A lingua franca (Italian literally meaning Frankish language, see etymology under Sabir and Italian below) is any language widely used beyond the population of its native speakers. A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them The de facto status of lingua franca is usually "awarded" by the masses to the language of the most influential nation(s) of the time. Any given language normally becomes a lingua franca primarily by being used for international commerce, but can be accepted in other cultural exchanges, especially diplomacy. Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting Negotiations between representatives of groups or states

Lingua franca may also refer to the de facto language within a more or less specialized field.

A lingua franca is a language used by people whose mother tongues are different in order to communicate. Any language could conceivably serve as a lingua franca between two groups, no matter what sort of language it is. Lingua franca is thus a purely functionally-defined term, i. e. , linguistic structure of the language involved plays no role[1].

A synonym for lingua franca is “vehicular language. ” Whereas a vernacular language is used as a native language in a single speaker community, a vehicular language goes beyond the boundaries of its original community, and is used as a second language for communication between communities. Vernacular refers to the Native language of a country or a locality For example, English is a vernacular in England, but is used as a vehicular language (that is, a lingua franca) in the Philippines.

The term lingua franca is also applied to international auxiliary languages meant specifically for communication between speakers of different native languages. An international auxiliary language (sometimes abbreviated as IAL or auxlang) or interlanguage is a Language meant for communication between people from Examples include Esperanto, Ido, Interlingua, Latino Sine Flexione, and Novial. is by far the most widely spoken constructed International auxiliary language in the world Ido (ˈiːdoʊ is a Constructed language created with the goal of becoming a universal second language for speakers of different linguistic backgrounds as a language easier Interlingua is an International auxiliary language (IAL developed between 1937 and 1951 by the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA Latino sine flexione ( Latin without Inflections is an Auxiliary language invented by the Italian mathematician Giuseppe Peano (1858 - 1932 Novial ("new" + ''IAL International Auxiliary Language'' is a constructed International auxiliary language (IAL intended to facilitate international

Contents 1 English 2 Other European languages 2.1 Greek and Latin 2.2 Sabir and Italian 2.3 Spanish 2.4 French 2.5 German 2.6 Polish 2.7 Portuguese 2.8 Russian 3 Asian languages 3.1 Arabic 3.2 Aramaic 3.3 Azeri 3.4 Bengali 3.5 Cebuano 3.6 Chinese 3.7 Filipino 3.8 Korean 3.9 Hindi - Urdu 3.10 Ilokano 3.11 Malay 3.12 Persian 3.13 Sanskrit 4 African languages 4.1 Afrikaans 4.2 Hausa 4.3 Swahili 4.4 Zulu 4.5 Fula 4.6 Manding 4.7 Sango 4.8 Wolof 5 Amerindian languages 5.1 Mobilian Jargon 5.2 Tupi 5.3 Quechua 6 Pidgins and creoles 6.1 Tok Pisin 6.2 Guinea-Bissau Creole 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links

English

English is the current lingua franca of international business, science, technology and aviation, and has partially displaced French as the lingua franca of diplomacy since World War I, although the use of French continues to play a large role in diplomatic protocol. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people The wide-spread use of English was advanced by the prominent international role played by English-speaking nations (i. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States e. , the United States along with the Commonwealth of Nations) in the aftermath of World War II, particularly in the establishment and organization of the United Nations. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security English is one of the six official languages of the U.N., and, along with French, one of the two working languages; the other official ones are Arabic, Russian, Mandarin Chinese, and Spanish. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages

English is the dominant language of the United Kingdom, and therefore, as the UK became a colonial power, English served — and, to some extent, continues to serve — as the lingua franca of the Republic of Ireland, former colonies of the British Empire (including Australia, Belize, Canada, Malaysia, India, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Barbados, The Bahamas, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, the United States, and Vanuatu), present British territories (like Bermuda, Falkland Islands, and Saint Helena), former British territories (such as Hong Kong), U. Ireland ( Irish: Éire, ˈeːrʲə is a country in north-western Europe. The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Belize (bəˈliːz formerly British Honduras, is a country in Central America. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Barbados ( Portuguese word for bearded-ones, bɑrˈbeɪdoʊz -dɒs situated just east of the Caribbean Sea, is an independent Island nation The Bahamas, officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an independent sovereign English -speaking country consisting of two thousand Cays and Singapore The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Vanuatu, officially the Republic of Vanuatu ( French: République de Vanuatu, Bislama: Ripablik blong Vanuatu) is an Island Ba (officially The Bermuda Islands or The Somers Isles) is a British overseas territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. Saint Helena (pronounced saint he-LEE-na) named after St Helena of Constantinople, is an island of volcanic origin and a British overseas territory Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders S. territories (like Guam, Northern Marianas, Puerto Rico), Virgin Islands (both British and American), and the Philippines. Guam ( Chamorro: cha Guåhån) officially the Territory of Guam, is an island in the western Pacific Ocean and is an organized unincorporated The Northern Mariana Islands, officially the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI is a commonwealth in Political union with the United Puerto Rico (ˌpwertoˈriko officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ("Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" {{lang-en|"Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"}} See also Culture of the Virgin Islands Music of the Virgin Islands Virgin Islands Creole The British Virgin Islands ( BVI) is a British overseas territory, located in the Caribbean to the east of Puerto Rico. The United States Virgin Islands is a group of Islands in the Caribbean that are an Insular area of the United States. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP In many of these nations the use of English is seen as a means of avoiding the political difficulties inherent in promoting any individual indigenous language as the lingua franca.

