| Linus Pauling | |
 Linus Pauling in 1954
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| Born | February 28, 1901 Portland, Oregon, USA |
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| Died | August 19, 1994 (aged 93) Big Sur, California, USA |
| Residence | United States |
| Nationality | United States |
| Fields | Quantum chemistry Biochemistry |
| Institutions | Caltech, UCSD, Stanford |
| Alma mater | Oregon Agricultural College Caltech |
| Doctoral advisor | Roscoe G. Dickinson |
| Other academic advisors | Arnold Sommerfeld Erwin Schrodinger  Niels Bohr |
| Doctoral students | Jerry Donohue Martin Karplus Matthew Meselson Edgar Bright Wilson |
| Known for | Elucidating the nature of chemical bonds and the structures of molecules. Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule Year 1901 ( MCMI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Portland is a city located in the Northwestern United States, near the Confluence of the Willamette and Columbia rivers Oregon ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Big Sur is a sparsely populated region of the central California, United States, coast where the Santa Lucia Mountains rise abruptly from the California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Quantum chemistry is a branch of Theoretical chemistry, which applies Quantum mechanics and Quantum field theory to address issues and problems in Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as The California Institute of Technology (commonly referred to as Caltech) is a private, Coeducational research university located in Pasadena The University of California San Diego (popularly known as UC San Diego or UCSD) is a public Research university in San Diego, California Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly known as Stanford University or simply Stanford, is a private Research university located in Alma mater is Latin for "nourishing mother" It was used in Ancient Rome as a title for the mother Goddess, and in Medieval Oregon State University ( OSU) is a Coeducational public Research[[ university]] located in Corvallis, Oregon, United The California Institute of Technology (commonly referred to as Caltech) is a private, Coeducational research university located in Pasadena A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement Roscoe Gilkey Dickinson (1894 - 1945 was a US chemist, known primarily for his work on X-ray crystallography. Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld (5 December 1868 &ndash 26 April 1951 was a German theoretical Physicist who pioneered developments in atomic Niels Henrik David Bohr (nels ˈb̥oɐ̯ˀ in Danish 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962 was a Danish Physicist who made fundamental contributions to understanding Jerry Donohue ( June 12, 1920 &mdash February 13, 1985) was a theoretical and physical chemist Martin Karplus (born March 15, 1930, Vienna) is an Austrian born U Matthew Stanley Meselson (b May 24, 1930) is an American Geneticist and molecular biologist whose research was important in showing how DNA replicates Edgar Bright Wilson Jr was born on December 18 1908 in Gallatin Tennessee, and died in 1992 A chemical bond is the physical process responsible for the attractive interactions between Atoms and Molecules and which confers stability to diatomic and polyatomic Molecular geometry or molecular structure is the three- Dimensional arrangement of the Atoms that constitute a Molecule. Advocating nuclear disarmament. Nuclear disarmament is the proposed dismantling of Nuclear weapons. |
| Notable awards | Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1954) Nobel Peace Prize (1962) |
| Religious stance | Raised Lutheran, Unitarian Universalist, atheist as an adult |
Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an American scientist, peace activist, author and educator. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Nobelpriset i kemi is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of Chemistry. The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Unitarian Universalism ( UUism) is a theologically liberal Religion characterized by its support for a "free and responsible search for truth Atheism Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule Year 1901 ( MCMI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) The United States of America —commonly referred to as the A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices A peace activist is a Political activist who advocates for a peaceful resolution of political disputes An author is defined both as "the person who originates or gives existence to anything" and that authorship determines responsibility for what is created This is a list of educators. See also Education, List of education topics. He is considered one of the most influential chemists of the 20th century and ranks among the most important scientists in history. A chemist is a Scientist trained in the Science of Chemistry. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on
Pauling was one of the first scientists to work in the fields of quantum chemistry, molecular biology and orthomolecular medicine. Quantum chemistry is a branch of Theoretical chemistry, which applies Quantum mechanics and Quantum field theory to address issues and problems in Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Orthomolecular medicine is a form of Complementary and alternative medicine which aims to prevent and treat disease with substances which are natural to the body He is also a member of a small group of individuals who have been awarded more than one Nobel Prize, one of only two people to receive them in different fields (the other was Marie Curie) and the only person in that group to have been awarded each of his prizes without having to share it with another recipient. The Nobel Prize (Nobelpriset (Nobelprisen is a Swedish prize established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Peace, Literature [1]
Pauling was born and raised in Oregon. He attended Oregon Agricultural College and graduated in 1922 with a degree in chemical engineering. Oregon State University ( OSU) is a Coeducational public Research[[ university]] located in Corvallis, Oregon, United Chemical engineering is the branch of Engineering that deals with the application of Physical science (e Pauling then went to the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), where he received his Ph. D in physical chemistry and mathematical physics in 1925. The California Institute of Technology (commonly referred to as Caltech) is a private, Coeducational research university located in Pasadena "PhD" redirects here for other uses see PhD (disambiguation. Physical chemistry, is the application of Physics to macroscopic microscopic atomic subatomic and particulate phenomena in chemical systems It is mostly defined as a large Mathematical physics is the scientific discipline concerned with the interface of Mathematics and Physics. Two years later, he accepted a position at Caltech as an assistant professor in theoretical chemistry. In 1932, Pauling published a landmark paper, detailing his theory of orbital hybridization and analyzed the tetravalency of carbon. -->In Chemistry In Chemistry, a tetravalence is the state of an Atom with four Electrons available for covalent chemical bonding in its valence Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 That year, he also established the concept of electronegativity and developed a scale that would help predict the nature of chemical bonding. " Electronegativity " is the opposite of " Electropositivity," which describes an element's ability to donate electrons " Electronegativity " is the opposite of " Electropositivity," which describes an element's ability to donate electrons Pauling continued this work, but also began publishing papers on the structure of the atomic nucleus. In 1954, Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Nobelpriset i kemi is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of Chemistry. As a biochemist, Pauling conducted research with X-ray crystallography and modeling in crystal and protein structures. X-ray crystallography is a method of determining the arrangement of Atoms within a Crystal, in which a beam of X-rays strikes a crystal and scatters In Materials science, a crystal is a Solid in which the constituent Atoms Molecules or Ions are packed in a regularly ordered repeating Proteins are an important class of biological Macromolecules present in all biological organisms made up of such elements as Carbon, Hydrogen This type of approach was used by English scientists to discover the double helix structure of the DNA molecule. In Geometry a double helix (plural helices) typically consists of two congruent helices with the same axis differing by a translation Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known
During the Second World War, Pauling worked on military research and development. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including However, when the war ended he became particularly concerned about the further development and possible use of atomic weapons and with the destruction inflicted on the world by war in general. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Ava Helen Pauling, Linus's wife, was a pacifist and in time he came to share her views. Ava Helen Pauling ( December 24, 1903 – December 7, 1981) was an American Human rights activist and wife of Nobel [2] Pauling soon began to express his concerns with the effects of nuclear fallout and in 1962, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his campaign against above ground nuclear testing. Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a Nuclear explosion, so named because it "falls out" of the atmosphere into which it is spread during the explosion The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness yield and explosive capability of Nuclear weapons Throughout the twentieth century most nations His beliefs were not without controversy at the time and he was criticized by some for his actions.
Pauling was also successful as an author and educator. His first book, The Nature of the Chemical Bond (1939), is considered influential even to this day, as is his introductory textbook, General Chemistry (1949). A textbook is a manual of instruction or a standard book in any branch of study Later in life, he became an advocate for greatly increased consumption of vitamin C and other nutrients. Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an Essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species a small number of other Mammalian He generalized his ideas to define orthomolecular medicine, which is still regarded as unorthodox by conventional medicine. Orthomolecular medicine is a form of Complementary and alternative medicine which aims to prevent and treat disease with substances which are natural to the body The term alternative medicine, as used in the modern western world encompasses any healing practice "that does not fall within the realm of conventional Medicine. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the He popularized his concepts, analyses, research and insights in several successful but controversial books, such as How to Live Longer and Feel Better in 1986.
