For alternative meanings of libertarianism, see: Libertarianism (disambiguation).

Part of the series on Libertarianism

Schools of thought

Agorism Anarcho-capitalism Autarchism Christian libertarianism Geolibertarianism Green libertarianism Individualist anarchism Left-libertarianism Libertarian feminism Libertarian socialism Free-market anarchism Market socialism Minarchism Mutualism Neolibertarianism Paleolibertarianism Progressive libertarianism Propertarianism Right-libertarianism Rights libertarianism Voluntaryism

Origins

Objectivism Austrian School Chicago School Classical liberalism Individualist anarchism

Ideas

Civil liberties Counter-economics Decriminalization Economic freedom Free markets Free trade Free will Freedom of contract Homestead principle Humanism Individualism Laissez-faire Liberty Natural rights Night watchman state Non-aggression Non-interventionism Private property Self-government Self-ownership Subjectivism Tax resistance

Topics

History Movement Controversies within libertarianism Parties Theories of law Views of rights Criticism of libertarianism

Related Subjects

Civil libertarianism Constitutionalism Libertarian Democrat Libertarian Republican Libertarian transhumanism

Philosophy Portal Politics Portal  v • d • e

Libertarianism is a label used by a broad spectrum^[1] of political philosophies which prioritize individual liberty and minimize the role of the state. Agorism is an anarchist Political philosophy founded by Samuel Edward Konkin III that holds the ultimate goal as bringing about a society in which Anarcho-capitalism (also known as Free-market anarchism) is an individualist anarchist Political philosophy that advocates the elimination Autarchism (from Greek, "belief in self rule" is a Political philosophy that upholds the principle of Individual liberty, rejects compulsory Christian libertarianism should not be confused with Libertarian Christianity. Geolibertarianism is a Political movement that strives to reconcile Libertarianism and Georgism (or geoism) Green libertarianism is a Political philosophy that has developed in the United States. Individualist anarchism refers to any of several traditions that hold that "individual conscience and the pursuit of self-interest should not be constrained by any collective Left-libertarianism (or left-wing libertarianism) is a term that has been adopted by several different libertarian political movements and theorists Individualist feminism (sometimes also grouped with libertarian feminism or ifeminism) is a term for feminist ideas which seek to celebrate Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophies that aim to create a society without political economic or social hierarchies – a society in which all violent Free-market anarchism (sometimes called market anarchism) refers to an Individualist anarchist Philosophy that harmonizes the abolition of the state with Market socialism is a term used to denote two different Economic system (s based in Socialism which operate according to Market principles In Civics, minarchism, sometimes called minimal Statism, small government, or limited-government Libertarianism Mutualism, is an Anarchist school of thought, can be traced to the writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon that envisioned a society where each person might possess a Neolibertarianism is a political philosophy combining elements of Libertarian and Neoconservative thought that embraces Incrementalism domestically Paleolibertarianism is a school of thought within American Libertarianism founded by Lew Rockwell and Murray Rothbard, and closely associated Right-libertarianism or right libertarianism is a phrase used to either describe non- Collectivist forms of Libertarianism or a variety of different libertarian Voluntaryism is a Philosophy that opposes anything that it sees as unjustifiably invasive and Coercive. Objectivism is a Philosophy developed by Ayn Rand in the 20th century that encompasses positions on Metaphysics, Epistemology, The Austrian School, also known as the “ Vienna School ” or the “ Psychological School ” is a heterodox school of economics that advocates Classical liberalism (also known as traditional liberalism, Laissez-faire liberalism, Market liberalism or in much of the world Individualist anarchism refers to any of several traditions that hold that "individual conscience and the pursuit of self-interest should not be constrained by any collective thumb| |Broken Liberty Istanbul Archaeology Museum Civil liberties are freedoms that protect the Individual from the Government. Counter-economics is a term originally coined by Samuel Edward Konkin III, a radical Libertarian activist and theorist who defined it as " the study and/or Decriminalization is the reduction or abolition of criminal penalties in relation to certain acts but regulated permits or fines might still apply (for contrast Economic freedom is freedom to produce trade and consume any goods and services acquired without the use of force fraud or theft A free market is a Market in which property rights are voluntarily exchanged at a price arranged completely by the mutual consent of sellers and buyers Free trade is a system in which the trade of goods and services between or within countries flows unhindered by government-imposed restrictions The question of free will Freedom of contract or contractualism is the idea that individuals should be free to bargain among themselves the terms of their own contracts without government interference The homestead principle (or original appropriation) is part of libertarian and anarcho-capitalist Ethics. Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal Methodological individualism is a philosophical method aimed at explaining and understanding broad society-wide developments as the aggregation of decisions by individuals Laissez-faire ( pronunciation: French,; English,) is a French phrase literally meaning Let do (“allow to do” Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force A night watchman state, or a minimal state, is a Form of government in Political philosophy where the government's responsibilities are so minimal they The non-aggression principle (also called the non-aggression axiom, anticoercion principle, or zero aggression principle) is a Deontological Nonintervention or non-interventionism is a foreign policy which holds that political rulers should avoid alliances with other nations and avoid all wars not related to direct Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual Self-governance is an abstract concept that refers to several scales of Organization. Self-ownership (or sovereignty of the individual, individual sovereignty or individual autonomy) is the moral or natural right (aka Freedom of a person The subjective theory of value (or theory of subjective value) is an economic theory of value that holds that "to possess value an object must be both useful A tax resister resists or refuses payment of a Tax because of opposition to the institution collecting the tax or to some of that institution’s policies The libertarian movement consists of the various individuals and institutions who expound or promote the ideas and causes of Libertarianism. Libertarianism is a Political philosophy that emphasises the Liberty of the individual and seeks to minimize or even abolish the State. Many countries and subnational political entities have libertarian political parties. Libertarian theories of law build upon classical liberal and individualist anarchist doctrines Adherents of different ideologies have criticized Libertarianism for various reasons Civil libertarianism is a strain of political thought that supports Civil liberties, or who emphasizes the supremacy of Individual rights and Personal freedoms For the revolt in Brazil, see Constitutionalist Revolution. The term Constitutionalism is a word with a variety of meanings A libertarian Democrat is a person who subscribes to libertarian philosophy while typically voting for and being involved with the United States Democratic Party. A libertarian Republican (LR is a person who subscribes to libertarian philosophy while typically voting for and being involved with the United States Republican Party Libertarian transhumanism is a Political philosophy synthesizing Libertarianism and Transhumanism. A political spectrum (plural Spectra) is a way of modeling different political positions by placing them upon one or more geometric axes Political philosophy is the study of questions about the City, Government, Politics, Liberty, Justice, Property, Rights Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. ^[2][3] Libertarian is an antonym of authoritarian. ^[4]

Contents 1 History of the word 1.1 Modern Development 2 Principles 2.1 Natural rights and consequentialism 3 Libertarian policy 3.1 Minarchism and anarcho-capitalism 3.2 Libertarian philosophy in the academy 3.3 Left-libertarianism 3.4 Libertarian conservatism 3.5 Objectivism 4 The libertarian movement 5 Libertarianism in the United States 6 Libertarian politics 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links