The modern trend to use English outside of English-speaking countries has a number of sources. Ultimately, the use of English in a variety of locations across the globe is a consequence of the reach of the British Empire. But the establishment of English as an international lingua franca after World War II was mostly a result of the spread of English via cultural and technological exports from the United States as well as its embedding in international institutions; for instance, the seating and roll-call order in sessions of the United Nations and its organs is determined by English alphabetical order, and, while there are six official languages of the United Nations, only two (English and French) are working languages, and, in practice, English is the sole working language of most UN bodies. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security This is contributed to by the fact that UN headquarters, and the majority of UN bodies, are based in the United States.

English is also regarded by some as an unofficial global lingua franca owing to the economic, cultural, and geopolitical power of most of the developed Western nations in world financial and business institutions. The de facto status of English as the lingua franca in these countries has carried over globally as a result. English is also overwhelmingly dominant in scientific and technological communications, and all of the world's major scientific journals are published in English. For a broader class of publications which include scientific journals see Academic journal.

A landmark recognition of the dominance of English in Europe came in 1995 when, on the accession of Austria, Finland and Sweden, English joined French and German as one of the working languages of the European Commission. The European Commission (formally the Commission of the European Communities) is the executive branch of the European Union. Many Europeans outside of the EU have also adopted English as their current lingua franca. For example, English serves as a somewhat lingua franca in Switzerland, which has four official languages (German, French, Italian and Romansh, spoken by a relatively small minority). Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Romansh or Romansch may refer to Romansh language Romansh people German is also spoken by many Swiss citizens, but the relatively high foreign-born population (21 percent of residents) ensures a relatively wide use of English.

Other European languages

Greek and Latin

During the time of the Hellenistic civilization and Roman Empire, the linguae francae were Koine Greek and Latin. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Koine Greek (Κοινὴ Ἑλληνική, "common Greek" or, ciˈni ðiˈale̞kto̞s "the common dialect" is the popular form of Greek which emerged in Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. During the Middle Ages, the lingua franca was Greek in the parts of Europe, Middle East and Northern Africa where the Byzantine Empire held hegemony, and Latin was primarily used in the rest of Europe. Latin, for a significant portion of the expansion of the Roman Catholic Church, was used as the basis of the Church. This was later changed to local languages, although it is still the official language of the Vatican. Vatican City, officially the State of the Vatican City (Stato della Città del Vaticano is a Landlocked sovereign City-state whose territory

Sabir and Italian

Main article: Mediterranean Lingua Franca

Originally lingua Franca (or Sabir) referred to a mixed language composed mostly of Italian with a broad vocabulary drawn from Persian, French, Greek and Arabic. The Lingua franca of the Mediterranean or Sabir ("know" was a Pidgin language used as a Lingua franca in the Mediterranean Basin from A mixed language is a Language that arises through the fusion of two source languages normally in situations of thorough Bilingualism. Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Lingua Franca literally means "Frankish language". The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group This originated from the Arabic custom of referring to all Europeans as Franks. This mixed language was used for communication throughout the medieval and early modern Middle East as a diplomatic language; the generic description lingua franca has since become common for any language used by speakers of different languages to communicate with one another. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Some samples of Sabir have been preserved in Molière's comedy, Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, also known by his Stage name, Molière, ( January 15, 1622 – February 17 1673) was a French Comedy (from the Greek κωμωδίαkomodia has a popular meaning (any discourse generally intended to amuse especially in Television, Film, and Le Bourgeois gentilhomme ( The Bourgeois Gentleman) is a comédie-ballet - a Ballet interrupted by spoken dialogue - in five acts by

Italian dialects were spoken in medieval times as a lingua franca in the European commercial empires of Italian cities (Genoa, Venice, Florence, Milan, Pisa, Siena, Amalfi) and in their colonies located in the Middle East and in the Mediterranean sea. Genoa ( Genova, ˈdʒɛːnova in Italian; Zena in Genoese and Ligurian; Genua in Latin and archaically in English Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Pisa is a city in Tuscany, central Italy, on the right bank of the mouth of the Arno River on the Ligurian Sea. Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Siena. Amalfi is also a town in the Antioquia Departament in Colombia. During the Renaissance, Italian was also spoken as language of culture in the main royal courts of Europe and among intellectuals. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. The Italian language is still used as a lingua franca in some environments. For example, in the Catholic ecclesiastic hierarchy, Italian is known by a large part of members and is used in substitution of Latin in some official documents as well. The presence of Italian as the second official language in Vatican City indicates its use not only in the seat in Rome, but also anywhere in the world where an episcopal seat is present. Vatican City, officially the State of the Vatican City (Stato della Città del Vaticano is a Landlocked sovereign City-state whose territory Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2

Spanish

Spanish replaced Latin as the language of diplomacy and (in some aspects) culture during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, until it was replaced by French (from the Discovery of the Americas in 1492 till 1648). Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It was taken to Africa, the Americas, and Asia Pacific when the Spanish Empire was established between the 15th and 19th centuries. Spanish was used as lingua franca throughout the former Spanish Empire, particularly in Central and South America, and became the lingua franca of the Philippines in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Today, it is a lingua franca in most of the countries of The Americas. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America

It is spoken in the Americas from the United States to Argentina by some 400 million people as a first or second language. It is used as a lingua franca in Central America, South America, the European Union, North Africa, Equatorial Guinea, Philippines, etc. Today, between 400 and 500 million people natively speak Spanish, making it the world's second or third most-spoken language by native speakers (after Mandarin Chinese).