Contents |
Early life
Pauling was born in Portland, Oregon as the first born child to Herman Henry William Pauling (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Darling (1881–1926). Portland is a city located in the Northwestern United States, near the Confluence of the Willamette and Columbia rivers Oregon ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. [3] He was named "Linus Carl", in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl. [4] Herman and Lucy—then 23 and 18 years old, respectively—had met at a dinner party in Condon. Condon is a city in Gilliam County, Oregon, United States. The population was 759 at the 2000 census Six months later, the two got married. [5]
Herman Pauling descended from South-German farmers, who had immigrated to a German settlement in Concordia, Missouri. The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as Concordia is a city in Lafayette County, Missouri, United States. Missouri ( or) is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee Carl Pauling moved his family to California before settling in Oswego. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. There, he worked as an ironmonger at a foundry. Today the term Ironmonger refers to a retailer (or wholesaler of iron goods A foundry is a Factory which produces Metal Castings from either Ferrous or non-ferrous alloys [6] After completing grammar school, Herman Pauling served as an apprentice to druggist. A dispensing chemist, in British English and (to some extent Australian English, or Pharmacist in North American English is a professional allowed Upon completion of his services, he became a wholesale drug salesman. [7]
Pauling's mother, Lucy, of Irish descent, was the daughter of Linus Wilson Darling, who had served as a teacher, farmer, surveyor, postmaster and lawyer at different points of his life. The Irish people ( Irish: Muintir na hÉireann, na hÉireannaigh, na Gaeil) are a Western European Ethnic group who originate In Education, a teacher is one who helps Students or pupils often in a School, as well as in a Family, religious or A farmer is a person who raises living organisms for food or raw materials Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space Position of points and the distances and angles between Postmaster (or Postmistress) refers to the head of an individual Post office. A lawyer, according to Black's Law Dictionary, is "a person learned in the law as an attorney, Counsel or Solicitor; a person Linus Darling was orphaned at age 11 and apprenticed under a baker before becoming a schoolteacher. This article refers to the cooking profession For other uses see Baker (disambiguation A baker is someone who primarily Bakes He fell in love with a young woman named Alice from Turner, Oregon, whom he eventually married. Turner is a city in Marion County, Oregon, United States. The population was 1199 at the 2000 census Oregon ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. [8] On July 17, 1888, Alice gave birth to the couple's fifth child, but he was stillborn. Events 180 - Twelve inhabitants of Scillium in North Africa are executed for being Christians Year 1888 ( MDCCCLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a A stillbirth occurs when a Fetus which has died in the Uterus or during labor or delivery exits a Woman 's body Less than a month later, she died, leaving Darling to take care of their four young daughters. [9]
Linus Pauling spent his first year living in a one-room apartment with his parents in Portland. Portland is a city located in the Northwestern United States, near the Confluence of the Willamette and Columbia rivers In 1902, after his sister Pauline was born, Pauling's parents decided to move out of the city. [10] They were crowded in their apartment, but couldn't afford more spacious living quarters in Portland. Lucy stayed with her husband's parents in Oswego, while Herman searched for new housing. Herman brought the family to Salem, where he took up a job as a traveling salesman for the Skidmore Drug Company. Salem (ˈseɪləm is the Capital of the US state of Oregon, and the County seat of Marion County. Within a year of Lucile's birth in 1904, Herman Pauling moved his family to Oswego, where he opened his own drugstore. [10] The business climate in Oswego was poor, so he moved his family to Condon in 1905. [11]
In 1909, Pauling's grandfather, Linus, divorced his second wife and married a young schoolteacher, almost the same age as his daughter Lucy. A few months later, he died of a heart attack, brought on by complications from nephritis. Myocardial infarction ( MI or AMI for acute myocardial infarction) also known as a heart attack, occurs when the blood supply Nephritis is Inflammation of the Kidney. The word comes from the Greek nephro- meaning "of the kidney" and -itis meaning "inflammation" [12] Meanwhile, Herman Pauling was suffering from poor health and had regular sharp pains in his abdomen. In Vertebrates such as Mammals the abdomen (belly constitutes the part of the body between the Thorax (chest and Pelvis. Lucy's sister, Abbie, saw that Herman was dying and immediately called the family physician. The doctor gave Herman a sedative to reduce the pain, but it only offered temporary relief. [13] His health worsened in the coming months and finally died of a perforated ulcer on June 11, 1910, leaving Lucy to care for Linus, Lucile and Pauline. Ulcers are healing wounds that develop on the skin mucous membranes or eye Events 1184 BC - Trojan War: Troy is sacked and burned according to the calculations of Eratosthenes. Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting [14]
Linus was a voracious reader as a child, and at one point his father wrote a letter to The Oregonian inviting suggestions of additional books to occupy his time. The Oregonian is the major daily Newspaper in Portland Oregon, owned by Advance Publications. [15] Pauling first planned to become a chemist after being amazed by experiments conducted with a small chemistry lab kit by his friend, Lloyd A. Jeffress. [16] In high school, Pauling continued to conduct chemistry experiments, borrowing much of the equipment and material from an abandoned steel plant. With an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Pauling set up Palmon Laboratories. Operating from Simon's basement, the two young adults approached local dairies to offer their services in performing butterfat samplings at cheap prices. Dairymen were wary of trusting two young boys with the task, and as such, the business ended as a failure. [17]
By the fall of 1916, Pauling was a 15-year-old high school senior and had enough credits to enter Oregon Agricultural College (OAC, now known as Oregon State University) in Corvallis. Oregon State University ( OSU) is a Coeducational public Research[[ university]] located in Corvallis, Oregon, United Corvallis (kɔrˈvælɪs is a City located in central western Oregon, United States. [18] However, he did not have credit for two required American history courses that would satisfy his requirement to earn a high school diploma. A high school diploma is a Diploma awarded for the completion of High school. He asked the school principal if he could take these courses concurrently during the spring semester. The principal denied his request, and Pauling decided to leave the school in June without a diploma. [19] His high school, Washington High School in Portland, awarded him the diploma 45 years later, after he had won two Nobel Prizes. Washington High School was the oldest high school in Portland [[ Oregon]] [20][21] During the summer, Pauling worked part-time at a grocery store, earning eight dollars a week. His mother set him up with an interview with a Mr. Schwietzerhoff, the owner of a number of manufacturing plants in Portland. Pauling was hired as an apprentice machinist with a salary of 40 dollars a month. Pauling excelled at his job, and saw his salary increase to 50 dollars a month after being on the job for only a month. [22] In his spare time, he set up a photography lab with two friends and found business from a local photography company. He hoped that the business would earn him enough money to pay for his future college expenses. [23] Pauling received a letter of admission from OAC in September 1917 and immediately gave notice to his boss and told his mother of his plans. A resignation is the formal act of giving up or quitting one's office or position [24]
Higher education
In October 1917, Pauling entered Oregon Agricultural College and lived in a boarding house on campus with his cousin Mervyn and another man, using the $200 he had saved from odd jobs to finance his education. A boarding house, also known as a "rooming house" (mainly in the United States) or a "lodging house" is a House (often a family home In his first semester, Pauling registered for two courses in chemistry, two in mathematics, mechanical drawing, introduction to mining and use of explosives, modern English prose, gymnastics and military drill. [25] Pauling fell in love with a freshman girl named Irene early in the school year. By the end of October, he had used up $150 of his savings on her, taking her to shows and games. He soon got a job at the girls' dormitory, working 100 hours a month chopping wood for stoves, cutting up beef and mopping up the kitchen. Despite the 25 cent per hour salary, Pauling was still having trouble managing his finances. He began eating one hot meal a day at a restaurant off campus to minimize his expenses. [25] Pauling was active in campus life and founded the school's chapter of the Delta Upsilon fraternity. Delta Upsilon ( ΔY) is the 6th oldest international all-male college Greek-letter social fraternity and is the first non-secret fraternity ever [26] After his second year, he planned to take a job in Portland to help support his mother, but the college offered him a position teaching quantitative analysis, a course he had just finished taking himself. In chemistry quantitative analysis is the determination of the absolute or relative abundance (often expressed as a Concentration) of one several or all particular substance(s He worked forty hours a week in the laboratory and classroom and earned $100 a month. [27] This allowed him to continue his studies at the college.
In his last two years at school, Pauling became aware of the work of Gilbert N. Lewis and Irving Langmuir on the electronic structure of atoms and their bonding to form molecules. Gilbert Newton Lewis ( October 23, 1875 - March 23, 1946) was a famous American physical chemist known for the discovery Irving Langmuir ( January 31, 1881 in Brooklyn New York – August 16, 1957 in Woods Hole Massachusetts) was an In Atomic physics and Quantum chemistry, electron configuration is the arrangement of Electrons in an Atom, Molecule, or other History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny A chemical bond is the physical process responsible for the attractive interactions between Atoms and Molecules and which confers stability to diatomic and polyatomic In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by [27] He decided to focus his research on how the physical and chemical properties of substances are related to the structure of the atoms of which they are composed, becoming one of the founders of the new science of quantum chemistry. A physical property is any aspect of an object or substance that can be measured or perceived without changing its identity. A chemical property is any of a material's properties that becomes evident during a Chemical reaction; that is any quality that can be established only by changing a substance's Quantum chemistry is a branch of Theoretical chemistry, which applies Quantum mechanics and Quantum field theory to address issues and problems in Pauling began to neglect his studies in humanities and social sciences. He had also exhausted the course offerings in the physics and mathematics departments. Professor Samuel Graf selected Pauling to be his teaching assistant in a high-level mathematics course. [28] During the winter of his senior year, Pauling was approached by the college to teach a chemistry course for home economics majors. Family and consumer sciences is an academic discipline that combines aspects of social and natural science It was in one of these classes that Pauling met his future wife, Ava Helen Miller. Ava Helen Pauling ( December 24, 1903 – December 7, 1981) was an American Human rights activist and wife of Nobel [29]
In 1922, Pauling graduated from OAC with a degree in chemical engineering and went on to graduate school at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, California, under the guidance of Roscoe G. Dickinson. Chemical engineering is the branch of Engineering that deals with the application of Physical science (e A graduate school or ("grad school" is a school that awards advanced degrees such as doctoral degrees with the general requirement that students must have earned The California Institute of Technology (commonly referred to as Caltech) is a private, Coeducational research university located in Pasadena Pasadena ( is a city in Los Angeles County, California, United States. Roscoe Gilkey Dickinson (1894 - 1945 was a US chemist, known primarily for his work on X-ray crystallography. His graduate research involved the use of X-ray diffraction to determine the structure of crystals. X-ray scattering techniques are a family of non-destructive analytical techniques which reveal information about the crystallographic structure chemical composition In Materials science, a crystal is a Solid in which the constituent Atoms Molecules or Ions are packed in a regularly ordered repeating He published seven papers on the crystal structure of minerals while he was at Caltech. In Mineralogy and Crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of Atoms in a Crystal. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific He received his Ph. D. in physical chemistry and mathematical physics, summa cum laude, in 1925. "PhD" redirects here for other uses see PhD (disambiguation. Physical chemistry, is the application of Physics to macroscopic microscopic atomic subatomic and particulate phenomena in chemical systems It is mostly defined as a large Mathematical physics is the scientific discipline concerned with the interface of Mathematics and Physics. Latin honors are Latin phrases used to indicate the level of academic distinction with which an Academic degree was earned
Personal life
During his senior year of college, Pauling taught a class called "Chemistry for Home Economic Majors". [30] In one of those classes, he met Ava Helen Miller from Beavercreek, whom he married on June 17, 1923. Ava Helen Pauling ( December 24, 1903 – December 7, 1981) was an American Human rights activist and wife of Nobel Events 1462 - Vlad III the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II ( The Night Attack) forcing him to retreat Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. They had four children: Linus Carl Jr. (b. 1925); Peter Jeffress (1931-2003, a crystallographer and lecturer in chemistry); Edward Crellin (1937-1997, professor of biology at San Francisco State University and the University of California, Riverside), and Linda Helen, (b. San Francisco State University (informally referred to as San Francisco State, SF State, State and SFSU) is a public University The University of California Riverside, commonly known as UCR or UC Riverside, is a public Research university and one of the 10 general 1932).
