The Liberalism series, part of the Politics series
Schools
American liberalism
Classical liberalism
Conservative liberalism
National liberalism
Economic liberalism
Libertarianism
Neoliberalism
Ordoliberalism
Paleoliberalism
Social liberalism
Cultural liberalism
Ideas
Freedom
Individual rights
Individualism
Laissez-faire
Liberal democracy
Liberal neutrality
Negative & positive liberty
Free market / Capitalism
Mixed economy
Open society
Popular sovereignty
Rights
Thinkers
John Locke
John Stuart Mill
Friedrich von Hayek
Milton Friedman
John Rawls
Regional variants
By Country
Liberalism worldwide
Liberalism in Europe
Liberalism in the United States
Organizations
Liberal parties of the world
Liberal International · IFLRY
ELDR/ALDE · LYMEC CALD · ALN · Relial
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Liberalism refers to a broad array of related ideas and theories of government that consider individual liberty to be the most important political goal. Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions Modern liberalism in the United States, also referred to as American liberalism, is a political ideology that seeks to use the power of the state to effect change upon society Classical liberalism (also known as traditional liberalism, Laissez-faire liberalism, Market liberalism or in much of the world Conservative liberalism is a variant of Liberalism, combining liberal values and policies with conservative stances or more simply representing the right-wing National liberalism is a variant of liberalism combining Nationalism with some liberal policies especially regarding Economic liberalism Economic liberalism is the Economic component of Classical liberalism. Libertarianism is a term used by a broad spectrum of political philosophies which prioritize individual Liberty and seek to minimize or even abolish the Originally coined by its critics and opponents " neoliberalism " is a label referring to the recent reemergence of Economic liberalism or Classical liberalism Ordoliberalism (also called German neoliberalism) is a school of Liberalism emphasizing the need for the state to ensure that the Free market produces results Paleoliberalism is a term that has at least a few distinct meanings all relating to Liberalism. Social liberalism, also called new liberalism (as it was originally termed high liberalism radical liberalism, modern liberalism, or Cultural liberalism is a liberal view of society that stresses the freedom of individuals from cultural norms This is a partial list of individual contributions to liberal political theory on a worldwide scale Political freedom is the absence of interference with the sovereignty of an individual by the use of coercion or aggression Individual rights refer to the Rights of Individuals in contrast with Group rights. Laissez-faire ( pronunciation: French,; English,) is a French phrase literally meaning Let do (“allow to do” The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of Liberal neutrality is the idea that the liberal state should not promote any particular 'conception of the good' The concept of negative liberty refers to freedom from interference by other people ||-||} Positive liberty refers to the opportunity and ability to act to fulfill one's own potential as opposed to Negative liberty, which refers to freedom from Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force A free market is a Market in which property rights are voluntarily exchanged at a price arranged completely by the mutual consent of sellers and buyers Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where A mixed economy is an Economic system that incorporates aspects of more than one economic system The open society is a concept originally developed by philosopher Henri Bergson. Popular sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people is the belief that the legitimacy of the State is created by the will or consent of its people, who A right is a legal or moral Entitlement or Permission. Rights are of vital importance in theories of Justice and deontological ethics This is a partial list of individual contributions to liberal political theory on a worldwide scale John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential Friedrich August von Hayek CH ( May 8, 1899 March 23, 1992) was an Austrian British Economist Milton Friedman (July 31 1912 November 16 2006 was an American Nobel Laureate Economist and Public intellectual. John Rawls ( February 21, 1921  &ndash November 24, 2002) was an American Philosopher, a Professor of This article gives information on liberalism in diverse countries around the world A general overview and comprehensive discussion of this topic may be found in the article Liberalism. Liberalism in the United States is a broad political and philosophical mindset favoring individual Liberty, and opposing restrictions on liberty whether they come from Liberal International is a Political international for liberal parties. The International Federation of Liberal Youth ( IFLRY) is an international liberal youth organization The European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party (founded in 1993 is a liberal party, mainly active in the European Union, composed of 55 national parties from across The Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe ( French: Alliance des Démocrates et des Libéraux pour l'Europe) is an alliance between two European political parties European Liberal Youth (LYMEC - Liberal and Radical Youth Movement of the European Community is an international organisation of Liberal youth movements - mostly the youth The Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats is a regional organization of liberal and democratic political parties in Asia The Africa Liberal Network (ALN is an organization composed of 16 political parties from 14 African nations and is an associated organisation of Liberal The Liberal Network for Latin America ( Red Liberal de América Latina RELIAL) is an international network founded in 2003 with the official launch taking place in Costa Rica For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force ^[1] Modern liberalism has its roots in the Age of Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century

Broadly speaking, liberalism emphasizes individual rights and equality of opportunity. Individual rights refer to the Rights of Individuals in contrast with Group rights. Different forms of liberalism may propose very different policies, but they are generally united by their support for a number of principles, including extensive freedom of thought and speech, limitations on the power of governments, the rule of law, the free exchange of ideas, a market or mixed economy, and a transparent system of government. Freedom of thought (also called freedom of conscience and freedom of ideas) is the freedom of an individual to hold or consider a fact viewpoint Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without Censorship or Limitation. The rule of law, in its most basic form is the principle that no one is above the law A market economy is a realized Social system based on the Division of labour in which the prices of Goods and Services are determined in a A mixed economy is an Economic system that incorporates aspects of more than one economic system A system of government is a term that refers to the set of political Institutions by which a Government of a State is organized in order to exert its powers ^[2] All liberals — as well as some adherents of other political ideologies — support some variant of the form of government known as liberal democracy, with open and fair elections, where all citizens have equal rights by law. The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of ^[3]

Liberalism rejected many foundational assumptions that dominated most earlier theories of government, such as the Divine Right of Kings, hereditary status, and established religion. Foundationalism is any theory in Epistemology (typically theories of justification, but also of Knowledge) that holds that beliefs are justified (known The Divine Right of Kings is a general term that refers to the philosophy and ideas used to justify the authority and legitimacy of Monarchs in Medieval and A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially Social progressivism, the belief that traditions do not carry any inherent value and social practices ought to be continuously adjusted for the greater benefit of humanity, is a common component of liberal ideology. Social progressivism is the view that social Mores, Human nature, and Morality are capable of progress through history in a manner similar to that of scientific Liberalism is also strongly associated with the belief that human society should be organized in accordance with certain unchangeable and inviolable rights. A right is a legal or moral Entitlement or Permission. Rights are of vital importance in theories of Justice and deontological ethics Different schools of liberalism are based on different conceptions of human rights, but there are some rights that all liberals support to some extent, including rights to life, liberty, and property.

Within liberalism, there are two major currents of thought. which often compete over the use of the term "liberal" and have been known to clash on many issues, as they differ on their understanding of what constitutes freedom. Classical liberals, believe that the only real freedom is freedom from coercion. Classical liberalism (also known as traditional liberalism, Laissez-faire liberalism, Market liberalism or in much of the world Coercion (co-er-shion is the practice of compelling a person or manipulating them to behave in an involuntary way (whether through action or inaction by use of threats ^[4] As a result they see state intervention in the economy as a coercive power that restricts the economic freedom of individuals and favor laissez-faire economic policy. Laissez-faire ( pronunciation: French,; English,) is a French phrase literally meaning Let do (“allow to do” They oppose the welfare state. This article refers specifically to the Welfare state of the United Kingdom. ^[5] Social liberals argue that governments must take an active role in promoting the freedom of citizens. Social liberalism, also called new liberalism (as it was originally termed high liberalism radical liberalism, modern liberalism, or They believe that real freedom can only exist when citizens are healthy, educated, and free from dire poverty. They generally favor the right to an education, the right to health care, and the right to a minimum wage. A minimum wage is the lowest hourly daily or monthly Wage that employers may legally pay to employees or workers Some also favor laws against discrimination in housing and employment, laws against pollution of the environment, and the provision of welfare, including unemployment benefit and housing for the homeless, all supported by progressive taxation. "Social welfare" redirects here For other uses see Welfare A social welfare provision refers to any program which seeks to provide Unemployment benefits are payments made by Governments to unemployed people Public housing is a form of Housing tenure in which the property is owned by a Government authority which may be central or local A progressive tax is a Tax imposed so that the Tax rate increases as the amount subject to taxation increases ^[4]

