes and family Accipitridae, and belong to several genera Curiously, the liver is the only human internal organ that actually can regenerate itself to a significant extent; this characteristic may have already been known to the Greeks due to survived injuries in battle.

The Talmud (tractate Berakhot 61b) refers to the liver as the seat of anger, with the gallbladder counteracting this. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage The gallbladder (or cholecyst sometimes gall bladder is a small organ whose function in the body is to store Bile and aid in the digestive process

In Arabic and Persian language, the liver is used in figurative speech to refer to courage and strong feelings, or "their best," e. g. "This Mecca has thrown to you the pieces of its liver!" ^[13]

The legend of Liver-Eating Johnson says that he would cut out and eat the liver of each man killed. Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored John "Liver-Eating" Johnson ( c 1824 – January 21, 1900) was a mountain man of the American West.

In the motion picture The Message, Hind bint Utbah is implied or portrayed eating the liver of Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib during the Battle of Uhud. Mohammad Messenger of God (retitled The Message for US release is a 1977 film directed by Moustapha Akkad, chronicling the life Hind bint Utbah (هند بنت عتبة was an Arabic woman who lived in the late 6th and early 7th centuries CE she was the wife of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, a Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib (Arabic حمزه بن عبدالمطلب) was the uncle of the prophet of Islam Muhammad. The Battle of Uhud (غزوة أحد) was fought on 23 March 625 (3 Shawwal 3 AH in the Islamic calendar) at Mount Uhud, in what

Inuit will not eat the liver of polar bears (due to the fact a polar bear's liver contains so much Vitamin A as to be poisonous to humans) or seals ^[14]

See also

• Artificial liver
• Bile
• Bile canaliculus
• Hepatocyte
• Liver function tests

Further reading

The following are standard medical textbooks:

References

Gallery

Accessory digestive system.	Digestive organs.	The liver and the veins in connection with it, of a human embryo, twenty-four or twenty-five days old, as seen from the ventral surface.	Transverse section through the middle of the first lumbar vertebra, showing the relations of the pancreas.
Front of abdomen, showing surface markings for liver, stomach, and great intestine	Topography of thoracic and abdominal viscera.	Portal triad	View of the superior ("top") surface from Gray's Anatomy (1918)
View of the inferior ("bottom") surface from Gray's Anatomy (1918)

External links

• electron microscopic images of the liver (Dr. Jastrow's EM-atlas)
• Elevated liver enzymes information
• Canadian Liver Foundation Official Website
• Liver Info: Youth-Oriented Website. Created by Liver Info Students' Association (LISA), Official Chapter of Canadian Liver Foundation
• Children's Liver Association for Support Services, C.L.A.S.S. A large non-profit organization. An online Support Group full of resources, materials and stories; includes a Community Discussion Forum and Chat Room
• The American Liver Foundation
• American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD)
• American Liver Society (ALS)
• WikiLiver — a wiki dedicated to the liver
• "It's Dangerous to Ignore Your Liver" — information provided by the American Liver Foundation
• "The Liver and its Diseases" — information at h2g2
• Liver Families — an online support group for families whose lives have been affected by pediatric liver disease and transplant issues
• Children's Liver Disease Foundation — an organisation dedicated to fighting childhood liver disease and supporting affected families
• Liver Specialists of Texas: a site designed for patients with liver disease, located in Houston, Texas USA
• Autoimmune immune liver disease
• British Liver Trust - includes patient info oriented to British situations.

A portal triad (also known as portal area is a distinctive arrangement in the Liver, consisting of the following four structures Hepatic artery Henry Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body (or Gray's Anatomy as it has commonly been shortened is an English-language Human anatomy Textbook Henry Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body (or Gray's Anatomy as it has commonly been shortened is an English-language Human anatomy Textbook

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