French

French was the language of diplomacy in Europe from the 17th century until its recent replacement by English, and as a result is still a working language of international institutions and is seen on documents ranging from passports to airmail letters. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting Negotiations between representatives of groups or states As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 17th Century was that Century which lasted from 1601 - 1700 in the Gregorian calendar For many years, until the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Denmark joined in 1973, French and German were the only official working languages of the European Economic Community. Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. The European Community (EC is one of the Three pillars of the European Union (EU created under the Maastricht Treaty (1992 French was also the lingua franca of European literature in the 18th century. Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system

French was also the language used among the educated in many cosmopolitan cities across the Middle East and North Africa. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan This was true in cities such as Cairo, around the turn of the 20th century until World War II, and especially in the French colonies of the Maghreb. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset French is particularly important in Algeria and its capital, Algiers. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Algiers (الجزائر Algerian Arabic: Dzayer ( (From kabyle pronunciation Kabyle: Ledzayer, Alger) is the Capital and largest Until the outbreak of the civil war in Lebanon, French was the language that the Christian members of the upper class of Lebanese society used. The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990 was a multifaceted Civil war whose antecedents can be traced back to the conflicts and political compromises reached after the end French is still a lingua franca in most Western and Central African countries (where it often enjoys official status), a remnant of the colonial rule of France and Belgium. West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. Central Africa is a core Region of the African Continent often considered to include Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those These African countries, together with several other countries throughout the world, are members of La Francophonie. La Francophonie is an international organisation of French-speaking countries and governments and in French, the community of French-speaking peoples French is the sole official language of the Universal Postal Union, and English was only added as a working language as late as 1994. The Universal Postal Union ( UPU, French: Union postale universelle) is an International organization that coordinates postal policies among member ^[1]

German

German served as a lingua franca in large portions of Europe for centuries, mainly the Holy Roman Empire (of the German Nation). The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in From about 1200 to 1600, Middle Low German was the language of the Hanseatic League which was present in most Northern European seaports, even London. Middle Low German ( ISO 639 -3 code gml) is a Language that is the descendant of Old Saxon and is the ancestor of modern Low German. The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade Later, variants of German were (or are) also used in the Americas and small parts of Asia, (Turkey, Russia, Kazakhstan). During the 19th and 20th centuries, Germany was leading in the sciences — particularly in physics, chemistry and sociology, winning many Nobel Prizes — and the language was also used in international business and politics. Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Since 1933, the politics of Nazi Germany caused the emigration of many scientists like Albert Einstein, or artists like Marlene Dietrich, mainly to the US, thus American English took over in these fields after 1945. Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical Marlene Dietrich maɐˈleːnə ˈdiːtrɪç (December 27 &ndashMay 6) was a German -born American Actress, Singer and Entertainer German was also spoken in much of Eastern Europe long after the end of World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including In some academic disciplines, most notably philosophy and theology, a reading knowledge of German is still considered essential and required of doctoral candidates by some universities all over the world, not just those in Europe. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective During the construction of the Snowy Mountains Scheme in Australia, German was the lingua franca for workers from central and east Europe. The Snowy Mountains Scheme is a Hydroelectricity and irrigation complex in south-east Australia

Polish

Polish was a kind of lingua franca in large areas of Central and Eastern Europe, especially regions that belonged to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth; this influence extend beyond the borders of the Commonwealth because of the state's considerable political and military power in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic Polish was for several centuries the main language spoken by the ruling classes in Lithuania and Ukraine, and the modern state of Belarus, but was also understood further south-east, for example in the Tatar Khanate, the Romanian lands and the Slav parts of Hungary. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east After the partitioning of Poland in the 1790s, the Russian language almost completely substituted Polish by the 20th century. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Even so, Polish is today still sometimes spoken or at least understood in the western border areas of Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and parts of northern Slovakia. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the

Portuguese

Portuguese served as lingua franca in Africa, South America and Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. Portuguese ( or língua portuguesa) is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain and northern Portugal. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a When the Portuguese started exploring the seas of Africa, America, Asia and Oceania, they tried to communicate with the natives by mixing a Portuguese-influenced version of Lingua Franca with the local languages. When English or French ships came to compete with the Portuguese, the crew tried to learn this "broken Portuguese". Through a process of change the Lingua Franca and Portuguese lexicon was replaced with the languages of the people in contact.

Portuguese remains an important lingua franca in Africa (PALOP), Macau, East Timor, and to a certain extent in South America because Brazil is the largest and most populous country in Latin America. See also CPLP Geographic distribution of Portuguese Portuguese language For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Macau topics. East Timor, also known as Timor-Leste (officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste) is a country in Southeast Asia. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld

Russian

Russian is in use and widely understood in areas of Central and Eastern Europe and Northern and Central Asia formerly part of the Soviet Union, or of the former Soviet bloc. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were Its use in Central and Eastern Europe has declined dramatically since the fall of communism, but it remains the lingua franca in the Commonwealth of Independent States. "Fall of Communism" redirects here For the fall of the Soviet Union itself see History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991. Recent migrations from the former Soviet Union made Russian one of the most spoken languages in Israel.

Asian languages

Arabic

Arabic, the native language of the Arabs, who originally came from the Arabian Peninsula, became the "lingua franca" of the Islamic Empire (Arab Empire) (from AD 700 - AD 1492), which at a certain point spread from the borders of China and Northern India through Central Asia, Persia, Asia Minor, Middle East, North Africa all the way to Spain and Portugal in the west. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Geography Northern India lies mainly on continental India and a very small part of it lies on the Indian peninsula Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula.