History of the word

The first known use of a term that has been translated as "libertarian" in a political sense was by anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque^[5], who used the French term libertaire in a letter to Proudhon in 1857. Joseph Déjacque (b December 1821 Paris - d 1864 Paris was a French anarcho-communist poet and writer ^[6] The word stems from the French word libertaire (synonymous to "anarchist"). French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people ^[7]

Pierre Joseph Proudhon outlined a libertarian vision that consisted of "(1) an analysis of the power relations underlying existing forms of political authority and (2) a vision of an alternative libertarian society based on cooperation, as opposed to competition and coercion, and functioning without the need for government authority. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (ˈpruːd ɒn in British English, dɔ̃ in French) ( 15 January 1809 – 19 January 1865) was "^[8]

According to anarchist historian Max Nettlau, the use of the term "libertarian communism" dates from November, 1880 when a French anarchist congress adopted it. Max Heinrich Hermann Reinhardt Nettlau ( 30 April 1865 &ndash 23 July 1944) was a German Anarchist and Historian ^[9] The term was first popularized in France in the 1890s to subvert the anti-anarchist laws (Lois scélérates). The lois scélérates ("villainous laws" is the Pejorative name for a set of French Laws restricting the 1881 Freedom French anarchist Sébastien Faure founded "Le Libertaire" ("The Libertarian") in 1895. Sébastien Faure was a French anarchist ( January 6 1858 ( Saint-Etienne) - July 14 1942 ( Royan) ^[10]

In the United States, libertarianism as a synonym for anarchism had taken hold. The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica explains that,

"It would be impossible to represent here, in a short sketch, the penetration, on the one hand, of anarchist ideas into modern literature, and the influence, on the other hand, which the libertarian ideas of the best contemporary writers have exercised upon the development of anarchism. One ought to consult the ten big volumes of the Supplément Littéraire to the paper La Révolte and later the Temps Nouveaux, which contain reproductions from the works of hundreds of modern authors expressing anarchist ideas, in order to realize how closely anarchism is connected with all the intellectual movement of our own times. "^[11]

The encyclopedia continues to explain some of the works and writers whose Libertarian views helped shape early 20th century views against Capitalism. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where

"J. S. Mill's Liberty, Spencer's Individual versus the State, Marc Guyau's Morality without Obligation or Sanction, and Fouillée's La Morale, I'art et la religion, the works of Multatuli (E. Douwes Dekker), Richard Wagner's Art and Revolution, the works of Nietzsche, Emerson, W. Lloyd Garrison, Thoreau, Alexander Herzen, Edward Carpenter and so on; and in the domain of fiction, the dramas of Ibsen, the poetry of Walt Whitman, Tolstoy's War and Peace, Zola's Paris and Le Travail, the latest works of Merezhkovsky, and an infinity of works of less known authors, are full of ideas which show how closely anarchism is interwoven with the work that is going on in modern thought in the same direction of enfranchisement of man from the bonds of the state as well as from those of capitalism. " ^[12]

Modern Development

By the early 20th century, the Progressive movement in the United States and the socialist movement in Europe began to promote positive rights such as public education, health care, social security or a minimum standard of living. Progressivism is a term that refers to a broad school of international social and political philosophies. Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Some philosophers and political scientists make a distinction between negative and positive Rights, not to be confused with the similar but different distinction between Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency Health care is the prevention treatment and management of illness and the preservation of mental health through the services offered by the medical, Nursing Social security primarily refers to a Social insurance program providing social protection or protection against socially recognized conditions including poverty old The standard of living refers to the quality and quantity of goods and services available to people and the way these goods and services are distributed within a population As liberalism began to mean a more pro-state viewpoint, those who held to the pro-liberty views of the Enlightenment began to call themselves "classical liberals. Classical liberalism (also known as traditional liberalism, Laissez-faire liberalism, Market liberalism or in much of the world " To make things more confusing, others began to call themselves "conservatives" to refer to conserving traditions of liberty, especially in written constitutions.

Starting in the 1930s, a group of central European economists lead by Austrians Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek identified the collectivist underpinnings to the various new doctrines of government power as being different brands of totalitarianism. Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises (ˈluːtvɪç fɔn ˈmiːzəs ( September 29, 1881 – October 10, 1973) was an Austrian Friedrich August von Hayek CH ( May 8, 1899 March 23, 1992) was an Austrian British Economist Collectivism is a term used to describe any moral political or social outlook that stresses human Interdependence and the importance of a Collective, rather than Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a concept used to describe Political systems where a State regulates nearly every aspect of public and private The Austrian school of economics had a powerful impact on both economic teaching and libertarian principles, influencing economists like Younger recruits to what became the included Henry Hazlitt, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Israel Kirzner, Murray Rothbard, Walter Block and many others. The Austrian School, also known as the “ Vienna School ” or the “ Psychological School ” is a heterodox school of economics that advocates Henry Hazlitt ( November 28, 1894 – July 8, 1993) was a libertarian Philosopher, Economist, and Journalist Hans-Hermann Hoppe (born September 2, 1949) is an Austrian school Economist of the anarcho-capitalist tradition and a former economics Israel Meir Kirzner ( Yisroel Mayer Kirzner) (born February 13, 1930) is a leading economist in the Austrian School. Murray Newton Rothbard (March 2 1926 – January 7 1995 was an American economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern Libertarianism Walter Block (born 21 August 1941 is a Free market economist and Anarcho-capitalist associated with the Austrian School.

In 1955, Dean Russell wrote an article pondering what to call those, such as himself, who subscribed to the classical liberal philosophy of individualism and self-responsibility. Classical liberalism (also known as traditional liberalism, Laissez-faire liberalism, Market liberalism or in much of the world He said:

Many of us call ourselves "liberals," And it is true that the word "liberal" once described persons who respected the individual and feared the use of mass compulsions. But the leftists have now corrupted that once-proud term to identify themselves and their program of more government ownership of property and more controls over persons. As a result, those of us who believe in freedom must explain that when we call ourselves liberals, we mean liberals in the uncorrupted classical sense. At best, this is awkward, subject to misunderstanding. Here is a suggestion: Let those of us who love liberty trademark and reserve for our own use the good and honorable word "libertarian. "^[13]

Ayn Rand's international best sellers The Fountainhead (1943) and Atlas Shrugged (1957) and her books about her philosophy of Objectivism inspired a new interest in ideas of liberty and influenced modern libertarianism. Ayn Rand (ˈaɪn ˈrænd &ndash March 6 1982 born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum (Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум was a Russian born American The Fountainhead is a 1943 Novel by Ayn Rand. It was Rand's first major literary success and its Royalties and movie rights Atlas Shrugged is a novel by Ayn Rand, first published in 1957 in the United States Brian Doherty describes her influence: "[H]er literary skills and burning moral passion, as much as her rigorous, systematic approach to the linkages between reason and liberty, will remain a powerful introduction to the idea that your life belongs to you, not to the state or the collective—and to the rich and complex series of conclusions about the proper nature and mission of government that follows from that idea. Brian Doherty may refer to Brian Doherty (politician, Chicago alderman former amateur boxer Brian Doherty (journalist, senior editor "^[14]

In 1958, Isaiah Berlin's famous essay "Two Concepts of Liberty" explained the difference between these two ideas in terms of positive and negative liberty. Sir Isaiah Berlin, OM (6 June 1909 &ndash 5 November 1997 was a philosopher and historian of ideas regarded as one of the leading liberal thinkers of the twentieth century Two Concepts of Liberty was the inaugural Lecture delivered by Isaiah Berlin before the University of Oxford on October 31, 1958 Whereas classical liberals aim for liberty in its negative sense, that is, the liberty from external constraints, the modern form of liberalism tries to achieve liberty in its positive sense, by providing opportunities and presenting alternatives.