Contents 1 Etymology and historical usage 1.1 Trends within liberalism 1.2 Comparative influences 2 Development of liberal thought 2.1 Origins of liberal thought 2.2 Revolutionary liberalism 2.3 Splits within liberalism 2.3.1 Role of the State 2.3.2 Natural rights vs. utilitarianism 2.3.3 Liberalism and democracy 2.3.4 Liberalism and radicalism 2.4 Liberalism and the great depression 2.5 Liberalism against totalitarianism 2.6 Liberalism after World War II 3 Contemporary liberalism 3.1 Positions of liberal parties 3.1.1 Freedom 3.1.2 Democracy 3.1.3 Civil rights 3.1.4 Rule of law 3.1.5 Neutral government 3.1.6 Equality 3.1.7 Free market 3.1.8 Environment 3.1.9 International relations 3.2 Conservative liberalism 3.3 Liberal conservatism 3.4 Liberal international relations theory 3.5 Neoliberalism 3.6 Liberalism and social democracy 4 Criticisms 5 See also 6 References 6.1 Notes 6.2 Other references 7 Further reading on liberalism 7.1 Prominent law scholars 7.2 Prominent philosophers 7.3 Prominent political scientists 8 External links

Etymology and historical usage

The word "liberal" derives from the Latin liber ("free, not slave"). Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It is widely associated with the word "liberty" and the concept of freedom. Livy's History of Rome from Its Foundation describes the struggles for freedom between the plebeian and patrician classes. Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome Plebs were the general body of landowners of Roman Citizens in Ancient Rome. The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and Marcus Aurelius in his Meditations writes about ". Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (often referred to as "the wise" ( April 26, 121 – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor . . the idea of a polity administered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom of speech, and the idea of a kingly government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed. . . . " Largely dormant during the vicissitudes of the Middle Ages, the struggle for freedom began again in the Italian Renaissance, in the conflict between the supporters of free city states and supporters of the Pope or the Holy Roman Emperor. The Italian Renaissance began the opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 14th History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and Niccolò Machiavelli, in his Discourses on Livy, laid down the principles of republican government. A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its John Locke in England and the thinkers of the French Enlightenment articulated the struggle for freedom in terms of the Rights of Man. John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Rights of Man (1787 by Thomas Paine, posits that popular political revolution is permissible when a government does not safeguard its people their natural rights

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) indicates that the word liberal has long been in the English language with the meanings of "befitting free men, noble, generous" as in liberal arts; also with the meaning "free from restraint in speech or action", as in liberal with the purse, or liberal tongue, usually as a term of reproach but, beginning 1776–88 imbued with a more favorable sense by Edward Gibbon and others to mean "free from prejudice, tolerant. The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED) published by the Oxford University Press (OUP is a comprehensive Dictionary of the English English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States The term liberal arts refers to a particular type of educational Curriculum broadly defined as a Classical education. Edward Gibbon ( April 27, 1737 January 16, 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. "

The first English language use to mean "tending in favor of freedom and democracy", according to the OED, dates from about 1801 and comes from the French libéral, "originally applied in English by its opponents (often in Fr. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people form and with suggestions of foreign lawlessness)". An early English language citation: "The extinction of every vestige of freedom, and of every liberal idea with which they are associated. "^[6]

The American War of Independence established the first nation to craft a constitution based on the concept of liberal government, especially the idea that governments rule by the consent of the governed. In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" The more moderate bourgeois elements of the French Revolution tried to establish a government based on liberal principles. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Economists such as Adam Smith, in The Wealth of Nations (1776), enunciated the liberal principles of free trade. An economist is an expert in the Social science of Economics. Adam Smith ( baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of Political economy. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is the Magnum opus of the Scottish economist Adam Smith. The editors of the Spanish Constitution of 1812, drafted in Cádiz, may have been the first to use the word liberal in a political sense as a noun. The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was promulgated by the Cádiz Cortes, the national legislative assembly ( Cortes Generales "General Courts" Cádiz ( Spanish:) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of the same name, a province which is one of eight They named themselves the Liberales, to express their opposition to the absolutist power of the Spanish monarchy. Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or

Beginning in the late 18th century, liberalism became a major ideology in virtually all developed countries.

Trends within liberalism

Within the above framework, there are deep, often bitter, conflicts and controversies among liberals. Emerging from those controversies, out of classical liberalism, are a number of different trends within liberalism. Classical liberalism (also known as traditional liberalism, Laissez-faire liberalism, Market liberalism or in much of the world As in many debates, opposite sides use different words for the same beliefs, and sometimes use identical words for different beliefs. For the purposes of this article, we will use "political liberalism" for the support of (liberal) democracy (either in a republic or a constitutional monarchy), over absolute monarchy or dictatorship; "cultural liberalism" for the support of individual liberty over laws limiting liberty for patriotic or religious reasons; "economic liberalism" for the support of private property, over government regulation; and "social liberalism" for the support of equality under the law, and relief provided by the government from suffering caused by poverty or natural disaster. This article is about John Rawls's book 'Political Liberalism A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything Cultural liberalism is a liberal view of society that stresses the freedom of individuals from cultural norms Economic liberalism is the Economic component of Classical liberalism. Social liberalism, also called new liberalism (as it was originally termed high liberalism radical liberalism, modern liberalism, or By "modern liberalism" we mean the mixture of these forms of liberalism found in most First World countries today, rather than any one of the pure forms listed above. The term " first world " refers to countries that are capitalist, which are technologically advanced and whose

“

Liberalism wagers that a state. . . can be strong but constrained – strong because constrained. . . Rights to education and other requirements for human development and security aim to advance equal opportunity and personal dignity and to promote a creative and productive society. To guarantee those rights, liberals have supported a wider social and economic role for the state, counterbalanced by more robust guarantees of civil liberties and a wider social system of checks and balances anchored in an independent press and pluralistic society. – Paul Starr, sociologist at Princeton University, The New Republic, March 2007

”

Some principles liberals generally agree upon:

• Political liberalism is the belief that individuals are the basis of law and society, and that society and its institutions exist to further the ends of individuals, without showing favor to those of higher social rank. Paul Starr ( May 12, 1949) is a Pulitzer Prize -winning professor of Sociology and public affairs at Princeton University Princeton University is a private Coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. The New Republic ( TNR) is an American Magazine of politics and the arts This article is about John Rawls's book 'Political Liberalism Magna Carta is an example of a political document that asserted the rights of individuals even above the prerogatives of monarchs. Magna Carta ( Latin for Great Charter, literally " Great Paper " also called Magna Carta Libertatum ( Great Charter of Freedoms Political liberalism stresses the social contract, under which citizens make the laws and agree to abide by those laws. Social contract describes a broad class of republican theories whose subjects are implied agreements by which people form Nations and maintain a Social order It is based on the belief that individuals know best what is best for them. Political liberalism enfranchises all adult citizens regardless of sex, race, or economic status. Political liberalism emphasizes the rule of law and supports liberal democracy. The rule of law, in its most basic form is the principle that no one is above the law The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of

• Cultural liberalism focuses on the rights of individuals pertaining to conscience and lifestyle, including such issues as sexual freedom, religious freedom, cognitive freedom, and protection from government intrusion into private life. Cultural liberalism is a liberal view of society that stresses the freedom of individuals from cultural norms John Stuart Mill aptly expressed cultural liberalism in his essay "On Liberty," when he wrote,

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The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant.

”

Cultural liberalism generally opposes government regulation of literature, art, academics, gambling, sex, prostitution, abortion, birth control, terminal illness, alcohol, and cannabis and other controlled substances. Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual An organism's sex is defined by the gametes it produces males produce male gametes (spermatozoa or Sperm) while females produce female gametes (ova or Egg cells; individual Prostitution is the act of performing Sexual activity in exchange for Money. An Birth control, sometimes synonymous with contraception, is a regimen of one or more actions devices or Medications followed in order to deliberately prevent Terminal illness is a medical term popularized in the 20th century to describe an active and Malignant Disease that cannot be cured or adequately treated Cannabis, also known as marijuana or marihuana, or ganja (from Hindi / Sanskrit: गांजा gānjā hemp) is a A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a Chemical substance that acts primarily upon the Central nervous system where it alters Brain Most liberals oppose some or all government intervention in these areas. The Netherlands, in this respect, may be the most liberal country in the world today. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands

However, some trends within liberalism reveal stark differences of opinion:

• Economic liberalism, also called classical liberalism or Manchester liberalism, is an ideology which supports the individual rights of property and freedom of contract, without which, it argues, the exercise of other liberties is impossible. Economic liberalism is the Economic component of Classical liberalism. Classical liberalism (also known as traditional liberalism, Laissez-faire liberalism, Market liberalism or in much of the world Manchester Capitalism, Manchester School, Manchester Liberalism or Manchesterism are terms for political economic and social movements of the 19th century It advocates laissez-faire capitalism, meaning the removal of legal barriers to trade and cessation of government-bestowed privilege such as subsidy and monopoly. Laissez-faire ( pronunciation: French,; English,) is a French phrase literally meaning Let do (“allow to do” Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Economic liberals want little or no government regulation of the market. Sao Paulo Stock Exchangejpg|thumb| Virtual market arena where buyer and seller are not present and trade via intemediates and electronical information Some economic liberals would accept government restrictions of monopolies and cartels, others argue that monopolies and cartels are caused by state action. In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient A cartel is a formal (explicit agreement among firms Cartels usually occur in an oligopolistic industry, where there is a small number of sellers and usually involve In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient A cartel is a formal (explicit agreement among firms Cartels usually occur in an oligopolistic industry, where there is a small number of sellers and usually involve Economic liberalism holds that the value of goods and services should be set by the unfettered choices of individuals, that is, of market forces. Some would also allow market forces to act even in areas conventionally monopolized by governments, such as the provision of security and courts. Economic liberalism accepts the economic inequality that arises from unequal bargaining positions as being the natural result of competition, so long as no coercion is used. This form of liberalism is especially influenced by English liberalism of the mid 19th century. Minarchism and anarcho-capitalism are forms of economic liberalism. In Civics, minarchism, sometimes called minimal Statism, small government, or limited-government Libertarianism Anarcho-capitalism (also known as Free-market anarchism) is an individualist anarchist Political philosophy that advocates the elimination (See also Free trade, Neo-liberalism, liberalization)

• Social liberalism, also known as new liberalism (not to be confused with 'neoliberalism') and reform liberalism, arose in the late 19th century in many developed countries, influenced by the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Free trade is a system in which the trade of goods and services between or within countries flows unhindered by government-imposed restrictions Originally coined by its critics and opponents " neoliberalism " is a label referring to the recent reemergence of Economic liberalism or Classical liberalism In general liberalization (or liberalisation) refers to a relaxation of previous government restrictions usually in areas of social or economic policy Social liberalism, also called new liberalism (as it was originally termed high liberalism radical liberalism, modern liberalism, or Jeremy Bentham ( IPA: or) (15 February 1748&ndash6 June 1832 was an English Jurist, Philosopher, and legal and Social reformer John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential Generally speaking, social liberals support free trade and a market-based economy in which the basic needs of all individuals are met. Furthermore, socially progressive ideas are commonly advocated by social liberals, based on the idea that social practices ought to be continuously adapted in such a manner as to benefit the substantive freedom of all members of society. Social progressivism is the view that social Mores, Human nature, and Morality are capable of progress through history in a manner similar to that of scientific According to the tenets of this form of liberalism, as explained by writers such as John Dewey and Mortimer Adler, since individuals are the basis of society, all individuals should have access to basic necessities of fulfillment, such as education, economic opportunity, and protection from harmful macro-events beyond their control. John Dewey (October 20 1859 &ndash June 1 1952 was an American Philosopher, Psychologist, and educational reformer, whose thoughts and ideas have Mortimer Jerome Adler ( December 28, 1902 &ndash June 28, 2001) was an American Aristotelian philosopher To social liberals, these benefits are considered rights.  ; this concept of positive rights is qualitatively different from the emphasis that economic liberals place on negative rights. Some philosophers and political scientists make a distinction between negative and positive Rights, not to be confused with the similar but different distinction between Some philosophers and political scientists make a distinction between negative and positive Rights, not to be confused with the similar but different distinction between Social liberals believe that in order for all people to have substantive liberty, the provision of basic necessities to all citizens ought to be ensured by the political community through means such as taxation, towards ends such as public education, universal healthcare, infrastructure, and social security. Public education is education mandated for or offered to the children of the general public by the Government, whether national regional or local provided by an institution Universal health care is health care coverage which is extended to all eligible residents of a governmental region Infrastructure typically refers to the technical structures that support a society such as Roads Water supply, Wastewater, Power grids Social security primarily refers to a Social insurance program providing social protection or protection against socially recognized conditions including poverty old

Social liberalism advocates some restrictions on matters that economic liberals view as fundamental rights. For example, social liberals may favor minimum wage laws, which classical liberals view as violating of the liberty to contract. Social liberals argue that power disparities cause contracts to favor the rich. To which economic liberals reply, "Then don't sign. "

The struggle between economic freedom and social equality is almost as old as the idea of freedom itself. Economic freedom is freedom to produce trade and consume any goods and services acquired without the use of force fraud or theft Social equality is a social state of affairs in which all people within a specific society or isolated group have the same status in a certain respect Plutarch, writing about Solon (c. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c Solon ( ancient Greek:, c 638 BC&ndash558 BC was an Athenian Statesman, Lawmaker and Lyric poet. 639 – c. 559 BCE), the lawgiver of ancient Athens, wrote:

“

The remission of debts was peculiar to Solon; it was his great means for confirming the citizens' liberty; for a mere law to give all men equal rights is but useless, if the poor must sacrifice those rights to their debts, and, in the very seats and sanctuaries of equality, the courts of justice, the offices of state, and the public discussions, be more than anywhere at the beck and bidding of the rich.

”

All forms of liberalism claim to protect freedom. They disagree only about the true meaning of freedom. Liberalism is so widespread in the modern world that most Western nations at least pay lip service to individual liberty as the basis for society.

Comparative influences

Early Enlightenment thinkers contrasted liberalism with the authoritarianism of the Ancien Régime, feudalism, mercantilism and the Roman Catholic Church. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed Mercantilism is the idea that a colony should export more goods than it imports and that a colony should sell at higher prices and buy at lower prices Later, as more radical philosophers articulated their thoughts in the course of the French Revolution and throughout the nineteenth century, liberalism defined itself in contrast to socialism and communism, although modern European liberal parties have often formed coalitions with social-democratic parties. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Social democracy is a Political ideology of the left and centre-left In the 20th century liberalism defined itself in opposition to totalitarianism and collectivism. Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a concept used to describe Political systems where a State regulates nearly every aspect of public and private Collectivism is a term used to describe any moral political or social outlook that stresses human Interdependence and the importance of a Collective, rather than Some modern liberals have rejected the classical Just War theory, which emphasizes neutrality and free trade, in favor of multilateral interventionism and collective security. Just War theory is a Doctrine of military ethics of Roman philosophical and Catholic origin studied by moral Theologians Ethicists and international Collective Security, according to Inis Claude's article "Collective Security as an Approach to Peace" is seen as a compromise between the concept of world government and a nation-state

Liberalism favors the limitation of government power. Extreme anti-statist liberalism, as advocated by Frederic Bastiat, Gustave de Molinari, Herbert Spencer, and Auberon Herbert, is a radical form of liberalism called anarchism (no state at all) or minarchism (a minimal state, or sometimes called "the nightwatchman state. Anti- Statism refers to opposition to state intervention into personal social or economic affairs Claude Frédéric Bastiat ( June 30, 1801 December 24, 1850) was a French classical liberal theorist political economist Gustave de Molinari ( March 3, 1819 - January 28, 1912) was an economist born in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands associated Herbert Spencer ( April 27, 1820 – December 8, 1903) was an English Philosopher; prominent classical liberal Auberon Edward William Molyneux Herbert ( Highclere, June 18 1838 — November 5 1906) was a Writer Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i In Civics, minarchism, sometimes called minimal Statism, small government, or limited-government Libertarianism A night watchman state, or a minimal state, is a Form of government in Political philosophy where the government's responsibilities are so minimal they ")^[7] Most liberals claim that a government is necessary to protect rights, yet the meaning of "government" can range from simply a rights protection organization to a Weberian state. For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (maks 'veːbɐ (21 April 1864 &ndash 14 June 1920 was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. Recently, liberalism has again come into conflict with those who seek a society ordered by religious values: radical Islamism often rejects liberal thought in its entirety, and radical Christian sects in Western liberal-democratic states — especially the US — often find their moral opinions coming into conflict with liberal laws and ideals. Islamism ( Islam + ism; Arabic: al-'islāmiyya) a set of ideologies holding that Islam is not only