Pauling was raised as member of the Lutheran Church and later joined the Unitarian Universalist Church and declared publicly his atheist belief. Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Unitarian Universalism ( UUism) is a theologically liberal Religion characterized by its support for a "free and responsible search for truth Atheism [31]
Career
Pauling had first been exposed to the concepts of quantum theory and quantum mechanics while he was studying at Oregon State University. In quantum field theory (QFT the forces between particles are mediated by other particles Quantum mechanics is the study of mechanical systems whose dimensions are close to the Atomic scale such as Molecules Atoms Electrons Oregon State University ( OSU) is a Coeducational public Research[[ university]] located in Corvallis, Oregon, United He later traveled to Europe on a Guggenheim Fellowship to study under German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld in Munich, Danish physicist Niels Bohr in Copenhagen, and Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in Zürich. Guggenheim Fellowships are American grants that have been awarded annually since 1925 by the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation to those "who Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld (5 December 1868 &ndash 26 April 1951 was a German theoretical Physicist who pioneered developments in atomic Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. Niels Henrik David Bohr (nels ˈb̥oɐ̯ˀ in Danish 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962 was a Danish Physicist who made fundamental contributions to understanding Copenhagen (ˌkəʊpənˈheɪgən ˌkəʊpənˈhɑːgən ˈkəʊpənˌheɪgən ˈkəʊpənˌhɑːgən kʰøb̥ənˈhɑʊ̯ˀn kʰøb̥m̩ˈhɑʊ̯ˀn is the capital and largest city Zürich (, Zürich German: Züri, Zurich, Zurigo; in English generally Zurich) is the largest city in Switzerland and capital of the All three were experts working in the new field of quantum mechanics and other branches of physics. Pauling became interested in seeing how quantum mechanics might be applied in his chosen field of interest, the electronic structure of atoms and molecules. In Atomic physics and Quantum chemistry, electron configuration is the arrangement of Electrons in an Atom, Molecule, or other History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by In Europe, Pauling was also exposed to one of the first quantum mechanical analyses of bonding in the hydrogen molecule, done by Walter Heitler and Fritz London. Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Walter Heinrich Heitler ( 2 January 1904 &ndash 15 November 1981) was a German physicist who made contributions to Quantum electrodynamics Fritz Wolfgang London ( March 7, 1900 &ndash March 30, 1954) was a German -born American theoretical Physicist. Pauling devoted the two years of his European trip to this work and decided to make it the focus of his future research. He became one of the first scientists in the field of quantum chemistry and a pioneer in the application of quantum theory to the structure of molecules. Quantum chemistry is a branch of Theoretical chemistry, which applies Quantum mechanics and Quantum field theory to address issues and problems in He also joined Alpha Chi Sigma, the professional chemistry fraternity. Alpha Chi Sigma ( ΑΧΣ) is a professional fraternity specializing in the field of Chemistry.
In 1927, Pauling took a new position as an assistant professor at Caltech in theoretical chemistry. The California Institute of Technology (commonly referred to as Caltech) is a private, Coeducational research university located in Pasadena Theoretical chemistry involves the use of physics to explain or predict chemical phenomena He launched his faculty career with a very productive five years, continuing with his X-ray crystal studies and also performing quantum mechanical calculations on atoms and molecules. X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of Electromagnetic radiation. He published approximately fifty papers in those five years, and created five rules now known as Pauling's Rules. Pauling's rules are five rules published by Linus Pauling in 1929 for determining the Molecular structures of complex Crystals 1 By 1929, he was promoted to associate professor, and by 1930, to full professor. In 1931, the American Chemical Society awarded Pauling the Langmuir Prize for the most significant work in pure science by a person 30 years of age or younger. The American Chemical Society ( ACS) is a Learned society ( Professional association) based in the United States that supports scientific inquiry Irving Langmuir ( January 31, 1881 in Brooklyn New York – August 16, 1957 in Woods Hole Massachusetts) was an [32] The following year, Pauling published what he regarded as his most important paper, in which he first laid out the concept of hybridization of atomic orbitals and analyzed the tetravalency of the carbon atom. -->In Chemistry In Chemistry, a tetravalence is the state of an Atom with four Electrons available for covalent chemical bonding in its valence Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 [33]
At Caltech, Pauling struck up a close friendship with theoretical physicist Robert Oppenheimer, who was spending part of his research and teaching schedule away from U.C. Berkeley at Caltech every year. Theoretical physics employs Mathematical models and Abstractions of Physics in an attempt to explain experimental data taken of the natural world The University of California Berkeley (also referred to as Cal, Berkeley and UC Berkeley) is a major research university located in Berkeley The two men planned to mount a joint attack on the nature of the chemical bond: apparently Oppenheimer would supply the mathematics and Pauling would interpret the results. However, their relationship soured when Pauling began to suspect that Oppenheimer was becoming too close to Pauling's wife, Ava Helen. Once, when Pauling was at work, Oppenheimer had come to their place and blurted out an invitation to Ava Helen to join him on a tryst in Mexico. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Although she flatly refused, she reported the incident to Pauling. That, and her apparent nonchalance about the incident, disquieted him, and he immediately cut off his relationship with Oppenheimer, resulting in a coolness between them that would last their lives.
In the summer of 1930, Pauling made another European trip, during which he learned about the use of electrons in diffraction studies similar to the ones he had performed with X-rays. The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J Diffraction is normally taken to refer to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an obstacle After returning, he built an electron diffraction instrument at Caltech with a student of his, L. Electron diffraction is a technique used to study matter by firing Electrons at a sample and observing the resulting Interference pattern O. Brockway, and used it to study the molecular structure of a large number of chemical substances. Molecular geometry or molecular structure is the three- Dimensional arrangement of the Atoms that constitute a Molecule.
Pauling introduced the concept of electronegativity in 1932. " Electronegativity " is the opposite of " Electropositivity," which describes an element's ability to donate electrons Using the various properties of molecules, such as the energy required to break bonds and the dipole moments of molecules, he established a scale and an associated numerical value for most of the elements—the Pauling Electronegativity Scale—which is useful in predicting the nature of bonds between atoms in molecules. In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by In physics there are two kinds of dipoles ( Hellènic: di(s- = two- and pòla = pivot hinge An electric dipole is a In Physics, the moment of force (often just moment, though there are other quantities of that name such as Moment of inertia) is a Pseudovector " Electronegativity " is the opposite of " Electropositivity," which describes an element's ability to donate electrons
Nature of the chemical bond
In the 1930s he began publishing papers on the nature of the chemical bond, leading to his famous textbook on the subject published in 1939. It is based primarily on his work in this area that he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances". The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Nobelpriset i kemi is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of Chemistry. Pauling summarized his work on the chemical bond in The Nature of the Chemical Bond, one of the most influential chemistry books ever published. [34] In the 30 years after its first edition was published in 1939, the book was cited more than 16,000 times. Even today, many modern scientific papers and articles in important journals cite this work, more than half a century after first publication.
Part of Pauling's work on the nature of the chemical bond led to his introduction of the concept of orbital hybridization. -->In Chemistry [35] While it is normal to think of the electrons in an atom as being described by orbitals of types such as s and p, it turns out that in describing the bonding in molecules, it is better to construct functions that partake of some of the properties of each. The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny An atomic orbital is a Mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of an electron in an atom In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by Thus the one 2s and three 2p orbitals in a carbon atom can be combined to make four equivalent orbitals (called sp³ hybrid orbitals), which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe carbon compounds such as methane, or the 2s orbital may be combined with two of the 2p orbitals to make three equivalent orbitals (called sp² hybrid orbitals), with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized, which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe certain unsaturated carbon compounds such as ethylene. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Methane is a Chemical compound with the molecular formula. It is the simplest Alkane, and the principal component of Natural gas. In Organic chemistry, an alkene, olefin, or olefine is an unsaturated Chemical compound containing at least one Carbon Structure This Hydrocarbon has four Hydrogen Atoms bound to a pair of Carbon atoms that are connected by a Double bond. Other hybridization schemes are also found in other types of molecules.
Another area which he explored was the relationship between ionic bonding, where electrons are transferred between atoms, and covalent bonding where electrons are shared between atoms on an equal basis. An ionic bond (or electrovalent bond) is a type of Chemical bond that can often form between Metal and Non-metal Ions (or The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny Pauling showed that these were merely extremes, between which most actual cases of bonding fall. It was here especially that Pauling's electronegativity concept was particularly useful; the electronegativity difference between a pair of atoms will be the surest predictor of the degree of ionicity of the bond. " Electronegativity " is the opposite of " Electropositivity," which describes an element's ability to donate electrons [36]
The third of the topics that Pauling attacked under the overall heading of "the nature of the chemical bond" was the accounting of the structure of aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly the prototype, benzene. Benzene, or benzol, is an organic Chemical compound and a known Carcinogen with the molecular formula C 6 H 6 [37] The best description of benzene had been made by the German chemist Friedrich Kekulé. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Friedrich August Kekule von Stradonitz (also August Kekulé) (7 September 1829 &ndash 13 July 1896 was a German organic chemist. He had treated it as a rapid interconversion between two structures, each with alternating single and double bonds, but with the double bonds of one structure in the locations where the single bonds were in the other. Pauling showed that a proper description based on quantum mechanics was an intermediate structure which was a blend of each. Quantum mechanics is the study of mechanical systems whose dimensions are close to the Atomic scale such as Molecules Atoms Electrons The structure was a superposition of structures rather than a rapid interconversion between them. The name "resonance" was later applied to this phenomenon. Resonance in Chemistry is a theory used to represent and model certain types of non-classical Molecular structures Resonance is a key component [38] In a sense, this phenomenon resembles that of hybridization, described earlier, because it involves combining more than one electronic structure to achieve an intermediate result.