Seminars in libertarianism were being taught in the U. S. starting in the 1960s, including a personal studies seminar at SUNY Geneseo starting in 1972. Robert LeFevre's Freedom School, later renamed Rampart College, operated during the 1960s and successfully spread libertarian ideas. Robert LeFevre (1911–1986 was an American libertarian Businessman Radio personality and primary theorist of Autarchism. The Freedom School was located in Colorado, United States, offering a series of lectures by Libertarian theorist Robert LeFevre from 1957 to

Philosophical libertarianism gained a significant measure of recognition in the academic world with the publication of Harvard University professor Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia in 1974. Robert Nozick ( November 16, 1938  &ndash January 23, 2002) was an American Philosopher and Pellegrino University The book won a National Book Award in 1975. The National Book Awards are among the most eminent literary prizes in the United States. Nozick challenges John Rawls's arguments in A Theory of Justice that redistribution must benefit the least well off. John Rawls ( February 21, 1921  &ndash November 24, 2002) was an American Philosopher, a Professor of A Theory of Justice is a widely-read book of political and Moral philosophy by John Rawls. He argued that a distribution of goods is just, so long as the distribution was brought about by free exchanges by consenting adults. Nozick appealed to the Kantian idea that people should be treated as ends (what he termed 'separateness of persons'), not merely as a means. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg For example, forced redistribution of income treated people as if they were merely sources of money. Nozick backed away from some of the views he expressed in Anarchy, State, and Utopia in one of his later books, The Examined Life, calling those views "seriously inadequate. The Examined Life is a collection of philosophical meditations written by Robert Nozick and published in 1989 " In a 2001 interview, however, he clarified his position: "What I was really saying in The Examined Life was that I was no longer as hardcore a libertarian as I had been before. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. But the rumors of my deviation (or apostasy!) from libertarianism were much exaggerated. "[7]

Principles

The central tenet of libertarianism is the principle of liberty, namely individual liberty. Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force To libertarians, an individual human being is sovereign over his/her body, extending to life, liberty and property. A Gold Sovereign is a Gold coin first issued in 1489 for Henry VII of England and still in production as of 2008 Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual ^[15] As such, rights-theory libertarians define liberty as being completely free in action, whilst not initiating force or fraud against the life, liberty or property of another human being. In Physics, a force is whatever can cause an object with Mass to Accelerate. In the broadest sense a fraud is a Deception made for personal gain or to damage another individual Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Thomas Jefferson stated, "Rightful liberty is unobstructed action according to our will within limits drawn around us by the equal rights of others. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence " Jefferson also said "No man has a natural right to commit aggression on the equal rights of another, and this is all from which the laws ought to restrain him. " These concepts are otherwise known as the law of equal liberty or the non-aggression principle. The law of equal liberty (aka the law of equal freedom) or equal liberty, is a doctrine first named though not first conceived by Herbert Spencer which The non-aggression principle (also called the non-aggression axiom, anticoercion principle, or zero aggression principle) is a Deontological ^[16][17]

Libertarians generally view constraints imposed by the state on persons or their property (if applicable), beyond the need to penalize infringement of one's rights by another, as a violation of liberty. Anarchist libertarians favor no statutory constraints at all, based on the assumption that rulers are unnecessary because in the absence of political government individuals will naturally form self-governing social bonds, rules, customs, codes, and contracts. Individualist anarchism refers to any of several traditions that hold that "individual conscience and the pursuit of self-interest should not be constrained by any collective In contrast, minarchist libertarians consider government necessary for the sole purpose of protecting the rights of the people. In Civics, minarchism, sometimes called minimal Statism, small government, or limited-government Libertarianism This includes protecting people and their property from the criminal acts of others, as well as providing for national defense. ^[18][19]

Libertarians generally defend the ideal of freedom from the perspective of how little one is constrained by authority, that is, how much one is allowed to do, which is referred to as negative liberty. The concept of negative liberty refers to freedom from interference by other people This ideal is distinguished from a view of freedom focused on how much one is able to do, which is termed positive liberty, a distinction first noted by John Stuart Mill, and later described in fuller detail by Isaiah Berlin. ||-||} Positive liberty refers to the opportunity and ability to act to fulfill one's own potential as opposed to Negative liberty, which refers to freedom from John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential Sir Isaiah Berlin, OM (6 June 1909 &ndash 5 November 1997 was a philosopher and historian of ideas regarded as one of the leading liberal thinkers of the twentieth century ^[19]

Many libertarians view life, liberty, and property as the ultimate rights possessed by individuals, and that compromising one necessarily endangers the rest. Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual In democracies, they consider compromise of these individual rights by political action to be tyranny of the majority, a term first coined by Alexis de Tocqueville, and made famous by John Stuart Mill, which emphasizes the threat of the majority to impose majority norms on minorities, and violating their rights in the process. The phrase tyranny of the majority, used in discussing systems of Democracy and Majority rule, is a criticism of the Scenario in which decisions made John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential ". . . There needs protection also against the tyranny of the prevailing opinion and feeling, against the tendency of society to impose, by other means than civil penalties, its own ideas and practices as rules of conduct on those who dissent from them. . . "^[20]

But most libertarians would argue that representative majority rule democracy largely has become controlled by special interest groups who represent a minority, leading to a 'tyranny of the minority' against the real numerical majority. Majority rule is a decision rule that makes one of two alternatives the "winner" based on which has more than half the votes An interest group (also advocacy group, lobby group, pressure group or special interest group) is an organized collection of people who seek Libertarians are egalitarians and believe all people are created equal. People are seen by libertarians as individuals and not representatives of their particular racial, religious or political groups.