Arabic was also used by people neighboring the Islamic Empire. During the Islamic Golden Age, Arabic was the language of science and diplomacy (around 1200 AD), when more books were written in Arabic than in any other language in the world at that time period. It influenced African sub-Saharan languages, east African languages, such as Swahili and loaned many words to Persian, Turkish, Urdu and to significant extent on European languages such as Spanish and Portuguese, countries it ruled for 700 years (see Al-Andalus). Swahili (called Kiswahili in the language itself is the First language of the Swahili people (Waswahili who inhabit several large stretches Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised Arabic influence on the Spanish language has been significant due to the Islamic presence in the Iberian peninsula between 711 and 1492 A A Açafate ( assafat) Açafrão ( azzafaran) Acéquia ( assekyah) Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or It also had some influence over the English language. Star names are not included in this article For star names please see List of Arabic star names, List of traditional star names, and other articles listed

Arabic script was adopted by many other languages such as Urdu, Persian, Swahili (changed to Latin in the late 19th century) and Turkish which switched to Latin script in 1928. The Arabic alphabet is the script used for writing several languages of Asia and Africa such as Arabic, Persian, and Urdu. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised Swahili (called Kiswahili in the language itself is the First language of the Swahili people (Waswahili who inhabit several large stretches Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Arabic became the lingua franca of these regions mainly because it is the language of the Qur’an, Islam's holy book. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Arabic remains as the lingua franca for 22 countries (24 if one was to include occupied Palestine and Western Sahara), in the Middle East and North Africain addition to Chad. Official languages of supra-national institutions See List of official languages by institution. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. Despite a few language script conversions from Arabic to Latin as just described, Arabic still is the second most widely used alphabetic system in the world after Latin. ^[2] Arabic script is/has been used in languages including Hausa, Kashmiri, Kazak, Kurdish, Kyrghyz, Malay, Morisco, Pashto, Persian/Farsi, Punjabi, Sindhi, Tatar, Turkish, Uyghur. Kashmiri (कॉशुर کٲشُر Koshur) is a Dardic language spoken primarily in the valley of Kashmir, a region situated in the Indian state The Kyrgyz (also spelled Kirgiz, Kirghiz) are a Turkic Ethnic group found primarily in Kyrgyzstan. The Malay language ( ISO 639-1 code MS is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people and people of other ethnic groups who reside in the A morisco (Spanish " Moor -like" or mourisco (Portuguese was any Muslim of Spain or Portugal Pashto ( Naskh: پښتو‎ pəʂ'to also rendered as Pakhto, Pushto, Pukhto, Pashtu, Pushtu, also known as Punjabi may refer to The Punjabi language of Pakistan and India Punjabi grammar List of Punjabi Tatars ( Tatar: Tatarlar/Татарлар sometimes spelled Tartars, are a Turkic -speaking ethnic group or multiple ethnic groups Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. ^[3]

According to Encarta, which classified Chinese as a single language, Arabic is perceived to be the second largest language among first-time speakers. This is a list of languages, ordered by the number of native-language speakers, with some data for second-language use ^[4] Used by more than a billion Muslims around the world,^[5] it is also one of the six official languages of the United Nations. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security ^[6]

Aramaic

Aramaic, the native language of the Arameans, became the lingua franca of the Assyrian Empire and the western provinces of the Persian Empire, mainly because of its simple, alphabetic writing system (of which the modern Hebrew alphabet is little more than a stylized form), more useful in administration than cuneiform. Aramaic is a Semitic language with The Aramaeans (also Arameans) ( Aramaic / Syriac: ܐܪܡܝܐ, Ārāmāye' were a Semitic (West Semitic language group Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia An alphabet is a standardized set of letters basic written symbols each of which roughly represents a Phoneme, a Spoken language, either The Aramaic alphabet is an Abjad, a Consonantal Alphabet, used for writing Aramaic. The Hebrew alphabet (אָלֶף-בֵּית עִבְרִי alephbet ’ivri) consists of 22 letters used for writing the Hebrew language.

Azeri

According to the Russian historian Nikolai Trubetzkoy, Azeri served as a lingua franca throughout most parts of Transcaucasia (except the Black Sea coast), in Eastern Anatolia, Iranian Azerbaijan, and Southern Dagestan. Prince Nikolai Sergeyevich Trubetzkoy (also Trubetskoy) ( Russian: Николай Сергеевич Трубецкой ( Moscow, April 15, The South Caucasus is a mountainous geopolitical area of south-central Eurasia, also referred to as Transcaucasia, or The Transcaucasus. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey This article is about the region in Iran for other uses see Azerbaijan (disambiguation. The Republic of Dagestan dæɡɪˈstɑːn (IntEng ˈdeɪɡəstæn (AmEng (Респу́блика Дагеста́н Дагъистанлъул ДжумхIурият Daɣistanłul ^[7]

Bengali

Further information: Bengali language

Bengali or Bangla, is commonly spoken in Bangladesh and India (especially in the states of West Bengal and Tripura). It is the official language and lingua franca of Bangladesh. ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially In India, Bengali is the official language of West Bengal state; an official language of Tripura (along with Khokborok) and Assam (along with Assamese) states. Assam) ( Assamese: অসম Ôxôm) is a northeastern state of India with its capital at Dispur, a suburb of the city The language is also one of several official languages of the Republic of India, being the second most spoken language (as mother tongue) among Indians, after Hindi. It has been derived from Sanskrit.