Structure of the atomic nucleus
On September 16, 1952, Pauling opened a new research notebook with these words "I have decided to attack the problem of the structure of nuclei. Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers Year 1952 ( MCMLII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. "[39] On October 15, 1965, Pauling published his Close-Packed Spheron Model of the atomic nucleus in two well respected journals, Science, and Proc. Events 533 - Byzantine General Belisarius makes his formal entry into Carthage, having conquered it from the Year 1965 ( MCMLXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1965 Gregorian calendar. Natl. Acad. Sci. [40] For nearly three decades, until his death in 1994, Pauling published numerous papers on his spheron cluster model. [41][42][43][44][45][46]
Few modern text books on nuclear physics discuss the Pauling Spheron Model of the Atomic Nucleus, yet it provides a unique perspective, well published in the leading journals of science, on how fundamental "clusters of nucleons" can form shell structure in agreement with recognized theory of quantum mechanics. Pauling was well versed in quantum mechanics; he co-authored one of the first textbooks on the subject, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry. In a 2006 review of models of atomic nuclei, Norman D. Cook said of the Pauling Spheron Model: "…the model leads to a rather common-sense molecular build-up of nuclei and has an internal logic that is hard to deny…however…nuclear theorists have not elaborated on the idea of nucleon spherons, and Pauling's model has not entered mainstream nuclear theory. "[47] The 1965 Pauling Spheron Model of the atomic nucleus has not been replaced by a better model, but has simply been ignored.
The Pauling spheron nucleon clusters include the deuteron[NP], helion [PNP], and triton [NPN]. Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth A helion is a short name for the naked nucleus of Helium, a doubly positively charged helium ion. Tritium (ˈtɹɪtiəm symbol or, also known as Hydrogen-3) is a radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen. Even-even nuclei were described as being composed of clusters of alpha particles, as has often been done for light nuclei. Alpha particles (named after and denoted by the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α consist of two Protons and two Neutrons bound together into a He made an effort to derive the shell structure of nuclei from the Platonic solids rather than starting from an independent particle model as in the usual shell model. In Geometry, a Platonic solid is a convex Regular polyhedron. In Nuclear physics, the nuclear shell model is a model of the Atomic nucleus which uses the Pauli principle to describe the structure It was sometimes said at that time that this work received more attention than it would have if it had been done by a less famous person, but more likely Pauling was taking a unique approach to understanding the relatively new discovery in the late 1940s of Maria Goeppert-Mayer of structure within the nucleus. Maria Goeppert-Mayer ( June 28, 1906 &ndash February 20, 1972) was a German -born American In an interview Pauling commented on his model:
| “ | Now recently, I have been trying to determine detailed structures of atomic nuclei by analyzing the ground state and excited state vibrational bends, as observed experimentally. From reading the physics literature, Physical Review Letters and other journals, I know that many physicists are interested in atomic nuclei, but none of them, so far as I have been able to discover, has been attacking the problem in the same way that I attack it. So I just move along at my own speed, making calculations… | ” |
Biological molecules
In the mid-1930s, Pauling decided to strike out into new areas of interest. The Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid was an article published by James D The Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid was an article published by James D William Thomas Astbury FRS (Bill Astbury 25 February, 1898 &mdash 4 June, 1961) was an English Physicist and Oswald Theodore Avery ( October 21, 1877 &ndash 2 February, 1955) was a Canadian -born American Physician and Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004 Ph Erwin Chargaff ( Czernowitz, August 11, 1905 &ndash New York City, USA, June 20, 2002) was an Austrian Max Ludwig Henning Delbrück ( September 4, 1906 &ndash March 9, 1981) was a German-American Biophysicist and Nobel Jerry Donohue ( June 12, 1920 &mdash February 13, 1985) was a theoretical and physical chemist Rosalind Elsie Franklin ( 25 July, 1920 Notting Hill, London – 16 April, 1958 Chelsea London) was an Raymond Gosling (born 1926 is a distinguished scientist who worked with both Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin at King's College London in deducing Phoebus Aaron Theodore Levene MD ( 25 February, 1869 &mdash 6 September, 1940) was a Russian-American Biochemist who studied the Linus Carl Pauling (February 28 1901 – August 19 1994 was an American Scientist, Peace activist, Author and educator. Sir John Randall, FRSE, ( March 23, 1905 &ndash June 16, 1984) was a British Physicist, credited with radical Alec Stokes ( Alexander Rawson Stokes, June 27 1919 – February 5 2003 was one of the key contributors in the original DNAa research team at King's College London Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins CBE FRS ( 15 December 1916 – 5 October 2004) was a New Zealand -born British Professor Herbert Wilson (1929 &mdash2008 was a physicist who was one of the team who worked on the structure of DNA at King's College London, under the direction Early in his career, he was uninterested in studying molecules of biological importance. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles But as Caltech was developing a new strength in biology, and Pauling interacted with such great biologists as Thomas Hunt Morgan, Theodosius Dobzhanski, Calvin Bridges, and Alfred Sturtevant, he changed his mind and switched to the study of biomolecules. Thomas Hunt Morgan ( September 25, 1866 &ndash December 4, 1945) was an American geneticist and embryologist. Theodosius Grygorovych Dobzhansky, also known Calvin Blackman Bridges ( January 11 1889 - December 27 1938) was an American scientist known for his contributions to the field of Genetics Alfred Henry Sturtevant ( November 21, 1891 &ndash April 5, 1970) was an American Geneticist. His first work in this area involved the structure of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin ( also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb) is the Iron -containing Oxygen -transport Metalloprotein He demonstrated that the hemoglobin molecule changes structure when it gains or loses an oxygen atom. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the As a result of this observation, he decided to conduct a more thorough study of protein structure in general. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl He returned to his earlier use of X-ray diffraction analysis. X-ray scattering techniques are a family of non-destructive analytical techniques which reveal information about the crystallographic structure chemical composition But protein structures were far less amenable to this technique than the crystalline minerals of his former work. In Materials science, a crystal is a Solid in which the constituent Atoms Molecules or Ions are packed in a regularly ordered repeating A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific The best X-ray pictures of proteins in the 1930s had been made by the British crystallographer William Astbury, but when Pauling tried, in 1937, to account for Astbury's observations quantum mechanically, he could not. Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of Atoms in Solids In older usage it is the scientific study of Crystals The William Thomas Astbury FRS (Bill Astbury 25 February, 1898 &mdash 4 June, 1961) was an English Physicist and Quantum mechanics is the study of mechanical systems whose dimensions are close to the Atomic scale such as Molecules Atoms Electrons
It took eleven years for Pauling to explain the problem: his mathematical analysis was correct, but Astbury's pictures were taken in such a way that the protein molecules were tilted from their expected positions. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Pauling had formulated a model for the structure of hemoglobin in which atoms were arranged in a helical pattern, and applied this idea to proteins in general. Hemoglobin ( also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb) is the Iron -containing Oxygen -transport Metalloprotein A helix (pl helixes or helices) from the Greek word έλιξ, is a special kind of Space curve, i
In 1951, based on the structures of amino acids and peptides and the planarity of the peptide bond, Pauling and colleagues correctly proposed the alpha helix and beta sheet as the primary structural motifs in protein secondary structure. In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this Peptides (from the Greek πεπτίδια, "small digestibles" are short Polymers formed from the linking in a defined order of α- Amino A common motif in the Secondary structure of Proteins the alpha helix (α-helix is a right-handed coiled conformation resembling a spring, in which The β sheet (also β-pleated sheet) is the second form of regular Secondary structure in Proteins consisting of beta strands connected laterally In Biochemistry and Structural biology, secondary structure is the general three-dimensional form of local segments of Biopolymers such as This work exemplified his ability to think unconventionally; central to the structure was the unorthodox assumption that one turn of the helix may well contain a non-integral number of amino acid residues. The integers (from the Latin integer, literally "untouched" hence "whole" the word entire comes from the same origin but via French
Pauling then suggested a helical structure for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); however, his model contained several basic mistakes, including a proposal of neutral phosphate groups, an idea that conflicted with the acidity of DNA. Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known [48] Sir Lawrence Bragg had been disappointed that Pauling had won the race to find the alpha helix. Sir William Lawrence Bragg CH, FRS, ( 31 March 1890 – 1 July 1971) was an Australian Physicist Bragg's team had made a fundamental error in making their models of protein by not recognizing the planar nature of the peptide bond. When it was learned at the Cavendish Laboratory that Pauling was working on molecular models of the structure of DNA, Watson and Crick were allowed to make a molecular model of DNA using unpublished data from Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin at King's College. The Cavendish Laboratory is the University of Cambridge 's Department of Physics, and is part of the university's School of Physical Sciences Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins CBE FRS ( 15 December 1916 – 5 October 2004) was a New Zealand -born British Rosalind Elsie Franklin ( 25 July, 1920 Notting Hill, London – 16 April, 1958 Chelsea London) was an King's College London is a British Higher education institution and co-founding constituent college of the federal University of London. Early in 1953 James D. Watson and Francis Crick proposed a correct structure for the DNA double helix. Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004 Ph One of the impediments facing Pauling in this work was that he did not have access to the high quality X-ray diffraction photographs of DNA taken by Rosalind Franklin, which Watson and Crick had seen. Rosalind Elsie Franklin ( 25 July, 1920 Notting Hill, London – 16 April, 1958 Chelsea London) was an He planned to attend a conference in England, where he might have been shown the photos, but he could not do so because his passport was withheld in 1952 by the State Department, on suspicions that he had Communist sympathies. This was at the start of the McCarthy period in the United States. McCarthyism is a term describing the intense anti-communist suspicion in the United States in a period that lasted roughly from the late 1940s to the late 1950s [49]
Pauling also studied enzyme reactions and was among the first to point out that enzymes bring about reactions by stabilizing the transition state of the reaction, a view which is central to understanding their mechanism of action. Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins The transition state of a Chemical reaction is a particular configuration along the Reaction coordinate. He was also among the first scientists to postulate that the binding of antibodies to antigens would be due to a complementarity between their structures. Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins, abbreviated Ig) are Gamma globulin Proteins that are found in Blood or other Bodily Along the same lines, with the physicist turned biologist Max Delbruck, he wrote an early paper arguing that DNA replication was likely to be due to complementarity, rather than similarity, as suggested by a few researchers. Max Ludwig Henning Delbrück ( September 4, 1906 &ndash March 9, 1981) was a German-American Biophysicist and Nobel DNA replication is the process of copying a double-stranded DNA molecule to form two double-stranded molecules In Molecular biology, complementarity is a property of double-stranded Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA as well as DNARNA duplexes This was made clear in the model of the structure of DNA that Watson and Crick discovered.