Having weak state executive control means libertarian societies are more dependent on the courts for conflict resolution. An impartial judiciary can thus be of paramount importance, for without it wealthy and collective interests might run roughshod over the private citizen. In Law, the judiciary or judicial system is the system of Courts which administer Justice in the name of the sovereign or State

Some libertarians favor Common Law, which they see as less arbitrary and more adaptable than statutory law. Common law refers to law and the corresponding legal system developed through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive Statutory law or statute law is written Law (as opposed to oral or Customary law) set down by a Legislature or other governing The relative benefits of common law evolving toward ever-finer definitions of property rights were articulated by thinkers such as Friedrich Hayek, Richard Epstein, Robert Nozick, and Randy Barnett. Friedrich August von Hayek CH ( May 8, 1899 March 23, 1992) was an Austrian British Economist This article is about Richard Epstein the professor of law for the American game theorist see Richard A Robert Nozick ( November 16, 1938  &ndash January 23, 2002) was an American Philosopher and Pellegrino University Randy E Barnett (born February 5, 1952) is a lawyer a law professor at Georgetown University Law Center, and a legal theorist in the United Some libertarian thinkers believe that this evolution can define away various "commons" such as pollution or other interactions viewed by some as externalities. In Economics, an externality is an impact on any party not directly involved in an economic decision "A libertarian society would not allow anyone to injure others by pollution because it insists on individual responsibility. "^[21][22]

Natural rights and consequentialism

Libertarians such as Robert Nozick and Murray Rothbard view the rights to life, liberty, and property as Natural Rights, i. Robert Nozick ( November 16, 1938  &ndash January 23, 2002) was an American Philosopher and Pellegrino University Murray Newton Rothbard (March 2 1926 – January 7 1995 was an American economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern Libertarianism e. , worthy of protection as an end in themselves. Their view of natural rights is derived, directly or indirectly, from the writings of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Thomas Hobbes (born 5 April 1588died 4 December 1679 was an English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. ^[23] Ayn Rand, another powerful influence on libertarianism, despite rejecting the label, viewed rights as grounded in people's rational faculties. Ayn Rand (ˈaɪn ˈrænd &ndash March 6 1982 born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum (Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум was a Russian born American

Consequentialists such as Milton Friedman, Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich Hayek and James M. Buchanan justify rights on pragmatic as well as, or even instead of, moral, grounds. Consequentialism refers to those moral theories which hold that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgment about that action Milton Friedman (July 31 1912 November 16 2006 was an American Nobel Laureate Economist and Public intellectual. Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises (ˈluːtvɪç fɔn ˈmiːzəs ( September 29, 1881 – October 10, 1973) was an Austrian Friedrich August von Hayek CH ( May 8, 1899 March 23, 1992) was an Austrian British Economist James McGill Buchanan Jr (born October 3 1919 is an American Economist renowned for his work on Public choice theory, for which he won the 1986 Pragmatism generally considered to have originated in the late nineteenth century with Charles Peirce, who first stated the Pragmatic maxim. They argue that individual liberty leads to economic efficiency and other benefits, and is thus the most effective means of promoting or enhancing social welfare. They accept the use of some initiation of force, such as a State that violates the non-aggression principle by imposing taxation to provide some public goods and some minimal regulation. ^[24][25]

Libertarian policy

Libertarians strongly oppose government infringement of civil liberties such as restrictions on free expression (e. g. , speech, press, or religious belief or practice), prohibitions on voluntary association, or encroachments on persons or property. Some make an exception when the infringement is a result of due process to establish or punish criminal behaviour. Due process (more fully due process of law) is the principle that a person has a right to receive notice and be heard in an orderly proceeding in order to protect his or her As such, libertarians oppose any type of censorship (i. Censorship is the suppression of speech or deletion of communicative material which may be considered objectionable harmful or sensitive as determined by a censor e. , claims of offensive speech), or pre-trial forfeiture of property (as is commonly seen in drug crime and computer crime proceedings). Illegal drugs are related to crime in multiple ways Most directly it is a crime to use possess manufacture or distribute drugs classified as having a potential for abuse Computer crime, Cybercrime, e-crime, hi-tech crime or electronic crime generally refers to criminal activity where a Computer Furthermore, most libertarians reject the distinction between political and commercial speech or association, a legal distinction often used to protect one type of activity and not the other from government intervention. ^[19]

Libertarians also oppose any laws restricting personal or consensual behaviour, as well as laws against victimless crimes. Consent as a term of jurisprudence is a possible defence (an Excuse or justification against civil or criminal liability The term victimless crime refers to infractions of Criminal law without any identifiable Corpus delicti, or evidence of an Individual that As such, they believe that individual choices for products or services should not be limited by government licensing requirements or state-granted monopolies, or in the form of trade barriers that restrict choices for products and services from other nations (see Free trade). A trade barrier is a general term that describes any government policy or regulation that restricts International trade. Free trade is a system in which the trade of goods and services between or within countries flows unhindered by government-imposed restrictions They also tend to oppose legal prohibitions on recreational drug use, gambling, and prostitution. Recreational drug use is the use of Psychoactive drugs for Recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes Prostitution is the act of performing Sexual activity in exchange for Money. They believe that citizens should be free to take risks, even to the point of actual harm to themselves. For example, while most libertarians may personally agree with the majority who favour the use of seatbelts, libertarians reject mandating their use as paternalistic. A seat belt, sometimes called a safety belt, is a Safety harness designed to secure the occupant of a Vehicle against harmful movement that may result from Paternalism refers usually to an attitude or a policy stemming from the hierarchic pattern of a Family based on Patriarchy, that is there is a figurehead Similarly, many believe that the United States Food and Drug Administration (and other similar bodies in other countries like Health Canada in Canada) shouldn't ban unproven medical treatments, that any decisions on treatment be left to patient and doctor only, and that government should be limited to passing non-binding judgments about efficacy or safety, if it is allowed to do anything at all. Health Canada ( French: Santé Canada) is the department of the government of Canada with responsibility for national Public health Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page ^[19]

Some libertarians believe such freedoms are a universal birthright, and they accept any material inequalities or wanton behaviour, as long as it harms no one else, likely to result from such a policy of governmental non-intervention. They see economic inequality as an outcome of people's freedom to choose their own actions, which may or may not be profitable. However, many libertarians believe that extreme concentration of wealth in a few hands is a result of state intervention, and that liberty ultimately leads to a more diffuse distribution though not necessarily an equal one. A prime cause of extreme wealth disparity stems from government granting special privileges to some businesses at the expense of consumers and other businesses. Many libertarians, including Ron Paul and Murray Rothbard, consider that the most fundamental government grant of special privilege involves the legitimization and protection of fractional reserve banking through the Federal Reserve and the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. Murray Newton Rothbard (March 2 1926 – January 7 1995 was an American economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern Libertarianism Fractional-reserve banking is the banking practice in which Banks keep only a fraction of the value of their Bank notes and demand deposits in reserve The Federal Reserve Act (ch 6, Enacted December 23 1913) is the act of Congress that created the Federal Reserve System, the central banking system of the United They therefore call for the abolition of the Federal Reserve System.