Cebuano

In the Philippines, Cebuano is spoken natively by the inhabitants of Cebu, Bohol, Negros Oriental and some parts of Leyte and the Samar islands and throughout Mindanao. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Cebu is one of the Provinces of the Philippines. It lies to the east of Negros Island; to the west of Leyte and to the southeast is Bohol For the island see Bohol Island. Bohol is an island province of the Philippines located in the Central Negros Oriental (also called Oriental Negros) is a province of the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region. For other uses please see Samar (disambiguation. Samar, formerly Western Samar, is a province in the Philippines Mindanao is the second largest and easternmost Island in the Philippines. It is also spoken in a few towns and islands in Samar. Until 1975, Cebuano surpassed Tagalog in terms of number of native speakers. Tagalog is one of the major languages used in the Philippines. Some dialects of Cebuano give different names to the language. Residents of Bohol may refer to Cebuano as "Bol-anon" while Cebuano-speakers in Leyte may call their dialect "Kana".

Chinese

Classical Chinese previously served as both a written lingua franca and diplomatic language in Far East Asia, used by China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, the Ryukyus, and Vietnam in interstate communications. Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of Written Chinese based on the Grammar and Vocabulary of ancient Chinese China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The Ryukyu Islands, in Japanese called the (literally Southwest Islands are a chain of Japanese islands in the western Pacific Ocean at the eastern limit Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially In the early 20th century Classical Chinese in China was replaced by modern written Standard Chinese. Vernacular Chinese is a style or register of the Written Chinese Language essentially modeled after the spoken language and associated with Currently, among most Chinese-speaking communities, Standard Mandarin serves the function of providing a common spoken language between speakers of different and mutually unintelligible Chinese spoken languages - not to mention between the Han Chinese and other ethnic groups in China. Standard Mandarin, also known as Standard Spoken Chinese, is the official modern Chinese spoken language used in mainland China and Taiwan In Linguistics, mutual intelligibility is recognized as a relationship between Languages in which speakers of different but related languages can readily understand Spoken Chinese ( comprises many regional variants the largest of which are Mandarin, Wu, Cantonese, and Min. Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Written Chinese has also been used as a way of communication through these character-using countries. Written Chinese comprises the written symbols used to represent Spoken Chinese and the rules about how they are arranged and punctuated Chinese is also a lingua franca of Hong Kong, Macau, the ethnic Chinese population in Singapore and to a lesser extent the ethnic Chinese population in Malaysia. Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Macau topics. Singapore For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and

Filipino

Further information: Filipino language

Filipino, a standardized variety of Tagalog, serves as a lingua franca throughout the Philippines archipelago together with some Spanish words and English language. Filipino is the national and an Official language of the Philippines as designated in the 1987 Philippine Constitution. Filipino is the national and an Official language of the Philippines as designated in the 1987 Philippine Constitution. Tagalog is one of the major languages used in the Philippines. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States In the southern regions though, the Cebuano language and English Language is more used as a lingua franca than Filipino. "Cebuano" redirects here For the inhabitants of Cebu see Cebuano people Cebuano (Cebuano Sinugbuanon, "language English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States

Korean

Further information: Korean language

Korean is spoken across the whole Korean Peninsula and is one of the ten most spoken languages in the world. This article is mainly about the spoken Korean language See Hangul for details on the native Korean writing system This article is mainly about the spoken Korean language See Hangul for details on the native Korean writing system Physical geography See also Geography of North Korea, Geography of South Korea Mountains cover 70 percent of the Korean Peninsula and arable plains are ^[8] It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in China. Administration The prefecture is subdivided into eight county-level divisions: six County-level cities and two counties: Yanji Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES There are about 80 million Korean speakers, with large groups in Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Japan, the United States, CIS (post-Soviet states), and more recently the Philippines. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The post-Soviet states, also commonly known as former Soviet republics, are the 15 independent nations that split off from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP

Hindi - Urdu

Further information: Hindustani language

Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu, is commonly spoken in India and Pakistan. Hindustani (हिन्दुस्तानी ہندوستانی Hindustānī, hɪn̪d̪ʊst̪aːniː also known as " Hindi-Urdu," is a term covering Hindustani (हिन्दुस्तानी ہندوستانی Hindustānī, hɪn̪d̪ʊst̪aːniː also known as " Hindi-Urdu," is a term covering Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised It encompasses two standardized registers in the form of the official languages of Hindi and Urdu, as well as several nonstandard dialects. A standard language (also standard dialect, standardized dialect, or standardised dialect) is a particular variety of a Language that In Linguistics, a register is a subset of a Language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised A nonstandard dialect is a Dialect that does not have the institutional support or sanction that a standardized dialect has Hindi is one of the official languages of India, and Urdu is the official language and lingua franca of Pakistan. Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Urdu is also an official language in India. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country However, whilst the words and much of the speaking may sound similar, the writing styles are completely different, both using different charactersets altogether.

Ilokano

Ilokano is natively spoken in Ilocos Region, northwest Philippines. The Ilocos Region or Region I ( Ilokano: Rehion ti Ilokos, Pangasinan: Rihiyon na Sagor na Baybay na Luzon) of the Philippines Ilokanos migrated to Batanes, Cordillera, Cagayan Valley, and Pangasinan until it is now the lingua franca of northern Philippines. The Ilocano or Ilokano people are the third largest Filipino Ethnolinguistic group The Province of Batanes is the northernmost and the smallest province of the Philippine Republic, both in terms of population and land area Cagayan Valley ( Lambak ng Cagayan in Filipino) is a region of the Philippines, also designated as Region II or Pangasinan is one of the provinces of the Republic of the Philippines.

