Limestone cropping at São Pedro de Moel beach, Marinha Grande, Portugal. São Pedro de Moel is a beach community near to the city of Marinha Grande in the district of Leiria, Portugal. Marinha Grande ( pron mɐ'ɾiɲɐ 'gɾɐ̃d(ɨ is a municipality in the district of Leiria, Portugal.

Iron impregnations in limestone

A stratigraphic section of Ordovician limestone exposed in central Tennessee, USA. The Ordovician is a geologic period and system, the second of six of the Paleozoic era, and covers the time between 488 Tennessee ( is a state located in the Southern United States. The less-resistant and thinner beds are composed of shale

Thin-section view of a Middle Jurassic limestone in southern Utah. Shale (also called mudstone) is a fine-grained Sedimentary rock whose original constituents were Clay minerals or Muds It is characterized by The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about Ma (million years ago to  Ma that is from the end of the Triassic to the beginning The round grains are ooids; the largest is 1. Ooids are small ( Sedimentary grains usually composed of Calcium carbonate, but sometimes made up of Iron 2 mm in diameter. This limestone is an oosparite.

Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate: CaCO₃). Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock types (the others being igneous and Metamorphic rock) A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of Calcium carbonate ( Ca[[carbon C]] O 3 Calcium carbonate is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula Ca[[Carbon C]] O 3

Description

Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or flint, as well as varying amounts of clay, silt and sand as disseminations, nodules, or layers within the rock. The Chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica or silox (from the Latin " Silex " is an Oxide Chert (ˈtʃɝt is a fine-grained Silica -rich Microcrystalline, Cryptocrystalline or Microfibrous Sedimentary rock that may contain Flint (or flintstone) is a hard sedimentary Cryptocrystalline form of the Mineral Quartz, categorized as a variety of Chert Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and Silt is Soil or rock derived Granular material of a Grain size between sand and clay Sand is a naturally occurring Granular material composed of finely divided rock and Mineral particles The primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Marine biology is the scientific study of living Organisms in the Ocean or other marine or Brackish bodies of water These organisms secrete shells that settle out of the water column and are deposited on ocean floors as pelagic ooze or alternatively is conglomerated in a coral reef (see lysocline for information on calcite dissolution). An ocean (from Greek, ''Okeanos'' (Oceanus) is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the Hydrosphere. Any water in the sea that is not close to the bottom is in the pelagic zone. The lysocline is a term used in Geology, Geochemistry and Marine biology to denote the depth in the Ocean below which the rate of dissolution Secondary calcite may also be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater that precipitates the material in caves). The term supersaturation refers to a Solution that contains more of the dissolved material than could be dissolved by the Solvent under normal circumstances Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary Groundwater is Water located beneath the Ground surface in Soil pore spaces and in the Fractures of lithologic formations Precipitation is the formation of a Solid in a Solution during a Chemical reaction. A cave is a natural underground void large enough for a human to enter This produces speleothems such as stalagmites and stalactites. A speleothem (from the Greek for "cave deposit" commonly known as a cave formation, is a secondary mineral deposit formed in a Cave. A stalagmite (from the Greek stalagma ("Σταλαγμίτης" "drop" or "drip" is a A stalactite ( Greek stalaktites, (Σταλακτίτης from the word for "drip" and meaning "that which drips" is a type of Speleothem Another form taken by calcite is that of oolites (oolitic limestone) which can be recognized by its granular appearance. Oolite ( egg stone) is a Sedimentary rock formed from Ooids spherical grains composed of concentric layers

Limestone makes up about 10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks. ^[1][2] Limestones may also form in both lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments^[3][4]. Evaporites (iˈvæpəraɪt are water-soluble Mineral sediments that result from the Evaporation of bodies of surficial Water. In geology sedimentary depositional environment describes the combination of physical chemical and biological processes associated with the deposition of a particular type of sediment

Calcite can be either dissolved by groundwater or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Solvation, commonly called dissolution, is the process of attraction and association of Molecules of a Solvent with molecules or Ions of a Precipitation is the formation of a Solid in a Solution during a Chemical reaction. In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge Calcite exhibits an unusual characteristic called retrograde solubility in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases.

When conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together or it can fill fractures.

Karst topography and caves develop in carbonate rocks due to their solubility in dilute acidic groundwater. Karst topography is a landscape shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble Bedrock, usually Carbonate rock such as Limestone Topography ( topo-, "place" and graphia, "writing" is the study of Earth 's Surface features or those of Planets A cave is a natural underground void large enough for a human to enter Solubility is the characteristic Physical property referring to the ability of a given substance the Solute, to dissolve in a Solvent. In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are Groundwater is Water located beneath the Ground surface in Soil pore spaces and in the Fractures of lithologic formations Cooling groundwater or mixing of different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation.

Coastal limestones are often eroded by organisms which bore into the rock by various means. This process is known as bioerosion. Bioerosion describes the Erosion of hard ocean substrates by living organisms by a number of mechanisms It is most common in the tropics, and it is known throughout the fossil record (see Taylor and Wilson, 2003). FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system.