Minarchism and anarcho-capitalism

Main articles: Minarchism and Anarcho-capitalism

Minarchists are supportive of minimal taxation as a "necessary evil" for the limited purpose of funding public institutions that would protect civil liberties and property rights, including police, volunteer armed forces without conscription, and judicial courts. In Civics, minarchism, sometimes called minimal Statism, small government, or limited-government Libertarianism Anarcho-capitalism (also known as Free-market anarchism) is an individualist anarchist Political philosophy that advocates the elimination In Civics, minarchism, sometimes called minimal Statism, small government, or limited-government Libertarianism Police are agents or agencies usually of the executive, empowered to enforce the law and to effect public and social order through the legitimatized use of force For the military meaning see Armed forces. For the Soviet sports society see Armed Forces (sports society Armed Forces Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority A court is a forum used by a power base to adjudicate disputes and dispense civil, labour administrative and criminal Justice under its Anarcho-capitalists, by contrast, oppose all taxation, rejecting any government claim for a monopoly of protection as unnecessary. Anarcho-capitalism (also known as Free-market anarchism) is an individualist anarchist Political philosophy that advocates the elimination The monopoly on the legitimate use of violence ( Gewaltmonopol des Staates, also known as monopoly on legitimate violence and monopoly on violence) is the They wish to keep the government out of matters of justice and protection, preferring to delegate these functions to private groups such as insurers, arbiters, and private defense agencies. Insurance, in Law and Economics, is a form of Risk management primarily used to hedge against the Risk of a contingent loss Arbitration, a form of Alternative dispute resolution (ADR is a legal technique for the resolution of Disputes outside the Courts wherein the A private defense agency (PDA is a conceptualized agency that provides personal protection and military defense services voluntarily through the Free market. Anarcho-capitalists argue that the minarchist belief that any monopoly on coercion can be contained within any reasonable limits is unrealistic, and that institutionalized coercion on any scale is counterproductive. The monopoly on the legitimate use of violence ( Gewaltmonopol des Staates, also known as monopoly on legitimate violence and monopoly on violence) is the Any justification for the coercive state, or alliance between business and the state, is said to result in a more efficient and thus more dangerous state—or crony capitalism. Crony capitalism is a pejorative term describing an allegedly capitalist economy in which success in business depends on close relationships between businessmen and government

The policy positions of minarchists and anarcho-capitalists on mainstream issues tend to be pragmatically indistinguishable as both sets of libertarians believe that existing governments are too intrusive. Some libertarian philosophers such as Tibor R. Machan argue that, properly understood, minarchism and anarcho-capitalism are not in contradiction. Tibor Richard Machan PhD (born 18 March 1939) professor emeritus in the department of Philosophy at Auburn University, holds the R There are libertarians that are neither minarchists nor anarcho-capitalists.

Libertarian philosophy in the academy

Seminars in libertarianism were being taught in the U. S. starting in the 1960s, including a personal studies seminar at SUNY Geneseo starting in 1972. The Freedom School, later renamed Rampart College, was operated by Robert LeFevre during the 1960s and became a significant influence in spreading libertarian ideas. The Freedom School was located in Colorado, United States, offering a series of lectures by Libertarian theorist Robert LeFevre from 1957 to Robert LeFevre (1911–1986 was an American libertarian Businessman Radio personality and primary theorist of Autarchism.

Philosophical libertarianism gained a significant measure of recognition in the academy with the publication of Harvard professor Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia in 1974. Robert Nozick ( November 16, 1938  &ndash January 23, 2002) was an American Philosopher and Pellegrino University Left-liberal philosopher Thomas Nagel argued that Nozick's libertarianism was 'without foundations' because Nozick's libertarianism proceeded from the assumption that individuals owned themselves without any further explanation. Thomas Nagel (born July 4 1937 is an American Philosopher, currently University Professor and Professor of Philosophy and Law

Jan Narveson aimed to meet this challenge. Jan Narveson, OC (born 1936 is professor of Philosophy emeritus at the University of Waterloo, in Waterloo Ontario, Based on the work of David Gauthier, Narveson developed contractarian libertarianism, outlined in his 1988 work The Libertarian Idea, and then extended in his 2002 work Respecting Persons in Theory and Practice. David Gauthier (born 1932 is a Canadian-American Philosopher best known for his neo- Hobbesian social contract (contractarian theory of Morality In these works, Narveson agreed with Hobbes that individuals would lay down their ability to kill and steal from each other in order to leave the state of nature, but he broke with Hobbes in arguing that an absolute state was not necessary to enforce this agreement. Narveson argues that no state at all is required. Other advocates of contractarian libertarianism include the Nobel Laureate and founder of the public choice school of economics James M. Buchanan, and Hungarian-French philosopher Anthony de Jasay. Public choice in economic theory is the use of modern Economic tools to study problems that are traditionally in the province of Political science. James McGill Buchanan Jr (born October 3 1919 is an American Economist renowned for his work on Public choice theory, for which he won the 1986 Anthony de Jasay (born 1925 is a Hungarian -born libertarian philosopher and economist known for his anti-statist writings

By contrast, J. C. Lester aimed to undermine the challenge by defending libertarianism without foundations in the form of critical rationalist libertarianism, most notably in his 2000 work Escape from Leviathan. Critical rationalism is an Epistemological Philosophy advanced by Karl Popper. In particular, that work applies critical rationalism to defend the thesis that there are no systematic practical clashes among instrumental rationality, interpersonal liberty, social welfare and private-property anarchy.

Left-libertarianism

Main article: Left-libertarianism

Left-libertarianism is usually regarded as doctrine that has an egalitarian view concerning natural resources, believing that it is not legitimate for someone to claim private ownership of resources to the detriment of others. Left-libertarianism (or left-wing libertarianism) is a term that has been adopted by several different libertarian political movements and theorists Egalitarianism (derived from the French word égal, meaning equal) is a political doctrine that holds that all people should be treated as equals and have ^[26][27] Most left libertarians support some form of income redistribution on the grounds of a claim by each individual to be entitled to an equal share of natural resources. ^[28] Left libertarianism is defended by contemporary theorists such as Peter Vallentyne, Hillel Steiner, Michael Otsuka, and Noam Chomsky. Michael Otsuka (b September 15 1964 in Palo Alto California) is Professor of Philosophy at University College London. Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political ^[29] Geolibertarians are considered left-libertarians. Geolibertarianism is a Political movement that strives to reconcile Libertarianism and Georgism (or geoism) The term is sometimes used as a synonym for libertarian socialism. Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophies that aim to create a society without political economic or social hierarchies – a society in which all violent ^[30]

In the early 20th century Russian N.O. Lossky published a defense of libertarianism under the concept of spontaneous order or sobornost. Nikolai Onufriyevich Lossky (Николай Онуфриевич Лосский ( – January 24, 1965) was a Russian philosopher representative of See also the closely related articles Emergence and Self-organization. Sobornost (Russian definition Spiritual community of many jointly living people Lossky's position could be considered a form of libertarian socialism. Ayn Rand named Lossky as her primary philosophy teacher at the University of Petrograd or University of St. Petersburg until he was removed from his teaching post by the Soviet regime. Ayn Rand (ˈaɪn ˈrænd &ndash March 6 1982 born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum (Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум was a Russian born American Saint Petersburg State University ( Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет) is a Russian federal state-owned higher Saint Petersburg State University ( Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет) is a Russian federal state-owned higher ^[31]