Malay

In the 14th century, during the Malacca Sultanate, Malay was used as a lingua franca in the Malay archipelago, by the locals as much as by the traders and artisans that stopped at Malacca via the Straits of Malacca. The Sultanate of Malacca was founded by Parameswara in 1402 and later married the princess of Pasai in 1409. The Malay language ( ISO 639-1 code MS is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people and people of other ethnic groups who reside in the The Malay Archipelago is a name given to the Archipelago located between mainland Southeastern Asia ( Indochina) and Australia. The Strait of Malacca is a narrow 805 km (500 mile stretch of water between Peninsular Malaysia (West Malaysia) and the Indonesian island of Sumatra

Nowadays, Malay is used mostly in Malaysia (officially called Bahasa Malaysia) and Brunei, as well as - but to a lesser extent in - Singapore (one of their four official languages; a "street" version of Malay - Baba Malay was the lingua franca in Singapore prior to the introduction of English as a working and instructional language, and remains so for the elder generation). The Malay language ( ISO 639-1 code MS is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people and people of other ethnic groups who reside in the For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and The Malay language ( ISO 639-1 code MS is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people and people of other ethnic groups who reside in the Brunei Darussalam, (bruːˈnaɪ in English officially the State of Brunei Abode of Peace (Negara Brunei Darussalam Jawi: برني دارالسلام Singapore The Malay language, through its history has experienced both pidginization and creolization

However, Indonesian, a standardized variety of Malay, serves as a lingua franca throughout Indonesia and East Timor. Indonesian or Bahasa Indonesia, based on the Riau version of Malay language, was declared the official language with the declaration of The Malay language ( ISO 639-1 code MS is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people and people of other ethnic groups who reside in the The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. East Timor, also known as Timor-Leste (officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste) is a country in Southeast Asia. While Indonesia counts several hundred different languages, Indonesian, the official language of Indonesia, is their vehicular language. Indonesian or Bahasa Indonesia, based on the Riau version of Malay language, was declared the official language with the declaration of

Persian

Further information: Persian language

Persian served as the lingua franca of the eastern Islamic world and became the second lingua franca of the Islamic World. ^[9] Besides serving as the state and administrative language in many Islamic dynasties, some of which included Samanids, Ghurids, Ghaznavids, Ilkhanids, Seljuqids, Moguls and early Ottomans, Persian cultural and political forms, and often the Persian language were used by the cultural elites from the Balkans to India. The Samanids (819–999 ( Sāmāniyān) were a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan, named after its founder Saman The Ghurids (or Ghorids; self-designation Shansabānī) ( were a Persian Sunni - Ismaili Muslim dynasty in Khorasan The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Sunni Muslim state founded by a dynasty of Turkic Mamluk. The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in The Seljuq (also Seljuq Turks, Seldjuks, Seldjuqs, Seljuks; in Turkish Selçuklular; in Ṣaljūqīyān; in The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish ^[10] Arnold Joseph Toynbee's assessment of the role of the Persian language is worth quoting in more detail:

In the Iranic world, before it began to succumb to the process of Westernization, the New Persian language, which had been fashioned into literary form in mighty works of art. This page is about the universal historian Arnold Joseph Toynbee for the economic historian Arnold Toynbee see this article. . . gained a currency as a lingua franca; and at its widest, about the turn of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries of the Christian Era, its range in this role extended, without a break, across the face of South-Eastern Europe and South-Western Asia. ^[11]

Persian remains the lingua franca in its native homelands of Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan and was the lingua franca of India before the British conquest. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of It is still understood by many intellectuals of India and Pakistan. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and

Persian has also exerted some influence on the English language. As Indo-European languages, English and Persian have many words of common Proto-Indo-European origin and many of these Cognate words often have

Sanskrit

Further information: Sanskrit

Sanskrit was widely used across South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia and Central Asia at various times in ancient and medieval history; it has religious significance for all those religious traditions that arose from the Vedic religion. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation.

African languages

Afrikaans

Afrikaans is considered to be the most learned language native to the African continent. Afrikaans is an Indo-European language, derived from 17th century Dutch and classified as Low Franconian Germanic, mainly spoken in The vast majority of scholarly works and publications that are written in a native African language are done in Afrikaans. Afrikaans is an Indo-European language, derived from 17th century Dutch and classified as Low Franconian Germanic, mainly spoken in Afrikaans has several million native speakers, particularly in the country of South Africa. Afrikaans is an Indo-European language, derived from 17th century Dutch and classified as Low Franconian Germanic, mainly spoken in The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Aside from being a native language for many millions in the Boer and Coloured communities in South Africa, it is also spoken as a second language by many millions of people, securing its place as an African lingua franca. Boer (ˈbuːr in Dutch ˈbʊɚ/ /boʊɚ or /ˈbɔr/ in English is the Dutch word for Farmer which came to denote the descendants of the proto Afrikaans In the South African Namibian Zambian Botswanan and Zimbabwean context the term Coloured (also known as Bruinmense Among the finest universities in Africa teach courses in Afrikaans and several also use it as an official language with English. Afrikaans is an Indo-European language, derived from 17th century Dutch and classified as Low Franconian Germanic, mainly spoken in English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Among these are Stellenbosch and University of Witwatersrand. Stellenbosch (ˈstɛlənbɒs is the second oldest European settlement in the Western Cape Province, South Africa after Cape Town, and is situated The University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg is a leading South African University situated in the northern areas of central Johannesburg.