Development of liberal thought

Origins of liberal thought

The focus on liberty as an essential right of people within the polity has been repeatedly asserted throughout history. These include are the conflicts between the plebeians and patricians in ancient Rome and the struggles of Italian city states against the Papal States. Plebs were the general body of landowners of Roman Citizens in Ancient Rome. The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The Papal States, State(s of the Church or Pontifical States (in Italian Stato Ecclesiastico, Stato della Chiesa, Stati della Chiesa The republics of Florence and Venice had forms of elections, the rule of law, and pursuit of free enterprise through much of the 1400s until domination by outside powers in the 16th century. A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany The Most Serene Republic of Venice ((Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia Serenissima Repubblica The Dutch resistance against (Spanish) Catholic oppression during the Eighty Years' War is often — despite its refusal to give freedom to Catholics — considered a predecessor of liberal values. The Dutch Revolt, Eighty Years' War or the Revolt of the Netherlands (1568—1648 was the revolt of the Seventeen Provinces in the Low Countries Other precursors to liberalism include certain aspects of the Magna Carta and medieval Islamic ethics. Magna Carta ( Latin for Great Charter, literally " Great Paper " also called Magna Carta Libertatum ( Great Charter of Freedoms Islamic ethics ( akhlāq) defined as "good character" historically took shape gradually from the 7th century and was finally established by the 11th ^[8][9]

The modern ideology of liberalism can be traced back to the humanism which challenged the authority of the established church during the Renaissance, and the Whigs of the Glorious Revolution in Great Britain, whose assertion of their right to choose their king can be seen as a precursor to claims of popular sovereignty. Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal An established church is a church officially sanctioned and supported by the government of a country e The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (VII of Scotland in 1688 by a union Popular sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people is the belief that the legitimacy of the State is created by the will or consent of its people, who However, movements generally labeled as truly "liberal" date from the Enlightenment, particularly the Whig party in Britain, the philosophes in France, and the movement towards self-government in colonial America. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century The Whigs (with the Tories) are often described as one of two political parties in England and later the United Kingdom from the late 17th to The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The philosophes ( French for Philosophers ' were a group of intellectuals of the 18th century Enlightenment. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Self-governance is an abstract concept that refers to several scales of Organization. The term colonial history of the United States refers to the history of the land that would become the United States from the start of European settlement to the time of independence These movements opposed absolute monarchy, mercantilism, and various kinds of religious orthodoxy and clericalism. Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything Mercantilism is the idea that a colony should export more goods than it imports and that a colony should sell at higher prices and buy at lower prices The word orthodox, from Greek orthodoxos "having the right opinion" from orthos ("right true straight" + doxa ("opinion Clericalism is the application of the formal church-based leadership or opinion of ordained clergy in matters of either the church or broader political and sociocultural import They were also the first to formulate the concepts of individual rights under the rule of law, as well as the importance of self-government through elected representatives.

The definitive break with the past was the conception that free individuals could form the foundation for a stable society. This idea is generally dated from the work of John Locke (1632-1704), whose Two Treatises on Government established two fundamental liberal ideas: economic liberty, meaning the right to have and use property, and intellectual liberty, including freedom of conscience, which he expounded in A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689). John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. The Two Treatises of Government (or " Two Treatises of Government In the Former The False Principles and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer And His Followers are Detected A Letter Concerning Toleration by John Locke was originally published in 1689. However, he did not extend his views on religious freedom to Roman Catholics . Locke developed further the earlier idea of natural rights, which he saw as "life, liberty and property". Natural law or the law of nature ( Latin: lex naturalis) is a theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by Nature and that His "natural rights theory" was the distant forerunner of the modern conception of human rights. Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled However, to Locke, property was more important than the right to participate in government and public decision-making: he did not endorse democracy, because he feared that giving power to the people would erode the sanctity of private property. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system Nevertheless, the idea of natural rights played a key role in providing the ideological justification for the American revolution and the French revolution. In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an

On the European continent, the doctrine of laws restraining even monarchs was expounded by Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, whose The Spirit of the Laws argues that "Better is it to say, that the government most conformable to nature is that which best agrees with the humour and disposition of the people in whose favour it is established," rather than accept as natural the mere rule of force. Charles-Louis de Secondat baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (Eng The Spirit of Laws (French De l'esprit des lois) is a Treatise on Political theory first published anonymously by Charles de Secondat Following in his footsteps, political economist Jean-Baptiste Say and Destutt de Tracy were ardent exponents of the "harmonies" of the market, and in all probability it was they who coined the term laissez-faire. Jean-Baptiste Say ( January 5, 1767 &ndash November 15, 1832) was a French economist and businessman Antoine Louis Claude Destutt comte de Tracy ( July 20, 1754 - March 9, 1836) was a French Enlightenment Aristocrat Laissez-faire ( pronunciation: French,; English,) is a French phrase literally meaning Let do (“allow to do” This evolved into the physiocrats, and to the political economy of Rousseau. The physiocrats were a group of Economists who believed that the wealth of nations was derived solely from the value of land Agriculture or land development Political economy originally was the term for studying production buying and selling and their relations with law custom and government

The late French enlightenment saw two figures who would have tremendous influence on later liberal thought: Voltaire who argued that the French should adopt constitutional monarchy, and disestablish the Second Estate, and Rousseau who argued for a natural freedom for mankind. François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is Both argued, in different forms, for changes in political and social arrangements based around the idea that society can restrain a natural human liberty, but not obliterate its nature. For Voltaire the concept was more intellectual, for Rousseau, it was related to intrinsic natural rights, perhaps related to the ideas of Diderot. Denis Diderot ( October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French Philosopher and writer

Rousseau also argued the importance of a concept that appears repeatedly in the history of liberal thought, namely, the social contract. Anders Chydenius ( 26 February 1729 - 1 February 1803) was the leading classical liberal of Nordic history He rooted this in the nature of the individual and asserted that each person knows their own interest best. His assertion that man is born free, but that education was sufficient to restrain him within society, rocked the monarchical society of his age. His assertion of an organic will of a nation argued for self-determination of peoples, again in contravention of established political practice. His ideas were a key element in the declaration of the National Assembly in the French Revolution, and in the thinking of Americans such as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. The National Assembly is either a Legislature, or the Lower house of a Bicameral legislature in some countries Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence In his view the unity of a state came from the concerted action of consent, or the "national will". This unity of action would allow states to exist without being chained to pre-existing social orders, such as aristocracy.

A main contributing group of thinkers whose work would become considered part of liberalism are those associated with the "Scottish Enlightenment", including the writers David Hume and Adam Smith, and the German enlightenment philosopher Immanuel Kant. The Scottish Enlightenment was the period in 18th century Scotland characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy Adam Smith ( baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of Political economy. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg

David Hume's contributions were many and varied, but most important was his assertion that fundamental rules of human behavior would overwhelm attempts to restrict or regulate them, in A Treatise of Human Nature, 1739-1740. Adam Smith ( baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of Political economy. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy A Treatise of Human Nature is a book by Scottish philosopher David Hume, first published in 1739 – 1740. One example of this is in his disparaging of mercantilism, and the accumulation of gold and silver. Mercantilism is the idea that a colony should export more goods than it imports and that a colony should sell at higher prices and buy at lower prices He argued that prices were related to the quantity of money, and that hoarding gold and issuing paper money would only lead to inflation.

Although Adam Smith is the most famous of the economic liberal thinkers, he was not without antecedents. The physiocrats in France had proposed studying systematically political economy and the self organizing nature of markets. The physiocrats were a group of Economists who believed that the wealth of nations was derived solely from the value of land Agriculture or land development Benjamin Franklin wrote in favor of the freedom of American industry in 1750. In Sweden-Finland the period of liberty and parliamentary government from 1718 to 1772 produced a Finnish parliamentarian, Anders Chydenius, who was one of the first to propose free trade and unregulated industry, in The National Gain, 1765. Sweden–Finland is a historiographical term used especially in Finland, to refer to the Swedish Kingdom from the Kalmar Union to the Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Anders Chydenius ( 26 February 1729 - 1 February 1803) was the leading classical liberal of Nordic history The National Gain ( Swedish title Den nationnale winsten) is the main work of the Finnish scientist philosopher and politician Anders His impact has proven to be lasting particularly in the Nordic area, but it also had a powerful effect in later developments elsewhere.