Some members of the U. S. libertarian movement, including Samuel Edward Konkin III^[32] and Roderick T. Long,^[33] employ a differing definition of left libertarianism. Samuel Edward Konkin III (aka SEK3) ( July 8, 1947 - February 23, 2004) was the author of The New Libertarian Manifesto These individuals depart from other forms of libertarianism by opposing intellectual property^[34], by advocating strong alliances with the Left on issues such as the anti-war movement^[35], and by supporting labor unions^[36][37]. Intellectual property ( IP) is a legal field that refers to creations of the mind such as musical literary and artistic works inventions and symbols names A peace movement is a Social movement that seeks to achieve ideals such as the ending of a particular war (or all wars minimize inter-human violence in a particular place or A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming Some wish to revive voluntary cooperative ideas such as mutualism. Mutualism is a Biological interaction between individuals of two different Species, where both individuals derive a fitness benefit for example increased ^[38]

Criticisms of left-libertarianism have come from both the right and left alike. Right-libertarians like Robert Nozick hold that self-ownership and property acquisition need not meet egalitarian standards, they must merely follow the Lockean idea of not worsening the situation of others. Robert Nozick ( November 16, 1938  &ndash January 23, 2002) was an American Philosopher and Pellegrino University Gerald Cohen, an Analytical Marxist philosopher, has extensively criticized left-libertarianism's emphasis on both the values of self-ownership and equality. Gerald Allan "Jerry" Cohen, (born 1941 is a marxist political philosopher presently the Chichele Professor of Social and Political Theory, All Souls College Analytical Marxism refers to a style of thinking about Marxism that was prominent amongst English-speaking philosophers and social scientists during the 1980s In his Self-ownership, Freedom, and Equality, Cohen claims that any system that takes equality and its enforcement seriously is not consistent with the full emphasis on self-ownership and "negative freedom" of libertarian thought. Tom G. Palmer of the Cato Institute has responded to Cohen's critique in Critical Review^[39] and has provided a guide to the literature criticizing libertarianism in his bibliographical review essay on "The Literature of Liberty" in The Libertarian Reader, ed. Tom Gordon Palmer (born 1956 in Bitburg-Mötsch, Germany) is a Senior Fellow at the Cato Institute, Vice President for International Programs director The Cato Institute is a Libertarian Think tank headquartered in Washington D David Boaz. ^[40]

Libertarian conservatism

Main article: Right-libertarianism

Libertarian conservatives differ from some Christian-influenced conservatives in that they tend to favor the separation of church and state. Right-libertarianism or right libertarianism is a phrase used to either describe non- Collectivist forms of Libertarianism or a variety of different libertarian Separation of church and state is a Political and Legal Doctrine that Government and religious institutions are to be kept separate They favor limitation of government involvement in any factors of life, in contrast to neo-conservatives. Neoconservatism (or Neocon is a Right-wing political philosophy that emerged in the United States from the rejection of the Social liberalism, Moral relativism

The Republican Liberty Caucus represents the GOP's libertarian Republican movement. The Republican Liberty Caucus is a political action organization dedicated to promoting the ideals of individual rights limited government and free enterprise within the Republican Other libertarian Republican groups include Americans for Limited Government, Americans for Tax Reform, headed by Grover Norquist, and the Club for Growth. Americans for Limited Government (ALG is a conservative, Libertarian Think tank. Americans for Tax Reform is an Interest group seeking to reduce the overall level of Taxation in the United States, at the federal state and local level Grover Glenn Norquist (born October 19, 1956) is president of anti- Tax Lobbying group Americans for Tax Reform. Stephen Moore by David Shankbonejpg|thumb|Founder Stephen Moore]][[Image ClubForGrowthChafeeAd

Objectivism

Main article: Libertarianism and Objectivism

Libertarianism's status is in dispute among those who style themselves Objectivists (Objectivism is the name philosopher-novelist Ayn Rand gave her philosophy). Many individuals found their support of Libertarianism upon ideological elements derived from the philosophy of novelist Ayn Rand, which she called Objectivism. Objectivism is a Philosophy developed by Ayn Rand in the 20th century that encompasses positions on Metaphysics, Epistemology, Ayn Rand (ˈaɪn ˈrænd &ndash March 6 1982 born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum (Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум was a Russian born American Though elements of Rand's philosophy have been adopted by libertarianism, Objectivists (including Rand herself) have condemned libertarianism as a threat to freedom and capitalism. In particular, it has been claimed that libertarians use Objectivist ideas "with the teeth pulled out of them". ^[41][42]

Conversely, some libertarians see Objectivists as dogmatic, unrealistic, and uncompromising (Objectivists do not see the latter as a negative attribute). According to Reason editor Nick Gillespie in the magazine's March 2005 issue focusing on Objectivism's influence, Rand is "one of the most important figures in the libertarian movement. Reason is a libertarian monthly magazine from the Reason Foundation. Nick Gillespie is the editor of Reasoncom and Reasontv and was the editor in chief of Reason magazine from 2000 to 2007 . . Rand remains one of the best-selling and most widely influential figures in American thought and culture" in general and in libertarianism in particular. Still, he confesses that he is embarrassed by his magazine's association with her ideas. In the same issue, Cathy Young says that "Libertarianism, the movement most closely connected to Rand's ideas, is less an offspring than a rebel stepchild. Cathy Young (born Ekaterina Jung, 1963 is a journalist and writer " Though they reject what they see as Randian dogmas, libertarians like Young still believe that "Rand's message of reason and liberty. . . could be a rallying point" for libertarianism.

Objectivists reject the oft-heard libertarian refrain that State and government are "necessary evils": for them, a government limited to protection of its citizens' rights is absolutely necessary and moral. Objectivists are opposed to all anarchist currents and are suspicious of libertarians' lineage with individualist anarchism. Individualist anarchism refers to any of several traditions that hold that "individual conscience and the pursuit of self-interest should not be constrained by any collective ^[43]

The libertarian movement

Main article: Libertarian movement

The Libertarian Program is an international project to define and document key current and potential voluntary replacements of government programs. The libertarian movement consists of the various individuals and institutions who expound or promote the ideas and causes of Libertarianism.

Some, such as David Boaz, executive vice president of the libertarian U. David Boaz is the executive vice president of the Cato Institute, an American libertarian Think tank. S. think tank, the Cato Institute, argue that the term classical liberalism should be reserved for early liberal thinkers for the sake of clarity and accuracy, and because of differences between many libertarian and classical liberal thinkers. A think tank (also called a policy institute) is an organization institute corporation or group that conducts Research and engages in advocacy in areas such The Cato Institute is a Libertarian Think tank headquartered in Washington D Nevertheless, the Cato Institute's official stance is that classical liberalism and libertarianism are synonymous; they prefer the term liberal to describe themselves, but choose not to use it because of its confusing connotation in some English-speaking countries (where most self-described liberals prefer a mixed economy rather than a free-market economy). A mixed economy is an Economic system that incorporates aspects of more than one economic system The Cato Institute dislikes adding classical because, in their view, "the word classical connotes a backward-looking philosophy". Thus, they finally settle on libertarian, as it avoids backward implications and confused definitions.