Because of impurities, such as clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide and other materials, many limestones exhibit different colors, especially on weathered surfaces. Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and Altogether there are sixteen known Iron Oxides and oxyhydroxides Weathering is the decomposition of earth rocks, Soils and their Minerals through direct contact with the planet's Atmosphere. Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock. Quartz (from German) is the most abundant Mineral in the Earth 's Continental crust (although Feldspar is more common in Dolomite (ˈdɒləmaɪt is the name of a Sedimentary Carbonate rock and a Mineral, both composed Baryte ( Ba[[Sulfur S]] O 4 is a Mineral consisting of Barium sulfate. Folk and Dunham classifications are used to describe limestones more precisely. The Folk classification, devised by R L Folk in 1959 is a technical descriptive classification of Calcareous Sedimentary rocks. The Dunham classification system for carbonate Sedimentary rocks was devised by Kingsley Charles Dunham in 1964 and refined by Embry and

Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly where there are waterfalls and around hot or cold springs. Travertine is a Sedimentary rock. It is a natural chemical precipitate of Carbonate minerals; typically Aragonite, but often recrystallized to A hot spring is a spring that is produced by the emergence of geothermally heated Groundwater from the earth's crust. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the water leaves a solution that is supersaturated with chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls. Tufa article--> Tufa is the name for an unusual geological Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. For the variety of clam see Donax. Coquina ( Spanish, "cockle" koʊˈkiːnə is an incompletely consolidated Corals are Marine organisms from the class Anthozoa and exist as small Sea anemone –like Polyps typically in colonies of many

During regional metamorphism that occurs during the mountain building process (orogeny) limestone recrystallizes into marble. Metamorphism can be defined as the solid state recrystallisation of pre-existing rocks due to changes in heat and/or pressure and/or introduction of fluids i Orogeny (Greek for "mountain generating" is the process of natural Mountain building and may be studied as a tectonic structural event as a geographical event and Marble is a nonfoliated Metamorphic rock resulting from the Metamorphism of Limestone, composed mostly of Calcite (a crystalline form of

Limestone is a parent material of Mollisol soil group. Parent material, in Soil science, means the underlying geological material (generally Bedrock or a superficial or drift deposit in which Soil horizons Mollisols are a soil order in USA soil taxonomy. Mollisols form in semi-arid to semi-humid areas typically under a Grassland cover Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel

Limestone landscape

Main article: Karst topography

Limestone is partially soluble, especially in acid, and therefore forms many erosional landforms. Karst topography is a landscape shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble Bedrock, usually Carbonate rock such as Limestone In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind These include limestone pavements, pot holes, cenotes, caves and gorges. A limestone pavement is a natural Karst landform consisting of a flat incised surface of exposed Limestone that resembles an artificial pavement Potholing can also be the sport of exploring vertical caves as a synonym of Caving. A cenote (pronounced in Mexican Spanish and in English, plural cenotes; from Yucatec Maya dzonot) is a type of Sinkhole A cave is a natural underground void large enough for a human to enter For the song see CANYONMID. For the band see Canyon (band. A canyon (rarely cañon) or gorge Such erosion landscapes are known as karsts. Limestone is less resistant than most igneous rocks, but more resistant than most other sedimentary rocks. Geological resistance is a measure of how well Minerals resist erosive factors and is primarily based on hardness, Chemical reactivity and cohesion Igneous rocks (etymology from Latin ignis, fire are rocks formed by solidification of cooled Magma (molten rock Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock types (the others being igneous and Metamorphic rock) Limestone is therefore usually associated with hills and downland and occurs in regions with other sedimentary rocks, typically clays. A downland is an area of open Chalk Hills This term is especially used to describe the Chalk countryside in southern England. Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and

Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 An island (ˈaɪlənd or isle (/ˈaɪl/ is any piece of land that is completely surrounded by water in two dimensions above high tide and isolated from other significant Examples include the Burren in Co. The Burren ( Boirinn is the modern form used by the Ordnance Survey) is a unique Karst -landscape region in northwest County Clare, Clare, Ireland; the Verdon Gorge in France; Malham Cove in North Yorkshire and the Isle of Wight^[5], England; on Fårö near the Swedish island of Gotland, the Niagara Escarpment in Canada/USA, Notch Peak in Utah, and the Ha Long Bay National Park in Vietnam. The Verdon Gorge (in French Gorges du Verdon or Grand canyon du Verdon) in south-eastern France ( Alpes-de-Haute-Provence) is a river This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Malham Cove is a natural Limestone formation near Malham, North Yorkshire, England. North Yorkshire is a non-metropolitan or shire county located in the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England, and a ceremonial county in The Isle of Wight is an English Island and county in the English Channel between three and five miles (8 km from the south coast of the England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Fårö ( Gutnish Faroy; literally "distant island" is a small Baltic Sea Island north of the province of Gotland, off is a county, province and municipality of Sweden and the largest Island in the Baltic Sea. The Niagara Escarpment is a long Escarpment, or Cuesta, in the United States and Canada that runs westward from New York State, through Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The State of Utah (ˈjuːtɔː or) is a western state of the United States. Ha Long Bay (Vịnh Hạ Long is a UNESCO World Heritage site located in Quảng Ninh province, Vietnam. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially

Unique habitats are found on alvars, extremely level expanses of limestone with thin soil mantles. This article is about the landform For the Tamil saints see Alvars; for the village in Armenia see Alvar Armenia. The largest such expanse in Europe is the Stora Alvaret on the island of Oland, Sweden. The Stora Alvaret is a limestone barren plain on the island of Öland, Sweden. is the second largest Swedish island and the smallest of the traditional Provinces of Sweden. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Another area with large quantities of limestone is the island of Gotland, Sweden. is a county, province and municipality of Sweden and the largest Island in the Baltic Sea. Huge quarries in northwestern Europe, such as those of Mount Saint Peter (Belgium/Netherlands), extend for more than a hundred kilometers.

The world's largest limestone quarry is at Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company in Rogers City, Michigan. Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company (aka "Michigan Limestone" operates the world's largest Limestone Quarry located near Rogers Rogers City is a city in the US state of Michigan. As of the 2000 census, the city population was 3322 ^[6]

Uses of limestone

Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in North America and Europe. The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation Many landmarks across the world, including the pyramids in Egypt, are made of limestone. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. So many buildings in Kingston, Ontario, Canada were constructed from it that it is nicknamed the 'Limestone City'. Kingston Ontario is a Canadian city located at the eastern end of Lake Ontario, where the lake runs into the St ^[7] On the island of Malta, a variety of limestone called Globigerina limestone was for a long time the only building material available, and is still very frequently used on all types of buildings and sculptures. Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands Limestone is readily available and relatively easy to cut into blocks or more elaborate carving. It is also long-lasting and stands up well to exposure. However, it is a very heavy material, making it impractical for tall buildings, and relatively expensive as a building material.

Courthouse built of limestone in Manhattan, Kansas

A limestone plate with a negative map of Moosburg in Bavaria is prepared for a lithography print

Limestone was most popular in the early 20th and late 19th centuries. Manhattan is a city in Pottawatomie and Riley counties in the northeastern part of the U Moosburg an der Isar is a town in the ''Landkreis'' Freising of Bavaria, Germany. Bavaria ( German:, with an area of 70553 Km² (27241 square miles and almost 12 Lithography is a method for Printing using a plate or stone with a completely smooth surface Train stations, banks and other structures from that era are normally made of limestone. |}A train station, railway station, railroad station, or station yard is a facility at which Passengers may board and alight from Trains A banker or bank is a Financial institution whose primary activity is to act as a payment agent for customers and to borrow and lend money Limestone is used as a facade on some skyscrapers, but only in thin plates for covering rather than solid blocks. A skyscraper is a tall continuously habitable Building. There is no official definition or a precise cutoff height above which a building may clearly be classified as a skyscraper In the United States, Indiana, most notably the Bloomington area, has long been a source of high quality quarried limestone, called Indiana limestone. The State of Indiana ( was the 19th US state admitted into the union Indiana Limestone or Bedford Limestone is a common term for Salem limestone, a Geological formation primarily quarried in south central Indiana Many famous buildings in London are built from Portland limestone. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Portland stone is a Limestone from the Jurassic period quarried on the Isle of Portland, Dorset.

Limestone was also a very popular building block in the Middle Ages in the areas where it occurred since it is hard, durable, and commonly occurs in easily accessible surface exposures. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone. Beer stone was a popular kind of limestone for medieval buildings in southern England. Not to be confused with Beerstone, the scale that forms on the inside of beer storage equipment

Limestone and marble are very reactive to acid solutions, making acid rain a significant problem. Acid rain is Rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually Acidic It has harmful effects on plants aquatic animals and infastructure Many limestone statues and building surfaces have suffered severe damage due to acid rain. Acid-based cleaning chemicals can also etch limestone, which should only be cleaned with a neutral or mild alkaline-based cleaner.

Other uses include:

• The manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide) and slaked lime (calcium hydroxide);
• Cement and mortar;
• Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soil conditions;
• Crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads;
• Geological formations of limestone are among the best petroleum reservoirs;
• As a reagent in desulfurizations;
• Glass making, in some circumstances;
• Toothpaste;
• Suppression of methane explosions in underground coal mines
• Added to bread as a source of calcium

Notes

References

• Taylor, P. D. and Wilson, M. A. , 2003. Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities. Earth-Science Reviews 62: 1-103. [2]

See also

• List of types of limestone
• Carboniferous limestone
• Blisworth Limestone
• Chalk
• Coral sand
• Ketton Stone
• Oamaru stone
• Solnhofen limestone
• Calcium carbonate