The Scotsman Adam Smith (1723–1790) expounded the theory that individuals could structure both moral and economic life without direction from the state, and that nations would be strongest when their citizens were free to follow their own initiative. Adam Smith ( baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of Political economy. He advocated an end to feudal and mercantile regulations, to state-granted monopolies and patents, and he promulgated "laissez-faire" government. Laissez-faire ( pronunciation: French,; English,) is a French phrase literally meaning Let do (“allow to do” In The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 1759, he developed a theory of motivation that tried to reconcile human self-interest and an unregulated social order. The Theory of Moral Sentiments was written by Adam Smith in 1759 In The Wealth of Nations, 1776, he argued that the market, under certain conditions, would naturally regulate itself and would produce more than the heavily restricted markets that were the norm at the time. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is the Magnum opus of the Scottish economist Adam Smith. He assigned to government the role of taking on tasks which could not be entrusted to the profit motive, such as preventing individuals from using force or fraud to disrupt competition, trade, or production. His theory of taxation was that governments should levy taxes only in ways which did not harm the economy, and that "The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government, as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under the protection of the state. " He agreed with Hume that capital, not gold, is the wealth of a nation.

Immanuel Kant was strongly influenced by Hume's empiricism and rationalism. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg His most important contributions to liberal thinking are in the realm of ethics, particularly his assertion of the categorical imperative. The categorical imperative is the central philosophical concept of the Moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and of modern Deontological ethics Kant argued that received systems of reason and morals were subordinate to natural law, and that, therefore, attempts to stifle this basic law would meet with failure. His idealism would become increasingly influential, since it asserted that there were fundamental truths upon which systems of knowledge could be based. This meshed well with the ideas of the English Enlightenment about natural rights.

Revolutionary liberalism

These thinkers, however, worked within the political framework of monarchies and in societies in which the class system and an established church were the norm. Although the earlier Wars of the Three Kingdoms had resulted in the republican Commonwealth of England between 1649 and 1660, the idea that ordinary human beings could structure their own affairs had been suppressed with the Restoration and then remained theoretical until the American and French Revolutions. The Wars of the Three Kingdoms (sometimes known as the Wars of the Three Nations) formed an intertwined series of conflicts that took place in Scotland, The Commonwealth of England was the Republican government which ruled first England (including Wales) and then Ireland and Scotland The English Restoration, or simply The Restoration began in 1660 when the English monarchy, Scottish monarchy and Irish monarchy were restored In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an (The Glorious Revolution of 1688 is often cited as a precedent, but it replaced one monarch with another monarch. The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (VII of Scotland in 1688 by a union It had, however, weakened the power of the monarch and strengthened the British Parliament which had refused to accept the Jacobite succession. The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories Jacobitism was (and to a limited extent remains the political movement dedicated to the restoration of the Stuart kings to the thrones of England, Scotland ) The republican ideas of Radicals influenced these two late 18th century revolutions which became the examples which later revolutionary liberals followed. For opposition to all forms of government social hierarchy or authority see Anarchism. A revolutionary when used as a noun is a person who either actively engages in some kind of Revolution, or advocates the revolution with recognition from some government or Both used as their philosophical justification the Rights of Man or the rights given, in the words of Henry St. John, by "Nature and Nature's God". Rights of Man (1787 by Thomas Paine, posits that popular political revolution is permissible when a government does not safeguard its people their natural rights Henry St John is the name of Henry St John 1st Viscount Bolingbroke (1678–1751 English politician and philosopher Henry St They rejected both tradition and established power.

Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams would be instrumental in persuading their fellow Americans to revolt in the name of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, echoing Locke, but with one important change (opposed by Alexander Hamilton). Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence John Adams (October 30 1735 July 4 1826 was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. Jefferson replaced Locke's word "property" by "the pursuit of happiness". The "American Experiment" would be in favor of democratic government and individual liberty.

James Madison was prominent among the next generation of political theorists in America, arguing that in a republic self-government depended on setting "interest against interest", thus providing protection for the rights of minorities, particularly economic minorities. James Madison Jr (March 16 1751 – June 28 1836 was an American Politician, the fourth President of the United States (1809–1817 and one of the Founding The American constitution instituted a system of checks and balances: federal government balanced against states' rights; executive, legislative, and judicial branches; and a bicameral legislature. A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity In Government, bicameralism (bi + Latin la ''camera'' chamber is the practice of having two legislative or Parliamentary chambers Thus a bicameral The goal was to insure liberty by preventing the concentration of power in the hands of any one man. Standing armies were held in suspicion, and the belief was that the militia would be enough for defense, along with a navy maintained by the government for the purpose of trade. The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary Citizens to provide defense emergency law enforcement or Paramilitary service

The French Revolution overthrew monarch, aristocratic social order, and an established Roman Catholic Church. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations These revolutionaries were more vehement and less compromising than those in America. A key moment in the French Revolution was the declaration by the representatives of the Third Estate that they were the "National Assembly" and had the right to speak for the French people. The Estates of the realm were the broad divisions of society usually distinguishing Nobility, Clergy, and Commoners recognized in the Middle Ages During the first few years the revolution was guided by liberal ideas, but the transition from revolt to stability was to prove more difficult than the similar American transition. In addition to native Enlightenment traditions, some leaders of the early phase of the revolution, such as Lafayette, had fought in the U. S. War of Independence against Britain, and brought home Anglo-American liberal ideas. Later, under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre, a Jacobin faction greatly centralized power and dispensed with most aspects of due process, resulting in the Reign of Terror. Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (maksimiljɛ̃ fʁɑ̃swa maʁi izidɔʁ də ʁɔbɛspjɛʁ ( 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) Due process (more fully due process of law) is the principle that a person has a right to receive notice and be heard in an orderly proceeding in order to protect his or her Saint justjpg|thumbnail|200px| Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just]] The Reign of Terror' (5 September 1793 &ndash 28 July 1794 or simply The Terror (la Terreur was Instead of an ultimately republican constitution, Napoleon Bonaparte rose from Director, to Consul, to Emperor. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. On his death bed he confessed "They wanted another Washington", meaning a man who could militarily establish a new state, without desiring a dynasty. Nevertheless, the French Revolution would go farther than the American Revolution in establishing liberal ideals with such policies as universal male suffrage, national citizenship, and a far reaching "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen", paralleling the American Bill of Rights. Suffrage (from the Latin suffragium, meaning "voting tablet" and figuratively "right to vote" probably from suffrago "hough" and originally The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining A Bill of Rights is a list or summary of rights that are considered important and essential by a group of people One of the side-effects of Napoleon's military campaigns was to carry these ideas throughout Europe.

The examples of United States and France were followed in many other countries. Benito Pablo Juárez García (benit̪o paβ̞lo xwaɾes gaɾsia ( March 21, 1806 – July 18, 1872) was a Zapotec Amerindian The usurpation of the Spanish monarchy by Napoleon's forces in 1808 led to autonomist and independence movements across Latin America, which often turned to liberal ideas as alternatives to the monarchical-clerical corporatism of the colonial era. Movements such as that led by Simón Bolívar in the Andean countries aspired to constitutional government, individual rights, and free trade. Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar Palacios y Blanco,Venezuelan or commonly known as Simón Bolívar ( July 24, 1783 &ndash The struggle between liberals and corporatist conservatives continued for the rest of the century in Latin America, with anti-clerical liberals like Benito Juárez of Mexico attacking the traditional role of the Roman Catholic Church. Anti-clericalism is a historical movement that opposes Religious (generally Catholic institutional power and influence real or alleged in all aspects of public and political Benito Pablo Juárez García (benit̪o paβ̞lo xwaɾes gaɾsia ( March 21, 1806 – July 18, 1872) was a Zapotec Amerindian

The transition to liberal society in Europe sometimes came through revolutionary or secessionist violence, and there were repeated explicitly liberal revolutions and revolts throughout Europe in the first half of the 19th century. A revolution (from the Latin revolutio, "a turnaround" is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively Secession (derived from the Latin term secessio is the act of withdrawing from an organization union or especially a political entity However, in Britain and many other nations, the process was driven more by politics than revolution, even if the process was not entirely tranquil. The anti-clerical violence during the French Revolution was seen by opponents at the time, and for most of the 19th century, as explicitly liberal in origin. Anti-clericalism is a historical movement that opposes Religious (generally Catholic institutional power and influence real or alleged in all aspects of public and political The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an At the same time many French liberals too were victim of the Jacobin terror.

With the coming of romanticism, liberal notions moved from being proposals for reform of existing governments, to demands for change. Romanticism is a complex artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the The American Revolution and the French Revolution would add "democracy" to the list of values which liberal thought promoted. In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system The idea, that the people were sovereign, and capable of making all necessary laws and enforcing them, went beyond the conceptions of the Enlightenment. Instead of merely asserting the rights of individuals within the state, all of the state's powers were derived from the nature of man (natural law), given by God (supernatural law), or by contract ("the just consent of the governed". Natural law or the law of nature ( Latin: lex naturalis) is a theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by Nature and that ) This made compromise with previously autocratic orders far less likely, and the resulting violence was justified, in the minds of monarchists, to restore order.