Hausa

Hausa is widely spoken through Nigeria and Niger and recognised in neighbouring states (Ghana, Benin, Cameroon etc). The Republic of Ghana is a country in West Africa. It borders Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast to the west Burkina Faso to the north Togo to the Benin (bə'nɪn officially the Republic of Benin, and also known as Benin Republic, is a country in Western Africa. The Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central and western Africa. The reason for this is that Hausa people used to be traders who led caravans with goods (cotton, leather, slaves, food crops etc. ) through the whole West African region, from the Niger Delta to the Atlantic shores at the very west edge of Africa. They also reached North African states through Trans-Saharan routes. Thus trade deals in Timbuktu in modern Mali, Agadez, Ghat, Fez in Northern Africa, and other trade centers were often concluded in Hausa. Timbuktu ( Timbuctoo; Koyra Chiini: Tumbutu; French: Tombouctou) is a city in Tombouctou Region, in the West African Agadez (also Agades) is the largest city in northern Niger, with a population of 88569 (2005 census For the Indian mountains see Ghats. Ghat (غات is a city in the municipality of Ghat in remote south-western Libya Fes or Fez ( Arabic: فاس, French Fès is the fourth largest City in Morocco, after Casablanca, Rabat

Swahili

Swahili is used throughout large parts of East Africa as a lingua franca, despite being the mother tongue of a relatively small ethnic group on the East African coast and nearby islands in the Indian Ocean. Swahili (called Kiswahili in the language itself is the First language of the Swahili people (Waswahili who inhabit several large stretches East Africa is the Easternmost Region of the African Continent. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface At least as early as the late eighteenth century, Swahili was used along trading and slave routes that extended west across Lake Tanganyika and into the present-day Democratic Republic of Congo. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (République démocratique du Congo often referred to as DR Congo, DRC or RDC, and formerly known or referred to Swahili rose in prominence throughout the colonial era, and has become the predominant African language of Tanzania and Kenya. Tanzania ˌtænzəˈniːə officially the United Republic of Tanzania (Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south Some contemporary members of non-Swahili ethnic groups speak Swahili more often than their mother tongues, and many choose to raise their children with Swahili as their first language, leading to the possibility that several smaller East African languages will fade as Swahili transitions from being a regional lingua franca to a regional first language. A first language (also mother tongue, native language, arterial language, or L1) is the language a human being learns from birth

Zulu

South Africa has eleven official languages, however the mutual intelligibility of many Nguni languages (Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi and Ndebele) has meant that Zulu is increasingly becoming a lingua franca throughout Eastern South Africa, including the major cities of Durban and Johannesburg. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa South Africa has 11 Official languages South Africa also recognises eight non-official languages as " National languages quot Nguni languages are mostly spoken by Nguni people, which are group of clans and nations living in south-east Africa Zulu (called isiZulu in Zulu is a Language of the Zulu people with about 10 million speakers the vast majority (over 95% of whom live in South Zulu is the first language of ten million people, but is spoken as a second language by over 25 million in the region and is now the most commonly understood language in the country.

Fula

Fula, also known as Pulaar or Fulfulde depending on the region, is the language of the Fula people – who in turn are known under the various names of Fula or Fulani or Peuls or Fulbe or Fulɓe or Toucouleur. The Fula language is a language of West Africa, spoken by the Ful{{IPA|ɓ}}e (Fula or Fulani people from Senegambia and Guinea to The Fula or Fulbe or Fulani (the latter being an Anglicisation of the word in their language Fulɓe) are an ethnic group of The Fula or Fulbe or Fulani (the latter being an Anglicisation of the word in their language Fulɓe) are an ethnic group of The Toucouleurs (or Haalpulaaren) are a Fula agricultural people who live primarily in the north of Senegal (where they comprise 10% of the population Fula is spoken in all countries directly south of the Sahara (north of Cameroon, Chad, Nigeria, Niger, Mali…). The Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central and western Africa. Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. It is spoken mainly by Fula people, but is also used as a lingua franca by several populations of various origin, throughout Western Africa.

Manding

The largely interintelligible Manding languages of West Africa serve as lingua francas in various places. The Manding languages are a fairly mutually intelligible group of dialects or languages in West Africa, belonging to the Mande languages. For instance Bambara is the most widely spoken language in Mali, and Jula (almost the same as Bambara) is commonly used in western Burkina Faso and northern Cote d'Ivoire. Bambara, also known as Bamanankan in the language itself is a Language spoken in Mali by as many as six million people (including second language users Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. Dioula ( Dyula) is a Mande language spoken in Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire. Burkina Faso (bɚˌkiːnəˈfɑːsoʊ burr-KEE-na FAH-soh) also known by its short-form name Burkina, is a Landlocked nation in West Africa Côte d'Ivoire (ˌkoʊt divˈwɑː(r ' in English, kot diˈvwaʀ in French) or Ivory Coast, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a Manding languages have long been used in regional commerce, so much so that the word for trader, jula, was applied to the language currently known by the same name. Other varieties of Manding are used in several other countries, such as Guinea, The Gambia, and Senegal. Guinea, officially Republic of Guinea (pronounced /ˈgɪni/ République de Guinée is a country in West Africa, formerly known as French Guinea Senegal (le Sénégal officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country south of the Sénégal River in western Africa.

Sango

The Sango language is a lingua franca developed for intertribal trading in the Central African Republic. Central Africa|Central African FederationThe Central African Republic ( CAR) République Centrafricaine ʀepyblik sɑ̃tʀafʀikɛn or Centrafrique) is a Landlocked It is based on the Northern Ngbandi language spoken by the Sango people of the Democratic Republic of the Congo but with a large vocabulary of French loan words.