Molecular genetics
In November 1949, Linus Pauling, Harvey Itano, S. J. Singer and Ibert Wells published in the journal Science the first proof of a human disease caused by an abnormal protein. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl [50] Using electrophoresis, they demonstrated that individuals with sickle cell disease had a modified form of hemoglobin in their red blood cells, and that individuals with sickle cell trait had both the normal and abnormal forms of hemoglobin. Electrophoresis is the most well-known electrokinetic phenomenon. Sickle-cell disease or sickle-cell anaemia (or anemia) is a Blood disorder characterized by Red blood cells that assume an abnormal rigid Hemoglobin ( also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb) is the Iron -containing Oxygen -transport Metalloprotein Red blood cells are the most common type of Blood cell and the Vertebrate body's principal means of delivering Oxygen to the body tissues via the Blood Sickle cell trait describes the way a person can inherit one of the genes of sickle cell disease but not develop recurrent symptoms This was also the first demonstration that Mendelian inheritance determined the specific physical properties of proteins, not simply their presence or absence—the dawn of molecular genetics. Mendelian inheritance (or Mendelian genetics or Mendelism) is a set of primary tenets relating to the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parent Molecular genetics is the field of Biology which studies the structure and function of Genes at a molecular level
Activism
Pauling had been practically apolitical until World War II, but the aftermath of the war and his wife's pacifism changed his life profoundly, and he became a peace activist. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including During the beginning of the Manhattan Project, Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project, but he declined, not wanting to uproot his family. The World War II Manhattan Project developed the first Nuclear weapon (atomic bomb He did work on other projects that had military applications such as explosives, rocket propellants, an oxygen meter for submarines and patented an armor piercing shell and was awarded a Presidential Medal of Merit. [2][51] In 1946, he joined the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, chaired by Albert Einstein. The Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists (ECAS was founded by Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd in 1946. Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical [52] Its mission was to warn the public of the dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons. His political activism prompted the U.S. State Department to deny him a passport in 1952, when he was invited to speak at a scientific conference in London. A passport is a document issued by a national government which certifies for the purpose of international travel the identity and nationality of its holder London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. [53] His passport was restored in 1954, shortly before the ceremony in Stockholm where he received his first Nobel Prize. ('stɔkhɔlm is Sweden 's Capital and its largest City. It is the site of the national Swedish government, the parliament, and the Joining Einstein, Bertrand Russell and eight other leading scientists and intellectuals, he signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto in 1955. Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian The Russell-Einstein Manifesto was issued in London on July 9, 1955 by Bertrand Russell in the midst of the Cold War. [54]
In 1958, Pauling began a petition drive in cooperation with biologist Barry Commoner, who had studied radioactive strontium-90 in the baby teeth of children across North America and concluded that above-ground nuclear testing posed public health risks in the form of radioactive fallout. Barry Commoner (born May 28 1917) is an American Biologist, college Professor, and eco-socialist. Strontium (ˈstrɒntiəm /ˈstrɒnʃiəm/) is a Chemical element with the symbol Sr and the Atomic number 38 See also Deciduous. "Baby teeth" redirects here For the band of that name see Baby Teeth (band. Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a Nuclear explosion, so named because it "falls out" of the atmosphere into which it is spread during the explosion [55][56] He also participated in a public debate with the atomic physicist Edward Teller about the actual probability of fallout causing mutations. Edward Teller (original Hungarian name Teller Ede) (January 15 1908 &ndash September 9 2003 was a Hungarian -American theoretical Physicist [57] In 1958, Pauling and his wife presented the United Nations with a petition signed by more than 11,000 scientists calling for an end to nuclear-weapon testing. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness yield and explosive capability of Nuclear weapons Throughout the twentieth century most nations Public pressure subsequently led to a moratorium on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in 1963 by John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev. The Treaty banning Nuclear Weapon Tests In The Atmosphere In Outer Space And Under Water, often abbreviated as the Partial Test Ban Treaty ( PTBT) John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy (May 29 1917&ndashNovember 22 1963 often referred to by his initials JFK, was the thirty-fifth President of Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following On the day that the treaty went into force, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded Pauling the Nobel Peace Prize, describing him as "Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only against nuclear weapons tests, not only against the spread of these armaments, not only against their very use, but against all warfare as a means of solving international conflicts. The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor "[58] The Caltech Chemistry Department, wary of his political views, did not even formally congratulate him. However, the Biology Department did throw him a small party, showing they were more appreciative and sympathetic toward his work on radiation mutation. At Caltech he founded Sigma Xi's (The Scientific Research Society) chapter at the school, as he had previously been a member of that organisation. Sigma Xi The Scientific Research Society is a Non-profit Honor society which was founded in 1886 at Cornell University by a junior faculty He continued his peace activism in the following years co-founding the International League of Humanists in 1974. International League of Humanists (ILH is a non-profit international association of eminent humanists. He was also one of the signers of the Dubrovnik-Philadelphia Statement.
Many of Pauling's critics, including scientists who appreciated the contributions that he had made in chemistry, disagreed with his political positions and saw him as a naïve spokesman for Soviet communism. He was ordered to appear before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, which termed him "the number one scientific name in virtually every major activity of the Communist peace offensive in this country. The Special Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, 1951-77 more commonly known as the Senate Internal Security " An extraordinary headline in Life magazine characterized his 1962 Nobel Prize as "A Weird Insult from Norway". Pauling was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize by the USSR in 1970. The International Stalin Prize or the International Stalin Prize for Strengthening Peace Among Peoples (renamed Международная Ленинская премия «За
Development of the electric car
In the late 1950s, Pauling became concerned with the problem of air pollution—particularly with the growing smog problem in Los Angeles. Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Smog is a kind of Air pollution; the word "smog" is a Portmanteau of Smoke and Fog. Los Angeles (lɑˈsændʒələs los ˈaŋxeles in Spanish) is the largest City in the state of California and the American West At the time, most scientists believed that the smog was due to chemical plants and refineries, not gasoline engine exhaust. Pauling worked with Arie Haagen-Smit and others at Caltech to show that smog was a product of automobile pollution instead of factory pollution. Shortly after this discovery, Pauling began work to develop a practical and affordable electric car. An electric car is a type of alternative fuel Car that utilizes Electric motors and Motor controllers instead of an Internal combustion engine He joined forces with the engineers at the Eureka Williams company in the development of the Henney Kilowatt—the first speed-controlled electric car. Introduced for the 1959 model year the Henney Kilowatt was the world's first modern ( Transistor -regulated Electric car. After researching the electrophysics underlying the initial Kilowatt propulsion system, Pauling determined that traditional lead-acid batteries would not provide the power necessary to give electric cars the performance necessary to rival traditional gasoline powered cars. Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French Physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of Rechargeable battery. Pauling accurately predicted that the low top speed and the short range of the Henney Kilowatt would make them impractical and unpopular. Pauling insisted on making the car more practical before releasing it to the public, and recommended that the project be discontinued until the appropriate battery was available commercially. Unfortunately, the Eureka Williams Company insisted that production plans for the car proceed; as Pauling predicted, the model experienced dismal sales.
Molecular medicine and medical research
In 1941, at age 40, Pauling was diagnosed with a serious form of Bright’s disease, a fatal renal disease. The United States National Library of Medicine ( NLM) operated by the United States federal government, is the world's largest Medical library. Bright's disease is a historical classification of kidney diseases that would be described in modern Medicine as acute or chronic Nephritis Experts believed then that Bright's disease was untreatable. With the help of Dr. Thomas Addis at Stanford, Pauling was able to control the disease with Addis' then unusual, low protein, salt-free diet. Thomas Addis ( July 27, 1881 - June 4, 1949) was a Physician - Scientist who made important contributions to the understanding Addis also prescribed vitamins and minerals for all his patients.