The contractual nature of liberal thought to this point must be stressed. A contract is an exchange of promises between two or more parties to do or refrain from doing an act which is enforceable in a court of law One of the basic ideas of the first wave of thinkers in the liberal tradition was that individuals made agreements and owned property. This may not seem a radical notion today, but at the time most property laws defined property as belonging to a family or to a particular figure within it, such as the "head of the family". Obligations were based on feudal ties of loyalty and personal fealty, rather than an exchange of goods and services. Gradually, the liberal tradition introduced the idea that voluntary consent and voluntary agreement were the basis for legitimate government and law. This view was further advanced by Rousseau with his notion of a social contract. Social contract describes a broad class of republican theories whose subjects are implied agreements by which people form Nations and maintain a Social order

Between 1774 and 1848, there were several waves of revolutions, each revolution demanding greater and greater primacy for individual rights. The revolutions placed increasing value on self-governance. Self-governance is an abstract concept that refers to several scales of Organization. This could lead to secession – a particularly important concept in the revolutions which ended Spanish control over much of her colonial empire in the Americas, and in the American Revolution. An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that European liberals, particularly after the French Constitution of 1793, thought that democracy, considered as majority rule by propertyless men, would be a danger to private property, and favored a franchise limited to those with a certain amount of property. Later liberal democrats, like de Tocqueville, disagreed. In countries where feudal property arrangements still held sway, liberals generally supported unification as the path to liberty. The strongest examples of this are Germany and Italy. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest As part of this revolutionary program, the importance of education, a value repeatedly stressed from Erasmus onward, became more and more central to the idea of liberty.

Liberal parties in many European monarchies agitated for parliamentary government, increased representation, expansion of the franchise where present, and the creation of a counterweight to monarchical power. This political liberalism was often driven by economic liberalism, namely, the desire to end feudal privileges, guild or royal monopolies, restrictions on ownership, and laws which did not permit the full range of corporate and economic arrangements being developed in other countries. To one degree or another, these forces were seen even in autocracies such as Turkey, Russia and Japan. As the Russian Empire crumbled under the weight of economic failure and military defeat, it was the liberal parties who took control of the Duma, and in 1905 and 1917 began revolutions against the government. Later Piero Gobetti would formulate a theory of "Liberal Revolution" to explain what he felt was the radical element in liberal ideology. Piero Gobetti ( June 19, 1901 – February 15, 1926) was an Italian journalist intellectual and radical liberal Another example of this form of liberal revolution is from Ecuador where Eloy Alfaro in 1895 lead a "radical liberal" revolution that secularized the state, opened marriage laws, engaged in the development of infrastructure and the economy. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Ecuador topics. José Eloy Alfaro Delgado ( June 25, 1842 in Montecristi - January 28, 1912 in Quito) was president of Ecuador

Splits within liberalism

Role of the State

By the end of the 19th century, a growing body of liberal thought asserted that, in order to be free, individuals needed access to the requirements of fulfillment, including protection from exploitation and education. In 1911, L.T. Hobhouse published Liberalism,^[11] which summarized the new liberalism, including qualified acceptance of government intervention in the economy, and the collective right to equality in dealings, what he called "just consent. Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse ( September 8, 1864 - June 21, 1929) was a British liberal politician one of the theorists of "

Opposed to these changes was a strain of liberalism which became increasingly anti-government, in some cases adopting anarchism. Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i Gustave de Molinari^[12] in France and Herbert Spencer^[13] in England were prominent.

Natural rights vs. utilitarianism

The German Wilhelm von Humboldt developed the modern concepts of liberalism in his book The Limits of State Action. Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand Freiherr von Humboldt ( June 22, 1767 April 8, 1835) government functionary ^[14] John Stuart Mill popularized and expanded these ideas in On Liberty (1859) and other works. John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential On Liberty is a philosophical work by 19th century English Philosopher John Stuart Mill, first published in 1859 He opposed collectivist tendencies while still placing emphasis on quality of life for the individual. Collectivism is a term used to describe any moral political or social outlook that stresses human Interdependence and the importance of a Collective, rather than He also had sympathy for female suffrage and (later in life) for labor co-operatives.

One of Mill's most important contributions was his utilitarian justification of liberalism. Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall Utility, that is its contribution to happiness Mill grounded liberal ideas in the instrumental and pragmatic, allowing the unification of subjective ideas of liberty gained from the French thinkers in the tradition of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the more rights-based philosophies of John Locke in the British tradition. John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher.

Liberalism and democracy

The relationship between liberalism and democracy may be summed up by Winston Churchill's famous remark, ". Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC, PC (Can ( 30 November 1874 . . democracy is the worst form of Government except all those other forms. . . " In short, there is nothing about democracy per se that guarantees freedom rather than a tyranny of the masses. The coinage liberal democracy suggests a more harmonious marriage between the two principles than actually exists. The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of ^[15] Liberals strive after the replacement of absolutism by limited government: government by consent. The idea of consent suggests democracy. At the same time, the founders of the first liberal democracies feared mob rule, and so they built into the constitutions of liberal democracies checks and balances intended to limit the power of government by dividing those powers among several branches. Ochlocracy ( Greek: οχλοκρατία or okhlokratía; Latin: ochlocratia) is government by mob or a mass of people Separation of powers, a term ascribed to French Enlightenment Political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, is a model for the Governance For liberals, democracy is not an end in itself, but an essential means to secure liberty, individuality and diversity. ^[16]

Liberalism and radicalism

Further information: Radicalism (historical)

In various countries in Europe and Latin-America the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century show the existence of a radical political tendency next to or as successor of a more doctrinal liberal tendency. For opposition to all forms of government social hierarchy or authority see Anarchism. In some countries the radical tendency is a variant of liberalism that is less doctrinal and more willing to accept democratic reforms than traditional liberals. In the United Kingdom the Radicals unite with the more traditional liberal Whigs into the Liberal Party. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located For opposition to all forms of government social hierarchy or authority see Anarchism. The Whigs (with the Tories) are often described as one of two political parties in England and later the United Kingdom from the late 17th to In other countries, these left wing liberals form their own radical parties with various names (e. g. in Switzerland and Germany (the Freisinn), Bulgaria, Denmark, Spain and the Netherlands^[17] but also Argentina and Chile. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the ^[18] This doesn't mean that all radical parties were formed by left wing liberals. In the French political literature it is normal to make clear separation between liberalism and radicalism in France. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. In Serbia liberalism and radicalism had and have almost nothing in common. But even the French radicals were aligned to the international liberal movement in the first half of the twentieth century, in the Entente Internationale des Partis Radicaux et des Partis Démocratiques similaires^[19]

Liberalism and the great depression

Despite some dispute whether there was an actual laissez-faire capitalist state in existence at the time [1], the Great Depression of the 1930s shook public faith in "laissez-faire capitalism" and "the profit motive," leading many to conclude that the unregulated markets could not produce prosperity and prevent poverty. Many liberals were troubled by the political instability and restrictions on liberty that they believed were caused by the growing relative inequality of wealth. Key liberals of this persuasion, such as John Dewey, John Maynard Keynes, and Franklin D. Roosevelt, argued for the creation of a more elaborate state apparatus to serve as the bulwark of individual liberty, permitting the continuation of capitalism while protecting the citizens against its perceived excesses. John Dewey (October 20 1859 &ndash June 1 1952 was an American Philosopher, Psychologist, and educational reformer, whose thoughts and ideas have John Maynard Keynes 1st Baron Keynes CB (ˈkeɪnz "cains" (5 June 1883 &ndash 21 April 1946 was a British Economist whose ideas Some liberals, including Hayek, whose work The Road to Serfdom remains influential, argued against these institutions, believing the Great Depression and Second World War to be individual events, that, once passed, did not justify a permanent change in the role of government. Friedrich August von Hayek CH ( May 8, 1899 March 23, 1992) was an Austrian British Economist The Road to Serfdom is a book written by Friedrich Hayek (recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1974 which has significantly