Libertarians and their allies are not a homogeneous group, but have collaborated to form think tanks, political parties, and other projects. A political party is a Political organization that seeks to attain and maintain political power within Government, usually by participating in electoral For example, Austrian School economist Murray Rothbard co-founded the John Randolph Club, the Center for Libertarian Studies, and the Cato Institute to support an independent libertarian movement, and joined David Nolan in founding the Libertarian Party of the United States in 1971. Murray Newton Rothbard (March 2 1926 – January 7 1995 was an American economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern Libertarianism The John Randolph Club (JRC is a paleoconservative social and political organization founded in the 1980s and operated by the Rockford Institute. The Center for Libertarian Studies is a Libertarian and Anarcho-capitalist oriented educational organization founded in 1976 by Murray Rothbard, which grew The Cato Institute is a Libertarian Think tank headquartered in Washington D The Libertarian Party is a United States political party founded on December 11 1971 (Rothbard ceased activity with the Libertarian Party in 1989, and some of his followers like Lew Rockwell are hostile to the group. Llewellyn H Rockwell Jr (born 1 July 1944, Boston) widely known as Lew Rockwell, is an American Libertarian ) In the U. S. today, some libertarians support the Libertarian Party, some support no party, and some attempt to work within more powerful parties despite their differences. The Republican Liberty Caucus (a wing of the Republican Party) promotes libertarian views. The Republican Liberty Caucus is a political action organization dedicated to promoting the ideals of individual rights limited government and free enterprise within the Republican

Costa Rica's Movimiento Libertario (Libertarian Movement) is a prominent, non-U. Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in The Partido Movimiento Libertario ("Libertarian Movement Party" is a Libertarian political party in Costa Rica. S. libertarian party which holds roughly 10% of the seats in Costa Rica's national assembly (legislature). The Movimiento Libertario is considered the first libertarian organization to achieve substantial electoral success at the national level, though not without controversy. For example, Rigoberto Stewart, co-founder of the party and founder of the Limón REAL Project^[44] for autonomy in a province in Costa Rica, and director of INLAP^[45], a libertarian think tank, lost his influence within Movimiento Libertario and support for the Limón REAL Project. As perhaps explained by Public Choice Theory, while accepting money from the Friedrich Naumann Foundation, a German liberal foundation, the party compromised on their libertarian principles in return for more power, turning to anti-libertarian positions. Public choice in economic theory is the use of modern Economic tools to study problems that are traditionally in the province of Political science. The Friedrich Naumann Foundation (Friedrich-Naumann-Stiftung für die Freiheit (FNF is a German foundation for liberal politics related to the Free Democratic Party Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. ^[46]

There are other Libertarian parties that have had various amounts of success throughout the world. Many countries and subnational political entities have libertarian political parties. Libertarianism is emerging in France with the inception of Liberté chérie (Cherished Liberty), a think tank and activist association that has 2,000 members. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The French association Liberté Chérie ("Beloved Freedom" born in March 2001 under the name Liberté j'écris ton nom ("Freedom I write your name" first Liberté chérie gained significant publicity when it managed to draw 80,000 Parisians into the streets to demonstrate against government employees who were striking.

In the United Kingdom, the Libertarian Alliance was founded in 1977 as a non-partisan libertarian group and free market think tanks such as the Adam Smith Institute^[47] have espoused libertarian principles. Libertarianism in the United Kingdom is an increasingly influential political ideology and movement reflecting the prominence of Libertarianism in the United States The Libertarian Alliance (LA comprises two Libertarian Think-tanks in Great Britain that promote Free-market economics and Civil liberties The Adam Smith Institute is a Think tank based in the United Kingdom, named after the father of modern Economics, Adam Smith. The United Kingdom Independence Party is currently the largest Libertarian party in the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom Independence Party (commonly known as UKIP, ˈjuːkɪp

In Germany a Libertäre Plattform in der FDP (Liberty Caucus within the Free Democratic Party) was founded in 2005. The Free Democratic Party ( Freie Demokratische Partei, FDP is a liberal Political party in Germany.

In 2001, the Free State Project was founded by Jason Sorens, a political scientist and libertarian activist who argued that 20,000 libertarians should migrate to a single U. The Free State Project (FSP is a plan to have 20000 individuals move to a single state in the United States, with the intent of influencing local S. state in order to concentrate their activism. In August 2003, the membership of the Free State Project chose New Hampshire because of its friendliness to libertarian causes (note the state motto: Live Free or Die), limited government, citizen legislature (paid only $100 per year) and history of political activism. New Hampshire ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. Despite the lower than expected rate of growth, the Free State Project has seen moderate success. The Free State Project (FSP is a plan to have 20000 individuals move to a single state in the United States, with the intent of influencing local They saw their first member elected to the New Hampshire legislature in 2006 and successfully completed the "First 1000" pledge in 2005, which signed up 1,033 people to move to New Hampshire by 2008. Some of the original Free Staters (about 1,000) were discontented with the choice of New Hampshire. Some have started rival projects, including the Free West Alliance, Free State Wyoming and North to the Future, a project for a Free Alaskan Nation, to concentrate activism in a different state or region. The Free West Alliance ( FWA) is an organization attempting to organize the migration of Libertarians and the like-minded into the U Free State Wyoming (FSW is a Political migration project whose goal is to bring people of "demonstrably ethical character" to the state of Wyoming There is also a European Free State Project.

Libertarianism in the United States

Libertarians may differ over particular issues, such as abortion and the United States' ongoing presence in Iraq. Libertarians promote individual liberty and seek to minimize the role of the state ^[48] The fact that libertarians are often diametrically opposed on so many issues lead to frequent condemnation of the philosophy by many, including those who hold similar thoughts. ^[49]

In the United States, libertarianism is claimed to be the philosophy advocated by Thomas Jefferson and several of the Founding Fathers. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence The Founding Fathers of the United States are the Political leaders who signed the Declaration of Independence or otherwise participated in the ^[50] Libertarianism is often being bundled with American conservatism, due to many conservatives wishing to retain the ideas of the Founders of the United States. Conservatism in the United States includes a variety of political ideologies including Fiscal conservatism, Supply-side economics, Social conservatism On the other hand, many conservatives are uncomfortable with libertarianism,^[51] while a few conservative Republicans, such as United States congressman Ron Paul, maintain viewpoints sympathetic to libertarian philosophy. Furthermore, the fortieth President of the United States, Ronald Reagan who said he believed that "the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by "^[52] The term "libertarian" is used to describe adherents to libertarian principles, and not necessarily to members of Libertarian political parties, who are distinguished with a capital "L". As in all political parties, not all libertarians agree with the platform of any given Libertarian party. Libertarians who support limited government use the term "classical liberalism" almost interchangeably with the term "libertarianism. Classical liberalism (also known as traditional liberalism, Laissez-faire liberalism, Market liberalism or in much of the world "^[53]

Polls, in 2007, indicate that 10 to 20 percent of voting-age Americans have libertarian views, with "libertarian" being understood as agreeing with conservatives on economic issues and with liberals on personal freedom. ^[54][55]

Libertarian politics

See also: Controversies within libertarianism

The main organized expression of libertarian politics in the United States has been the Libertarian Party since its founding. Libertarianism is a Political philosophy that emphasises the Liberty of the individual and seeks to minimize or even abolish the State. The Libertarian Party is a United States political party founded on December 11 1971 However, some libertarians have decided it is more effective to disseminate their ideas through think tanks like the Cato Institute. A think tank (also called a policy institute) is an organization institute corporation or group that conducts Research and engages in advocacy in areas such The Cato Institute is a Libertarian Think tank headquartered in Washington D

In the United Kingdom, a similar Libertarian Party was founded on January 1st, 2008. Prior to this, the primary British expression of libertarian politics was through the Libertarian Alliance and think tanks such as the Adam Smith Institute. The Libertarian Alliance (LA comprises two Libertarian Think-tanks in Great Britain that promote Free-market economics and Civil liberties The Adam Smith Institute is a Think tank based in the United Kingdom, named after the father of modern Economics, Adam Smith.