In 1951, Pauling gave a lecture entitled, "Molecular Medicine". [59] In the late 1950s, Pauling worked on the role of enzymes in brain function, believing that mental illness may be partly caused by enzyme dysfunction. It wasn't until he read "Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry" by Abram Hoffer in 1965 that he realized that vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases. Niacin, also known as vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin which prevents the deficiency disease Pellagra. Pauling published a brief paper, "Orthomolecular Psychiatry", in the journal Science in 1968 (PMID 5641253) that gave name and principle to the popular but controversial megavitamin therapy movement of the 1970s. Orthomolecular psychiatry is a branch of Orthomolecular medicine, an Alternative medicine known for its claims that Dietary supplements and other unorthodox Megavitamin therapy is the use of large amounts of Vitamins often many times greater than the Recommended dietary allowance (RDA in the attempt to prevent or treat Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" to refer to the practice of varying the concentration of substances normally present in the body to prevent and treat disease. Orthomolecular medicine is a form of Complementary and alternative medicine which aims to prevent and treat disease with substances which are natural to the body His ideas formed the basis of orthomolecular medicine, which is not generally practiced by conventional medical professionals and is strongly criticized by some. Orthomolecular medicine is a form of Complementary and alternative medicine which aims to prevent and treat disease with substances which are natural to the body [60][61]
Pauling's work on vitamin C in his later years generated much controversy. Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an Essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species a small number of other Mammalian He was first introduced to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist Irwin Stone in 1966. Dr Irwin Stone (1907–1984 was an American Biochemist, Chemical engineer, and author After becoming convinced of its worth, Linus Pauling took 3 grams of vitamin C every day to prevent colds (Dunitz 1996:333). Linus Carl Pauling (February 28 1901 – August 19 1994 was an American Scientist, Peace activist, Author and educator. Excited by the results, he researched the clinical literature and published "Vitamin C and the Common Cold" in 1970. He began a long clinical collaboration with the British cancer surgeon Ewan Cameron in 1971 on the use of intravenous and oral vitamin C as cancer therapy for terminal patients. Ewan Cameron (July 31 1922 Dunbarton, Scotland – March 21 1991 was a Medical doctor who worked with Linus Pauling on Vitamin C [62] Cameron and Pauling wrote many technical papers and a popular book, "Cancer and Vitamin C", that discussed their observations. Pauling made vitamin C popular with the public, but the medical establishment regarded his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds and cure cancer as quackery (Dunitz 1996:333), and considered the case closed after two randomized trials conducted by the Mayo Clinic and published in the New England Journal of Medicine failed to replicate[63] Pauling's study, which found that vitamin C supplementation lengthened survival times significantly. Linus Carl Pauling (February 28 1901 – August 19 1994 was an American Scientist, Peace activist, Author and educator. Mayo Clinic is a Non-profit medical practice Its headquarters the Mayo Medical School and its research facilities are in Rochester Minnesota in The New England Journal of Medicine ( N Engl J Med or NEJM) is an English-language Peer-reviewed Medical journal published [64] Pauling denounced the conclusions of these studies and handling of the final study as "fraud and deliberate misrepresentation. "[65][66] Pauling's original study, based on the observational studies of intravenous vitamin C by orthomolecular medicine pioneers McCormick and Klenner, used intravenous vitamin C for the first ten days, but the randomized trials did not. Orthomolecular medicine is a form of Complementary and alternative medicine which aims to prevent and treat disease with substances which are natural to the body [67] Pauling published critiques of the second Mayo-Moertel cancer trial's flaws over several years as he was able to slowly unearth some of the trial's undisclosed details. [68] However, the wave of adverse publicity generated by Moertel and the media effectively undercut Pauling's credibility and his vitamin C work for a generation,[69] the oncological mainstream continued with other avenues of treatment. [70] Always precariously perched since his molecular biologically inspired crusade to stop atmospheric nuclear testing in the 1950s,[71] the 1985 Mayo-Moertel confrontation left Pauling isolated from his institutional funding sources, academic support and a bemused public. The Treaty banning Nuclear Weapon Tests In The Atmosphere In Outer Space And Under Water, often abbreviated as the Partial Test Ban Treaty ( PTBT) Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness yield and explosive capability of Nuclear weapons Throughout the twentieth century most nations He later collaborated with the Canadian physician Abram Hoffer on a micronutrient regimen, including high-dose vitamin C, as adjunctive cancer therapy. Abram Hoffer (born 1917 is a Canadian Psychiatrist known for his work in the development of biochemically based therapies based on the use of Nutrition Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled [72] Of late the "connection between vitamin C and cancer has become a respectable topic", and it was the subject of a Washington DC NIH conference in 1990 (Dunitz 1996:334). Linus Carl Pauling (February 28 1901 – August 19 1994 was an American Scientist, Peace activist, Author and educator.
As of 2007, new evidence of high-dose Vitamin C efficacy was proposed by a Canadian group of researchers based on intravenous vitamin C. Intravenous vitamin C can achieve plasma concentrations up to 70-fold higher than oral vitamin C. [73]The selective toxicity of vitamin C for cancer cells has been demonstrated in-vitro (i. In vitro ( Latin: within the glass refers to the technique of performing a given experiment in a controlled environment outside of a living Organism e. , in a cell culture Petri dish), and was reported in 2005. Cell culture is the process by which prokaryotic, or eukaryotic cells are grown under controlled conditions A Petri dish is a shallow Glass or Plastic Cylindrical lidded dish that biologists use to culture cells It was named after [74] The combination of case-report data and preclinical information suggest biological plausibility and the possibility of clinical efficacy at the possible expense of critical toxicity at active doses; future clinical testing will ultimately determine the utility and safety of intravenous high-dose Vitamin C treatments for patients with cancer. Researchers released a paper demonstrating in-vivo vitamin C killing of cancer cells in The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in 2007. In vivo ( Latin: within the living means that which takes place inside an organism. Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an Essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species a small number of other Mammalian [75] These researchers observed longer-than expected survival times in three patients treated with high doses of intravenous Vitamin C. [76] The researchers are reportedly planning a new Phase I clinical trial. In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices [77]
With two colleagues, Pauling founded the Institute of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Park, California, in 1973, which was soon renamed the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine. The Linus Pauling Institute was established at Oregon State University in August 1996 under an agreement reached between OSU and the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine Pauling directed research on vitamin C, but also continued his theoretical work in chemistry and physics until his death. In his last years, he became especially interested in the possible role of vitamin C in preventing atherosclerosis and published three case reports on the use of lysine and vitamin C to relieve angina pectoris. Atherosclerosis is a Disease affecting arterial Blood vessels It is a chronic inflammatory response in the walls of arteries in large part due to the accumulation Lysine (abbreviated as Lys or K) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2(CH24NH2 Angina pectoris, commonly known as angina, is severe Chest pain due to Ischemia (a lack of blood and hence Oxygen supply of the heart In 1996, the Linus Pauling Institute moved from Palo Alto, California, to Corvallis, Oregon, to become part of Oregon State University, where it continues to conduct research on micronutrients, phytochemicals (chemicals from plants), and other constituents of the diet in preventing and treating disease. Micronutrients are Nutrients needed for life in small quantities Phytochemicals are plant-derived chemical compounds under scientific research for their potential health-promoting properties but with unproved benefits Several of the employees that had previously worked at the Linus Pauling Institute in Palo Alto moved on to form the Genetic Information Research Institute. Genetic Information Research Institute (GIRI is a non-profit institution that was founded in 1994 by Jerzy Jurka
Pauling's legacy
Pauling died of prostate cancer on August 19, 1994, at 7:20 PM at home in Big Sur, California. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Big Sur is a sparsely populated region of the central California, United States, coast where the Santa Lucia Mountains rise abruptly from the He was 93 years old. [78][79] A gravemarker for him is in Oswego Pioneer Cemetery in Lake Oswego, Oregon. Lake Oswego (ɒsˈwiːɡoʊ is a city located primarily in Clackamas County in the U [79][80]
Pauling's contribution to science is held by many in the utmost regard. He was included in a list of the 20 greatest scientists of all time by the magazine New Scientist, with Albert Einstein being the only other scientist from the twentieth century on the list. New Scientist is a weekly International science magazine and website covering recent developments in science and technology for a general English -speaking Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical Gautam R. Desiraju, the author of the Millennium Essay in Nature,[81] claimed that Pauling was one of the greatest thinkers and visionaries of the millennium, along with Galileo, Newton, and Einstein. Pauling is also notable for the diversity of his interests: quantum mechanics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, protein structure, molecular biology, and medicine. In all these fields, and especially on the boundaries between them, he made decisive contributions. His work on chemical bonding marks the beginning of modern quantum chemistry, and many of his contributions like hybridization and electronegativity have become part of standard chemistry textbooks. Quantum chemistry is a branch of Theoretical chemistry, which applies Quantum mechanics and Quantum field theory to address issues and problems in -->In Chemistry " Electronegativity " is the opposite of " Electropositivity," which describes an element's ability to donate electrons Although his valence bond approach fell short of accounting quantitatively for some of the characteristics of molecules, such as the paramagnetic nature of oxygen and the color of organometallic complexes, and would later be superseded by the Molecular Orbital Theory of Robert Mulliken, the strength of Pauling's theory has lain in its simplicity, and it has endured. A chemical bond is the physical process responsible for the attractive interactions between Atoms and Molecules and which confers stability to diatomic and polyatomic Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism which occurs only in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Organometallic chemistry is the study of Chemical compounds containing bonds between Carbon and a Metal. In Chemistry, molecular orbital theory ( MO theory) is a method for determining molecular structure in which Electrons are not assigned to individual Robert Sanderson Mulliken ( June 7, 1896 &ndash October 31, 1986) was an American physicist and chemist Nowadays the Valence Bond theory still exists in its modern form and competes with the Molecular Orbital Theory and Density Functional Theory (DFT) for describing the chemical phenomena. A chemical bond is the physical process responsible for the attractive interactions between Atoms and Molecules and which confers stability to diatomic and polyatomic In Chemistry, molecular orbital theory ( MO theory) is a method for determining molecular structure in which Electrons are not assigned to individual Density functional theory (DFT is a quantum mechanical theory used in Physics and Chemistry to investigate the Electronic structure (principally [82] Pauling's work on crystal structure contributed significantly to the prediction and elucidation of the structures of complex minerals and compounds. In Materials science, a crystal is a Solid in which the constituent Atoms Molecules or Ions are packed in a regularly ordered repeating His discovery of the alpha helix and beta sheet is a fundamental foundation for the study of protein structure. A common motif in the Secondary structure of Proteins the alpha helix (α-helix is a right-handed coiled conformation resembling a spring, in which The β sheet (also β-pleated sheet) is the second form of regular Secondary structure in Proteins consisting of beta strands connected laterally Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl
In his time, Pauling was frequently honored with the sobriquet "Father of molecular biology", a contribution acknowledged by Francis Crick. Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004 Ph His discovery of sickle cell anemia as a 'molecular disease' opened the way toward examining genetically acquired mutations at a molecular level. Sickle-cell disease or sickle-cell anaemia (or anemia) is a Blood disorder characterized by Red blood cells that assume an abnormal rigid
Though the scientific community at large did not agree with Pauling's conclusions in his vitamin-related medical research and writing, his entry into the fray gave a larger voice in the public mind to nutrients such as vitamins and minerals for disease prevention. Specifically, his protege Dr Mathias Rath, MD, continued his early works into Cellular Medicine, expanding the volumes of data about natural substances related in disease prevention and alleviation. Pauling's stand also led these subjects to be much more actively investigated by other researchers, including those at the Linus Pauling Institute which lists a dozen principal investigators and faculty who explore the role of micronutrients, plus phytochemicals, in health and disease.