Key liberal thinkers, such as Lujo Brentano, Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse, Thomas Hill Green, John Maynard Keynes, Bertil Ohlin and John Dewey, described how a government should intervene in the economy to protect liberty while avoiding socialism. Lujo Brentano ( 18 December 1844 &ndash 9 September 1931) was an eminent German economist and social reformer Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse ( September 8, 1864 - June 21, 1929) was a British liberal politician one of the theorists of For the actor Thomas Hill see Thomas Hill. Thomas Hill Green ( April 7, 1836 – March 26, 1882) John Maynard Keynes 1st Baron Keynes CB (ˈkeɪnz "cains" (5 June 1883 &ndash 21 April 1946 was a British Economist whose ideas Bertil Gotthard Ohlin (ˈbærtil uˈliːn ( 23 April 1899 – 3 August 1979) was a Swedish Economist and Politician John Dewey (October 20 1859 &ndash June 1 1952 was an American Philosopher, Psychologist, and educational reformer, whose thoughts and ideas have Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution These liberals developed the theory of modern liberalism (also "new liberalism," not to be confused with present-day neoliberalism). Social liberalism, also called new liberalism (as it was originally termed high liberalism radical liberalism, modern liberalism, or Originally coined by its critics and opponents " neoliberalism " is a label referring to the recent reemergence of Economic liberalism or Classical liberalism Modern liberals rejected both radical capitalism and the revolutionary elements of the socialist school. A revolutionary when used as a noun is a person who either actively engages in some kind of Revolution, or advocates the revolution with recognition from some government or Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution John Maynard Keynes, in particular, had a significant impact on liberal thought throughout the world. John Maynard Keynes 1st Baron Keynes CB (ˈkeɪnz "cains" (5 June 1883 &ndash 21 April 1946 was a British Economist whose ideas The Liberal Party in Britain, particularly since Lloyd George's People's Budget, was heavily influenced by Keynes, as was the Liberal International, the Oxford Liberal Manifesto of 1947 of the world organization of liberal parties. The Liberal Party was one of the two major British political parties from the early 19th century until the rise of the Labour Party in the 1920s and a third party The 1909 (UK People's Budget was a product of Herbert Asquith 's Liberal government that introduced many unprecedented taxes on the wealthy and radical social welfare programmes Liberal International is a Political international for liberal parties. This article gives information on liberalism in diverse countries around the world In the United States, the influence of Keynesianism on Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal has led modern liberalism to be identified with American liberalism and Canadian Liberalism. In Economics Keynesian economics (ˈkeɪnziən also Keynesianism and Keynesian Theory) is based on the ideas of twentieth-century British economist The New Deal was the name that United States President Franklin D Social liberalism, also called new liberalism (as it was originally termed high liberalism radical liberalism, modern liberalism, or Liberalism in the United States is a broad political and philosophical mindset favoring individual Liberty, and opposing restrictions on liberty whether they come from

Other liberals, including Friedrich August von Hayek, Milton Friedman, and Ludwig von Mises, argued that the great depression was not a result of "laissez-faire" capitalism but a result of too much government intervention and regulation upon the market. Friedrich August von Hayek CH ( May 8, 1899 March 23, 1992) was an Austrian British Economist Milton Friedman (July 31 1912 November 16 2006 was an American Nobel Laureate Economist and Public intellectual. Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises (ˈluːtvɪç fɔn ˈmiːzəs ( September 29, 1881 – October 10, 1973) was an Austrian In Friedman's work, "Capitalism and Freedom" he elucidated government regulation that occurred before the great depression including heavy regulations upon banks that prevented them, he argued, from reacting to the markets' demand for money. Furthermore, the U. S. Federal government had created a fixed currency pegged to the value of gold. This pegged value created a massive surplus of gold, but later the pegged value was too low which created a massive migration of gold from the U. S. Friedman and Hayek both believed that this inability to react to currency demand created a run on the banks that the banks were no longer able to handle, and that and the fixed exchange rates between the dollar and gold both worked to cause the Great Depression by creating, and then not fixing, deflationary pressures. He further argued in this thesis, that the government inflicted more pain upon the American public by first raising taxes, then by printing money to pay debts (thus causing inflation), the combination of which helped to wipe out the savings of the middle class.

Only in 1974 was Hayek awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics for, among other reasons, his theory of business cycles and his conception of the effects of monetary and credit policies and for being "one of the few economists who gave warning of the possibility of a major economic crisis before the great crash came in the autumn of 1929. " [2]

Liberalism against totalitarianism

In the mid-20th century, liberalism began to define itself in opposition to totalitarianism. Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a concept used to describe Political systems where a State regulates nearly every aspect of public and private The term was first used by Giovanni Gentile to describe the socio-political system set up by Mussolini. Giovanni Gentile (dʒoˈvɑnni dʒenˈtile May 30, 1875 April 15, 1944) was an Italian neo- Hegelian Idealist Stalin would apply it to German Nazism, and after the war it became a descriptive term for what liberalism considered the common characteristics of fascist, Nazi and Marxist-Leninist regimes. Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology Marxism-Leninism is a Communist ideological stream that emerged as the mainstream tendency amongst the Communist parties in the 1920s as it was adopted Totalitarian regimes sought and tried to implement absolute centralized control over all aspects of society, in order to achieve prosperity and stability. The word regime (occasionally spelled " régime " particularly in older texts refers to a set of conditions most often of a Political nature These governments often justified such absolutism by arguing that the survival of their civilization was at risk. Opposition to totalitarian regimes acquired great importance in liberal and democratic thinking, and they were often portrayed as trying to destroy liberal democracy. On the other hand, the opponents of liberalism strongly objected to the classification that unified mutually hostile fascist and communist ideologies and considered them fundamentally different.

In Italy and Germany, nationalist governments linked corporate capitalism to the state, and promoted the idea that their nations were culturally and racially superior, and that conquest would give them their "rightful" place in the world. The propaganda machines of these countries argued that democracy was weak and incapable of decisive action, and that only a strong leader could impose necessary discipline. In Soviet Union, the ruling communists banned private property, claiming to act for the sake of economic and social justice, and the government had full control over the planned economy. A planned economy or directed economy is an Economic system in which the Government or Workers' councils manages the Economy. The regime insisted that personal interests be linked and inferior to those of the society, of class, which was ultimately an excuse for persecuting both oppositions as well as dissidents within the communists ranks as well as arbitrary use of severe penal code. A penal code is a portion of a State 's Laws defining Crimes and specifying the Punishment.

The rise of totalitarianism became a lens for liberal thought. Many liberals began to analyze their own beliefs and principles, and came to the conclusion that totalitarianism arose because people in a degraded condition turn to dictatorships for solutions. From this, it was argued that the state had the duty to protect the economic well being of its citizens. As Isaiah Berlin said, "Freedom for the wolves means death for the sheep. Sir Isaiah Berlin, OM (6 June 1909 &ndash 5 November 1997 was a philosopher and historian of ideas regarded as one of the leading liberal thinkers of the twentieth century " This growing body of liberal thought argued that reason requires a government to act as a balancing force in economics.

Other liberal interpretations on the rise of totalitarianism were quite contrary to the growing body of thought on government regulation in supporting the market and capitalism. This included Friedrich Hayek's work, The Road to Serfdom. Friedrich August von Hayek CH ( May 8, 1899 March 23, 1992) was an Austrian British Economist The Road to Serfdom is a book written by Friedrich Hayek (recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1974 which has significantly He argued that the rise of totalitarian dictatorships was the result of too much government intervention and regulation upon the market which caused loss of political and civil freedoms. Hayek also saw these economic controls being instituted in the United Kingdom and the United States and warned against these "Keynesian" institutions, believing that they can and will lead to the same totalitarian governments "Keynesians liberals" were attempting to avoid. Hayek saw authoritarian regimes such as the fascist, Nazis, and communists, as the same totalitarian branch; all of which sought the elimination or reduction of economic freedom. To him the elimination of economic freedom brought about the elimination of political freedom. Thus Hayek believes the differences between Nazis and communists are only rhetorical.

Friedrich von Hayek and Milton Friedman stated that economic freedom is a necessary condition for the creation and sustainability of civil and political freedoms. Friedrich August von Hayek CH ( May 8, 1899 March 23, 1992) was an Austrian British Economist Milton Friedman (July 31 1912 November 16 2006 was an American Nobel Laureate Economist and Public intellectual. Hayek believed the same totalitarian outcomes could occur in Britain (or anywhere else) if the state sought to control the economic freedom of the individual with the policy prescriptions outlined by people like Dewey, Keynes, or Roosevelt.