Libertarianism is often portrayed as right-wing by non-libertarians in the United States. In Politics, right-wing, the political right, and the Right are positions that uphold traditional values and/or authorities The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Under the concept of fusionism, it was proposed that American libertarians ally themselves with traditional conservatives, with whom they have historically had more in common than they do with American liberals, particularly with regard to economic and gun control policies. Fusionism is an American political term for the combination or "fusion" of Libertarians and traditional conservatives in the American conservative movement Conservatism in the United States includes a variety of political ideologies including Fiscal conservatism, Supply-side economics, Social conservatism Liberalism in the United States is a broad political and philosophical mindset favoring individual Liberty, and opposing restrictions on liberty whether they come from Gun politics is a set of legal issues surrounding the ownership use and regulation of firearms as well as safety issues related to firearms both through their direct use and through Such an alliance can be seen in uniting of libertarian and conservative lawyers in the Federalist Society. The Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy Studies, most frequently called simply the Federalist Society, is an organization of Conservatives and Libertarians Others however, call for an alliance between libertarians and civil libertarians in the Democratic party. thumb| |Broken Liberty Istanbul Archaeology Museum Civil liberties are freedoms that protect the Individual from the Government. Many describe libertarians as being "conservative" on economic issues and "liberal" on social issues, so they can find allies in both of the two main parties while remaining distinct from both, especially on the use of state power to solve perceived problems, and constitutional compliance.

A historical example of libertarian politics would be discrimination in the workplace. Libertarians could be expected to oppose any laws on this matter because these would infringe on the property rights or freedoms of either the business owner or the just-hired employee. In other words, one should be free to discriminate against others in their personal or business dealings (within the constraints of principal–agency agreements); one should be free to choose where they accept work, or to start one's own business in accordance with their personal beliefs and prejudices; and one should be free to lead a boycott or publicity campaign against businesses with whose policies they disagree.

In a more current example, conservatives are likely to support a ban on same-sex marriage in the interests of preserving traditional order, while liberals are likely to favor allowing same-sex marriage in the interest of guaranteeing equality under the law. Libertarians are likely to disagree with the notion of government-sanctioned marriage itself. Specifically, they would deny that the government deserves any role in marriage other than enforcing whatever legal contract people choose to enter, and to oppose the various additional rights currently granted to married people (married couples could make the property pool in their own contract).

Instead of a "left–right" spectrum, some libertarians use a two-dimensional space, with Personal Freedom on one axis and Economic Freedom on the other, which is called the Nolan chart. Economic freedom is freedom to produce trade and consume any goods and services acquired without the use of force fraud or theft The Nolan Chart is a political diagram popularized by the American libertarian David Nolan. Named after David Nolan, who designed the chart and also founded the United States Libertarian Party, the chart is similar to a sociopolitical test used to place individuals by the Advocates for Self Government. The Libertarian Party is a United States political party founded on December 11 1971 The Advocates for Self-Government is a Non-profit, non-partisan Libertarian educational organization A first approximation of libertarian politics (derived from these charts) is that they agree with liberals on social issues and with conservatives on economic issues. Thus, the traditional linear scale of governmental philosophy could be represented inside the chart stretching from the upper left corner to the lower right, while the degree of state control is represented linearly from the lower left to the upper right. ^[56][57]

Libertarians have tended to unite with constitutionalists in calling for strict construction of the U.S. Constitution, which they expect would vastly reduce the size and intrusiveness of government. For the revolt in Brazil, see Constitutionalist Revolution. The term Constitutionalism is a word with a variety of meanings The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government.

See also

• Americans for Limited Government
• Australian Libertarian Society
• Cato Institute
• Christian anarchism
• Constitutionalism
• Criticism of libertarianism
• Criticisms of the War on Terrorism
• Criticism of fractional-reserve banking
• Free Talk Live
• Laissez Faire Books
• Liberation
• Liberator Online
• Liberism
• Libertarian Management
• Libertarianz
• Libertarian Party
• Libertarian transhumanism
• Liberty
• Liberty Magazine
• List of libertarian political parties
• Progressive libertarianism
• Right-libertarianism
• Ron Paul
• Society for Individual Freedom
• South Park Republican
• The Freeman
• List of liberal theorists

References

Bibliography

External links

• Libertarian wiki
• "What is Libertarian?" by the Institute for Humane Studies, George Mason University
• Libertarianism entry at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Libertarianism entry at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Libertarianism.com by the Advocates for Self-Government
• Libertarian FAQ from USENET, last modified 11 May 1998
• Society: Politics: Liberalism: Libertarianism at the Open Directory Project

• Freedom Fighters, City Journal review of Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement
• "The Philosophy of Liberty" (Flash) at the International Society for Individual Liberty
• "a libertarian Democrat manifesto" by former DNC press secretary Terry Michael, July 2006
• "The Old School Conservatives" A grassroots Libertarian activist group. The Institute for Humane Studies (IHS is a Libertarian Non-profit organization that assists students at the undergraduate and graduate levels George Mason University (also referred to as GMU or Mason) is a large Public university in the United States. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP is a freely-accessible Online encyclopedia of Philosophy maintained by Stanford University. The Advocates for Self-Government is a Non-profit, non-partisan Libertarian educational organization Usenet, a Portmanteau of "user" and "network" is a world-wide distributed Internet discussion system Events 330 - Byzantium is renamed ''Nova Roma'' during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as Constantinople Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) The Open Directory Project ( ODP) also known as dmoz (from directory Adobe Flash (previously called Shockwave Flash and Macromedia Flash) is a set of Multimedia software created by Macromedia and currently
• Libertarian Celebrities and VIPs
• Comprehensive Listing of Notable Libertarians
• Critiques from Critiques of Libertarianism.
• Are Libertarians "Anarchists"? - Article by Murray N. Rothbard
• Liberalati Magazine

Political parties and organizations

• Libertarian National Committee / Libertarian Party (U.S.)
• Democratic Freedom Caucus (U.S.)
• Republican Liberty Caucus (U.S.)
• Australian Libertarian Society
• The Libertarian Alliance (UK)
• The UK Libertarian Party
• Association of Libertarian Feminists

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