Items named after Pauling include Linus Pauling Middle School in Corvallis, Oregon, and Pauling Field a small airfield located in Condon, Oregon. Corvallis (kɔrˈvælɪs is a City located in central western Oregon, United States. Condon State Airport, is a public Airport located one mile (1 Condon is a city in Gilliam County, Oregon, United States. The population was 759 at the 2000 census Dr. Pauling spent his youth in Condon.
Linus Torvalds who develops the Linux kernel is named after Pauling. Linus Benedict Torvalds ( ˈtuːrvalds born December 28 1969 in Helsinki, Finland) is a Finnish software engineer Linux (commonly pronounced ˈlɪnəks [83]
On 6 March 2008, the United States Postal Service released a 41 cent stamp honoring Pauling. [84]
California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28, 2008 that Pauling will be inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger ( German ˌaɐnɔlt aloʏs ˈʃvaɐtsənɛɡɐ born July 30 1947 is an Austrian American Bodybuilder, Actor Maria Owings Shriver ( born November 6 1955 is an award-winning American journalist a prolific author and First Lady of California. Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling Conceived by First Lady Maria Shriver, the California Hall of Fame was established with The California Museum for History Women and the Arts to honor legendary individuals The California Museum for History Women and the Arts – home of the California Hall of Fame – is housed in the State Archives Building in Sacramento, one block The induction ceremony will take place December 10th and his son will accept the honor in his place.
Honors and awards
Pauling received numerous awards and honors during his career. Following are awards and honors he has received.
- 1931 Langmuir Prize, American Chemical Society
- 1941 Nichols Medal, New York Section, American Chemical Society
- 1947 Davy Medal, Royal Society
- 1948 United States Presidential Medal for Merit
- 1952 Pasteur Medal, Biochemical Society of France
- 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
- 1955 Addis Medal, National Nephrosis Foundation
- 1955 Phillips Memorial Award, American College of Physicians
- 1956 Avogadro Medal, Italian Academy of b,la
- 1957 Paul Sabatier Medal
- 1957 Pierre Fermat Medal in Mathematics
- 1957 International Grotius Medal
- 1961 Humanist of the Year, American Humanist Association
- 1962 Nobel Peace Prize
- 1965 Republic of Italy
- 1965 Medal, Academy of the Rumanian People's Republic
- 1966 Linus Pauling Medal
- 1966 Silver Medal, Institute of France
- 1966 Supreme Peace Sponsor, World Fellowship of Religion
- 1972 United States National Medal of Science
- 1972 International Lenin Peace Prize
- 1977 Lomonosov Gold Medal, USSR Academy of Science
- 1979 Medal for Chemical Sciences, National Academy of Science
- 1984 Priestley Medal, American Chemical Society
- 1984 Award for Chemistry, Arthur M. The American Chemical Society ( ACS) is a Learned society ( Professional association) based in the United States that supports scientific inquiry The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Nobelpriset i kemi is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of Chemistry. The American College of Physicians (ACP is a national organization of doctors of Internal medicine (internists physicians who specialize in the prevention detection and treatment The American Humanist Association (AHA is an educational organization in the United States that advances Humanism. The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor The Institut de France (French Institute is a French Learned society, grouping five académies, the most famous of which is probably the Académie The Lomonosov Gold Medal, named after Russian scientist and Polymath Mikhail Lomonosov, is awarded each year since 1959 for outstanding achievements The National Academy of Sciences (NAS is a corporation in the United States whose members serve Pro bono as "advisers to the nation on science The Priestley Medal is the highest honor conferred by the American Chemical Society (ACS and is awarded for distinguished service in the field of Chemistry. The American Chemical Society ( ACS) is a Learned society ( Professional association) based in the United States that supports scientific inquiry Sackler Foundation
- 1987 Award in Chemical Education, American Chemical Society
- 1989 Vannevar Bush Award, National Science Board
- 1990 Richard C. The National Science Foundation (NSF is a United States Government agency that supports fundamental Research and Education in all the non-medical Tolman Medal, Southern California, Section, American Chemical Society
Works by Linus Pauling
- Pauling, L. The Nature of the Chemical Bond. Cornell University Press ISBN 0-8014-0333-2
- Pauling, L. , and Wilson, E. B. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry (Dover Publications) ISBN 0-486-64871-0
- Pauling, L. Vitamin C, the Common Cold and the Flu (W. H. Freeman and Company) ISBN 0-7167-0360-2
- Cameron E. and Pauling, L. Cancer and Vitamin C: A Discussion of the Nature, Causes, Prevention, and Treatment of Cancer With Special Reference to the Value of Vitamin C (Camino Books) ISBN 0-940159-21-X
- Pauling, L. How to Live Longer and Feel Better (Avon Books) ISBN 0-380-70289-4
- Pauling, L. Linus Pauling On Peace - A Scientist Speaks Out on Humanism and World Survival (Rising Star Press) ISBN 0-933670-03-6
- Pauling, L. General Chemistry (Dover Publications) ISBN 0-486-65622-5
- A Lifelong Quest for Peace with Daisaku Ikeda
- Pauling, L. is president of Soka Gakkai International (SGI a Buddhist association which claims 12 million members in more than 190 countries and territories and founder of several educational The Architecture of Molecules
- Pauling, L. No More War!
See also
- Alpha helix
- Megavitamin therapy
- Orthomolecular medicine
- Pauling's rules
- Vitamin C
- 1920 US Census with Pauling in Portland, Oregon
References
- Dunitz, Jack D. (1996), “Linus Carl Pauling, 28 February 1901–19 August 1994”, Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 42: 316–338, <http://www.jstor.org/view/00804606/ap030044/03a00200/0>
- Goertzel, Ted; Ben Goertzel (1995). A common motif in the Secondary structure of Proteins the alpha helix (α-helix is a right-handed coiled conformation resembling a spring, in which Megavitamin therapy is the use of large amounts of Vitamins often many times greater than the Recommended dietary allowance (RDA in the attempt to prevent or treat Orthomolecular medicine is a form of Complementary and alternative medicine which aims to prevent and treat disease with substances which are natural to the body Pauling's rules are five rules published by Linus Pauling in 1929 for determining the Molecular structures of complex Crystals 1 Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an Essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species a small number of other Mammalian Portland is a city located in the Northwestern United States, near the Confluence of the Willamette and Columbia rivers Jack David Dunitz (born 29 March 1923, Glasgow) is a British chemist Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics. Basic Books. ISBN 0465006728.
- Hager, Thomas (1995). Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684809095.
- Hager, Thomas (1998). Linus Pauling and the Chemistry of Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195139720.
- Marinacci, Barbara; Ramesh Krishnamurthy (1998). Linus Pauling on Peace. Rising Star Press. ISBN 0933670036.
- Mead, Clifford; Thomas Hager (eds. ) (2001). Linus Pauling: Scientist and Peacemaker. Oregon State University Press. ISBN 0870714899.
- Serafini, Anthony (1989). Linus Pauling: A Man and His Science. Paragon House. ISBN 155778440X.
Notes
- ^ Dunitz, p. 222.
- ^ a b The Linus Pauling Papers: Biographical Information. United States National Library of Medicine. The United States National Library of Medicine ( NLM) operated by the United States federal government, is the world's largest Medical library. Retrieved on 2008-02-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 660 BC - Traditional founding date of Japan by Emperor Jimmu.
- ^ Hager, p. 22.
- ^ Mead and Hager, p. 8.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 1.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 2.
- ^ Hager, p. 21.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 6.
- ^ Hager, p. 24.
- ^ a b Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 4.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 5.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 12.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 13.
- ^ Mead and Hager, p. 9.
- ^ Dunitz, p. 223.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 17.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 21.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 22.
- ^ Hager, p. 48.
- ^ Linus Pauling – Biography. Nobel Foundation. The Nobel Foundation (Nobelstiftelsen is a private institution founded on 29 June 1900 to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Bourgoin, Suzanne M. ; Paula K. Byers (1998). Encyclopedia of World Biography. Thomson Gale, Vol. 12, p. 150. ISBN 0787622214.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 23.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 24.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 25.
- ^ a b Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 26.
- ^ Swanson, Stephen. "OSU fraternity to donate Pauling treasures to campus library", Oregon State University, 2000-10-03. Oregon State University ( OSU) is a Coeducational public Research[[ university]] located in Corvallis, Oregon, United 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Retrieved on 2008-03-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty
- ^ a b Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 29.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 30.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 31.