Wolof

Wolof is a more widely spoken lingua franca of The Gambia and Senegal, although English and French, the official languages of The Gambia and Senegal, are the lingua francas of the urban areas of the 2 countries.

Amerindian languages

Mobilian Jargon

The Mobilian Trade Language was developed and used along the Gulf Coast from Florida to Texas. Mobilian Jargon (also Mobilian trade language, Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Choctaw trade language, Yamá) was a Pidgin used as It was a creole named for the Mabila (Mobile) tribe, which spoke Alibamu (Alabama), but it was more based on Choctaw. The Alabama or Alibamu ( Albaamaha in the Alabama language) are a Southeastern culture people of Native Americans. The Choctaw language, traditionally spoken by the Native American Choctaw people of the southeastern United States, is a member of the Muskogean

Tupi

The Tupi language served as the lingua franca of Brazil among speakers of the various indigenous languages, mainly in the coastal regions. Old Tupi or Classical Tupi is an extinct Tupian language which was spoken by the native Tupi people of Brazil, mostly those who lived close Tupi as a lingua franca, and as recorded in colonial books, was in fact a creation of the Portuguese, who assembled it from the similarities between the coastal indigenous Tupi-guarani languages. The language served the Jesuit priests as a way to teach natives, and it was widely spoken by Europeans. It was the predominant language spoken in Brazil until 1758, when the Jesuits were expelled from Brazil by the Portuguese government and the use and teaching of Tupi was banned. ^[12] Since then, Tupi as Lingua Franca was quickly replaced by Portuguese, although Tupi-guarani family languages are still spoken by small native groups in Brazil.

Quechua

As the Inca empire rose to prominence in South America, the imperial language Quechua became the most widely spoken language in the western regions of the continent. The Inca Empire (or Inka Empire) was the largest empire in Pre-Columbian America. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. Even among tribes that were not absorbed by the empire Quechua still became an important language for trade because of the empire's influence. Even after the Spanish conquest of Peru Quechua for a long time was the most common language. The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was a process through which a group of forty (40 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro succeeded in toppling the Inca Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. Today it is still widely spoken although it has given way to Spanish as the more common lingua franca. It is spoken by some 10 million people through much of South America (mostly in Peru, south-western and central Bolivia, southern Colombia and Ecuador, north-western Argentina and northern Chile).

Pidgins and creoles

Further information: Pidgin and Creole language. A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common in situations such as Trade A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin.

Various pidgin languages have been used in many locations and times as a common trade speech. A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common in situations such as Trade They can be based on English, French, Chinese, or indeed any other language. A pidgin is defined by its use as a lingua franca, between populations speaking other mother tongues. When a pidgin becomes a population's first language, then it is called a creole language. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin.

Tok Pisin

Tok Pisin is largely spoken in Papua New Guinea as a lingua franca. Tok Pisin ( tok means "word" or "speech" as in "talk" pisin means " Pidgin " is a creole spoken throughout Papua New Guinea (or ˈpæpjuːə in Tok Pisin: Papua Niugini) officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania It developed as an English-based creole with influences from local languages and to a smaller extent German or Unserdeutsch and Portuguese. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Unserdeutsch ("Our German" or Rabaul Creole German, is a German-based creole language spoken primarily in Papua New Guinea and the northeast Portuguese ( or língua portuguesa) is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain and northern Portugal. Tok Pisin originated as a pidgin in the 19th century, hence the name 'Tok Pisin' from 'Talk Pidgin', but has now evolved into a modern language. A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common in situations such as Trade

Also called Pidgin English, this Lingua Franca is also spoken in the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. The versions of Pidgin vary between PNG, the Solomons and Vanuatu, but all Pidgin speakers from these countries are able to communicate and often understand each others language variations.

Pidgin English is derived from Australian English and its idioms, so an understanding of vernacular Australian English is often helpful in understanding the origins and application of Pidgin English.

Guinea-Bissau Creole

Guinea-Bissau Creole is a Portuguese Creole used as a lingua franca of Guinea-Bissau and Casamance, Senegal among people of different ethnic groups. Bissau-Guinean Creole or (native name kriol or kiriol varying with dialects crioulo da Guiné in Portuguese) is a language spoken by 60% This article is about Portuguese-based Creole languages See Creole peoples for the Portuguese Creole ethnicity The Republic of Guinea-Bissau (ˈgɪni bɨˈsaʊ República da Guiné-Bissau ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɐ giˈnɛ biˈsau is a country in Western Africa, and one of the smallest Casamance ( Casamança) is the area of Senegal south of The Gambia including the Casamance River. Senegal (le Sénégal officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country south of the Sénégal River in western Africa. It is also the mother tongue of many people in Guinea-Bissau.

See also

• Auxiliary language
• Business English
• Global English
• International auxiliary language
• Language contact
• Lingua Franca Nova
• Mixed language
• Universal language
• World language

References

Further reading

• Heine, Bernd (1970). Status and Use of African Lingua Francas. ISBN 3-8039-0033-6
• Kahane, Henry Romanos (1958). The Lingua Franca in the Levant.
• R. A. Hall, Jr. (1966). Pidgin and Creole Languages, Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0173-9.
• MELATTI, Julio Cezar (1983). Índios do Brasil. São Paulo:Hucitec Press, 48^th edition

External links

• English - the universal language on the Internet?

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