- ^ Linus Pauling Institute. Linus Pauling: A Biographical Timeline. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ ". . . I [Pauling] am not, however, militant in my atheism. The great English theoretical physicist Paul Dirac is a militant atheist. I suppose he is interested in arguing about the existence of God. I am not. It was once quipped that there is no God and Dirac is his prophet. " Linus Pauling & Daisaku Ikeda (1992). A Lifelong Quest for Peace: A Dialogue. Jones & Bartlett, page 22. ISBN 0867202777.
- ^ Tom Hager (December 2004). "The Langmuir Prize" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Leap years Although the modern calendar counts a year as 365 days a complete revolution around the sun takes approximately 365 days and 6 hours
- ^ Linus Pauling (March 1932). "The nature of the chemical bond. III. The transition from one extreme bond type to another." (html). Journal of the American Chemical Society. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Leap years Although the modern calendar counts a year as 365 days a complete revolution around the sun takes approximately 365 days and 6 hours
- ^ Thomas Hager (December 2004). The Nature of the Chemical Bond (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Leap years Although the modern calendar counts a year as 365 days a complete revolution around the sun takes approximately 365 days and 6 hours
- ^ Linus Pauling (1928). "London's paper. General ideas on bonds." (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Leap years Although the modern calendar counts a year as 365 days a complete revolution around the sun takes approximately 365 days and 6 hours
- ^ Linus Pauling (1930s). "Notes and Calculations re: Electronegativity and the Electronegativity Scale" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Leap years Although the modern calendar counts a year as 365 days a complete revolution around the sun takes approximately 365 days and 6 hours
- ^ Linus Pauling (1934-01-06). "Benzene" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Leap years Although the modern calendar counts a year as 365 days a complete revolution around the sun takes approximately 365 days and 6 hours
- ^ Linus Pauling (1946-07-29). "Resonance" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Leap years Although the modern calendar counts a year as 365 days a complete revolution around the sun takes approximately 365 days and 6 hours
- ^ Oregon State Special Collections
- ^ Pauling, Linus (October 1965). The close-packed-spheron theory and nuclear fission. Science. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Pauling, Linus (October 1965). The close-packed spheron model of atomic nuclei and its relation to the shell model. Science. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Pauling, Linus (July 1966). The close-packed-spheron theory of nuclear structure and the neutron excess for stable nuclei (Dedicated to the seventieth anniversary of Professor Horia Hulubei). Science. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Pauling, Linus (December 1967). Magnetic-moment evidence for the polyspheron structure of the lighter atomic nuclei. Science. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Pauling, Linus (November 1969). Orbiting clusters in atomic nuclei. Science. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Pauling, Linus; Arthur B. Robinson (1975). Rotating clusters in nuclei. Canadian Journal of Physics. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Pauling, Linus (February 1991). http://osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections/rnb/26/26-125.html. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. . Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Norman D. Cook, Models of the Atomic Nucleus, 2006, Springer
- ^ Linus Pauling's DNA Model. Retrieved on 2007-08-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada.
- ^ Pauling biography citing State Department's revocation of Pauling's passport in 1952. Retrieved on 2007-12-11. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office
- ^ Pauling, Linus; Harvey Itano, S. J. Singer, Ibert Wells (November 1949). Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease. Science. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Paulus, John Allen. "Pauling's Prizes", New York Times, 1995-11-05. Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany) Retrieved on 2007-12-09. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 536 - Byzantine General Belisarius enters Rome while the Ostrogothic garrison peacefully leaves the city
- ^ Thomas Hager (29 November 2007). Einstein (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life
- ^ Linus Pauling (May 1952). The Department of State and the Structure of Proteins. Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life
- ^ Thomas Hager (29 November 2007). Russell/Einstein (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life
- ^ Thomas Hager (29 November 2007). Strontium-90 (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life
- ^ Thomas Hager (29 November 2007). The Right to Petition (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life
- ^ Linus Pauling; Edward Teller (1958). Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Teller vs. Pauling (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life
- ^ Linus Pauling (1963-10-10). Year 1963 ( MCMLXIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 680 - Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated Notes by Linus Pauling. October 10, 1963. (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life
- ^ Pauling, Linus (October 1951). Molecular Medicine. Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Cassileth, BR (1998:67). Alternative Medicine Handbook: the Complete Reference Guide to Alternative and Complementary Therapies. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. .
- ^ Vitamin Therapy, Megadose / Orthomolecular Therapy. BC Cancer Agency (February 2000). Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Ewan Cameron M. D. . Cancer bibliography. Doctoryourself. com. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Chen Q et al. (2007). Ascorbate in pharmacologic concentrations selectively generates ascorbate radical and hydrogen peroxide in extracellular fluid in vivo. Proceedings for the National Academy of Sciences. See reference to citations 5,6, and 7.
- ^ Cameron E, Pauling L (1978) Supplemental Ascorbate in the Supportive Treatment of Cancer: Reevaluation of Prolongation of Survival Times in Terminal Human Cancer
- ^ Ted Goertzel (1996). Analyzing Pauling's Personality: A Three Generational, Three Decade Project. Special Collections, Oregon State University Libraries. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ (2005), University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-11366-3, Excerpt from pages 89-111
- ^ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedPNASQuen2007 - ^ Mark Levine; Sebastian J. Padayatty, Hugh D. Riordan, Stephen M. Hewitt, Arie Katz, L. John Hoffer (2006-03-28). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate. Intravenously administered vitamin C as cancer therapy: three cases. CMA Media. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Ibtravenous Vitamin C Kills Cancer Celld. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (2005-09-12). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1213 - Albigensian Crusade: Simon de Montfort 5th Earl of Leicester, defeats Peter II of Aragon at the Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Collin, Harry; Pinch, Trevor (2007). Dr. Golem: How to Think about Medicine. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226113671.
- ^ No More War!. Linus Pauling and the Twentieth Century. Archived from the original on 2007-08-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Retrieved on 2007-08-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada.
- ^ Andrew W. Saul; Dr. Abram Hoffer. Abram Hoffer, M.D., Ph.D. 50 Years of Megavitamin Research, Practice and Publication. Doctoryourself. com. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Sebastian et al. Vitamin C Pharmacokinetics: Implications for Oral and Intravenous Use (full-text). Annals of Internal Medicine.
- ^ Chen Q, Espey M, Krishna M, Mitchell J, Corpe C, Buettner G, Shacter E, Levine M (2005). "Pharmacologic ascorbic acid concentrations selectively kill cancer cells: action as a pro-drug to deliver hydrogen peroxide to tissues". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102 (38): 13604-9. PMID 16157892.
- ^ Chen, Q. ; Espey, M. G. ; Sun, A. Y. ; Lee, J. H. ; Krishna, M. C. ; Shacter, E. ; Choyke, P. L. ; Pooput, C. ; Kirk, K. L. ; Buettner, G. R. ; Others, (2007). "[Scholar?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&sa=G&oi=qs&q=%2210. 1073+pnas+0702854104%22+author:q-chen Ascorbate in pharmacologic concentrations selectively generates ascorbate radical and hydrogen peroxide in extracellular fluid in vivo]". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (21): 8749.
- ^ Padayatty S, Riordan H, Hewitt S, Katz A, Hoffer L, Levine M (2006). "Intravenously administered vitamin C as cancer therapy: three cases". CMAJ 174 (7): 937-42. PMID 16567755.
- ^ Assouline S, Miller W (2006). "High-dose vitamin C therapy: renewed hope or false promise?". CMAJ 174 (7): 956-7. PMID 16567756.
- ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 247.
- ^ a b Linus Pauling dies at 93. The Oregonian, August 20, 1994. The Oregonian is the major daily Newspaper in Portland Oregon, owned by Advance Publications. Events 636 - Battle of Yarmouk: Arab forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid take control of Syria and Palestine Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar)
- ^ Linus C. Pauling. Find A Grave. Retrieved December 4, 2007. "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Desiraju, G. R. (2000-11-23). 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Events 800 - Charlemagne arrives at Rome to investigate the alleged crimes of The all-chemist (PDF). Nature. Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ A Conversation on VB vs MO Theory: A Never-Ending Rivalry? 750-756. ACS Publications (2003). Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ Moody, Glyn (2002). Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution. Perseus Books Group, 336. ISBN 0738206709.
- ^ Odegard, Kyle. "Linus Pauling stamp debuts at university", Gazette-Times, 2008-03-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 161 - Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius dies and is succeeded by co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus
External links
- Francis Crick: The Impact of Linus Pauling on Molecular Biology (transcribed video from the 1995 Oregon State University symposium)
- The Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers at the Oregon State University Libraries
- The Pauling Catalogue
- Linus Pauling (1901-1994)
- National Academy of Sciences biography
- Caltech oral history interview
- Berkeley Conversations With History interview
- Linus Pauling Centenary Exhibit
- Linus Pauling from The Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography
- Linus Pauling Investigates Vitamin C
- The Dark Side of Linus Pauling's Legacy
- The Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University and
- The Many Lives of Linus Pauling: A Review of Reviews J. Chem. Educ.
- Pauling's CV
- Publications of Pauling
- Linus and Ava Helen Pauling Hall at Soka University of America, devoted to pacifism in global citizenship. Soka University of America ( SUA) is a Private university located in Aliso Viejo, California, United States.
- Works by or about Linus Pauling in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| NAME | Pauling, Linus Carl |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES | |
| SHORT DESCRIPTION | American biochemist and theoretical chemist, anti-nuclear testing campaigner, Nobel laureate |
| DATE OF BIRTH | February 28, 1901 |
| PLACE OF BIRTH | Portland, Oregon |
| DATE OF DEATH | August 19, 1994 |
| PLACE OF DEATH | Big Sur, California |
WorldCat is a Union catalog which itemizes the collections of more than 10000 libraries which participate in the OCLC global cooperative Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule Year 1901 ( MCMI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Portland is a city located in the Northwestern United States, near the Confluence of the Willamette and Columbia rivers Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Big Sur is a sparsely populated region of the central California, United States, coast where the Santa Lucia Mountains rise abruptly from the
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