One of the most influential critics of totalitarianism was Karl Popper. Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902  &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor In The Open Society and Its Enemies he defended liberal democracy and advocated open society, in which the government can be changed without bloodshed. The Open Society and Its Enemies, is an influential two-volume work by Karl Popper written during World War II. The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of The open society is a concept originally developed by philosopher Henri Bergson. Popper argued that the process of the accumulation of human knowledge is unpredictable and that the theory of ideal government cannot possibly exist. Therefore, the political system should be flexible enough so that governmental policy would be able to evolve and adjust to the needs of the society; in particular, it should encourage Pluralism and multiculturalism. Pluralism is in the general sense the acknowledgment of diversity The term multiculturalism generally refers to a state of racial, cultural and ethnic diversity within the Demographics of a specified

Liberalism after World War II

In much of the West, expressly liberal parties were caught between "conservative" parties on one hand, and "labor" or social democratic parties on the other hand. For example, the UK Liberal Party became a minor party. The same process occurred in a number of other countries, as the social democratic parties took the leading role in the Left, while pro-business conservative parties took the leading role in the Right. In Politics, right-wing, the political right, and the Right are positions that uphold traditional values and/or authorities

The post-war period saw the dominance of modern liberalism. Social liberalism, also called new liberalism (as it was originally termed high liberalism radical liberalism, modern liberalism, or Linking modernism and progressivism to the notion that a populace in possession of rights and sufficient economic and educational means would be the best defense against totalitarian threats, the liberalism of this period took the stance that by enlightened use of liberal institutions, individual liberties could be maximized, and self-actualization could be reached by the broad use of technology. Modernism describes an array of Cultural movements rooted in the changes in Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in Psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation, which Liberal writers in this period include economist John Kenneth Galbraith, philosopher John Rawls and sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf. John Rawls ( February 21, 1921  &ndash November 24, 2002) was an American Philosopher, a Professor of Ralf Gustav Dahrendorf Baron Dahrendorf, KBE (born May 1, 1929) is a German-British Sociologist, Philosopher, Political scientist A dissenting strain of thought developed that viewed any government involvement in the economy as a betrayal of liberal principles. Calling itself "libertarianism," this movement was centered around such schools of thought as Austrian Economics. The Austrian School, also known as the “ Vienna School ” or the “ Psychological School ” is a heterodox school of economics that advocates

The debate between personal liberty and social optimality occupies much of the theory of liberalism since the Second World War, particularly centering around the questions of social choice and market mechanisms required to produce a "liberal" society. One of the central parts of this argument concerns Kenneth Arrow's General Possibility Theorem. Kenneth Joseph Arrow (born August 23, 1921) is an American Economist and joint winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics In Social choice theory, Arrow’s impossibility theorem, or Arrow’s paradox, demonstrates that no voting system can convert the ranked preferences of individuals This thesis states that there is no consistent social choice function which satisfies unbounded decision making, independence of choices, Pareto optimality, and non-dictatorship. Pareto efficiency, or Pareto optimality, is an important concept in Economics with broad applications in Game theory, Engineering and the In short, according to the thesis which includes the problem of liberal paradox, it is not possible to have unlimited liberty, a maximum amount of utility, and an unlimited range of choices at the same time. The liberal paradox is a logical Paradox advanced by Amartya Sen, building on the work of Kenneth Arrow and his impossibility theorem, which Another important argument within liberalism is the importance of rationality in decision making – whether the liberal state is best based on rigorous procedural rights or whether it should be rooted in substantial equality. Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to

One important liberal debate concerns whether people have positive rights as members of communities in addition to being protected from wrongs done by others. Some philosophers and political scientists make a distinction between negative and positive Rights, not to be confused with the similar but different distinction between For many liberals, the answer is "yes": individuals have positive rights based on being members of a national, political, or local unit, and can expect protection and benefits from these associations. Members of a community have a right to expect that their community will to a certain degree regulate the economy since rising and falling economic circumstances cannot be controlled by the individual. If individuals have a right to participate in a public capacity, then they have a right to expect education and social protections against discrimination from other members of that public. Other liberals would answer "no": individuals have no such rights as members of communities, for such rights conflict with the more fundamental "negative" rights of other members of the community.

After the 1970s, the liberal pendulum had swung away from increasing the role of government, and towards a greater use of the free market and laissez-faire principles. A free market is a Market in which property rights are voluntarily exchanged at a price arranged completely by the mutual consent of sellers and buyers Laissez-faire ( pronunciation: French,; English,) is a French phrase literally meaning Let do (“allow to do” In essence, many of the old pre-World War I ideas were making a comeback.

In part this was a reaction to the triumphalism of the dominant forms of liberalism of the time, but as well it was rooted in a foundation of liberal philosophy, particularly suspicion of the state, whether as an economic or philosophical actor. Even liberal institutions could be misused to restrict rather than promote liberty. Increasing emphasis on the free market emerged with Milton Friedman in the United States, and with members of the Austrian School in Europe. Milton Friedman (July 31 1912 November 16 2006 was an American Nobel Laureate Economist and Public intellectual. The Austrian School, also known as the “ Vienna School ” or the “ Psychological School ” is a heterodox school of economics that advocates Their argument was that regulation and government involvement in the economy was a slippery slope, that any would lead to more, and that more was difficult to remove.

Contemporary liberalism

The impact of liberalism on the modern world is profound. The ideas of individual liberties, personal dignity, free expression, religious tolerance, private property, universal human rights, transparency of government, limitations on government power, popular sovereignty, national self-determination, privacy, "enlightened" and "rational" policy, the rule of law, fundamental equality, a free market economy, and free trade were all radical notions some 250 years ago. Liberal democracy, in its typical form of multiparty political pluralism, has spread to much of the world. The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of Today all are accepted as the goals of policy in most nations, even if there is a wide gap between statements and reality. They are not only the goals of liberals, but also of social democrats, conservatives, and Christian Democrats. Social democracy is a Political ideology of the left and centre-left Conservatism is a term used to describe political philosophies that favour Tradition, where tradition refers to various religious cultural or nationally defined Christian democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Christian (and often specifically Catholic) principles to public policy There is, of course, opposition.

Positions of liberal parties

Today the word "liberalism" is used differently in different countries. (See Liberalism worldwide. This article gives information on liberalism in diverse countries around the world ) One of the greatest contrasts is between the usage in the United States and usage in Continental Europe. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[20] In the US, liberalism is usually understood to refer to modern liberalism, as contrasted with conservatism. Social liberalism, also called new liberalism (as it was originally termed high liberalism radical liberalism, modern liberalism, or Conservatism in the United States includes a variety of political ideologies including Fiscal conservatism, Supply-side economics, Social conservatism American liberals endorse regulation for business, a limited social welfare state, and support broad racial, ethnic, sexual and religious tolerance, and thus more readily embrace Pluralism, and affirmative action. This article refers specifically to the Welfare state of the United Kingdom. Pluralism is in the general sense the acknowledgment of diversity Affirmative action in the United States|Employment equity (Canada|Reservation in India|Numerus clausus The term affirmative action describes many policies aimed at a historically In Europe, on the other hand, liberalism is not only contrasted with conservatism and Christian Democracy, but also with socialism and social democracy. Christian democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Christian (and often specifically Catholic) principles to public policy Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Social democracy is a Political ideology of the left and centre-left In some countries, European liberals share common positions with Christian Democrats.

Before an explanation of this subject proceeds, it is important to add this disclaimer: There is always a disconnect between philosophical ideals and political realities. Also, opponents of any belief are apt to describe that belief in different terms from those used by adherents. What follows is a record of those goals that overtly appear most consistently across major liberal manifestos (e. g. , the Oxford Manifesto of 1947). The Oxford Manifesto, drawn up in April 1947 by representatives from nineteen Liberal political parties at Wadham College in Oxford, lead by It is not an attempt to catalogue the idiosyncratic views of particular persons, parties, or countries, nor is it an attempt to investigate any covert goals, since both are beyond the scope of this article.

Freedom

Most political parties which identify themselves as liberal claim to promote the rights and responsibilities of the individual, free choice within an open competitive process, the free market, and the dual responsibility of the state to protect the individual citizen and guarantee their liberty. A free market is a Market in which property rights are voluntarily exchanged at a price arranged completely by the mutual consent of sellers and buyers Critics of liberal parties tend to state liberal policies in different terms. Economic freedom may lead to gross inequality. Free speech may lead to speech that is obscene, blasphemous, or treasonous. The role of the state as promoter of freedom and as protector of its citizens may come into conflict.

Democracy

Main article: Liberal democracy

Liberalism stresses the importance of representative liberal democracy as the best form of government. The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of Elected representatives are subject to the rule of law, and their power is moderated by a constitution, which emphasizes the protection of rights and freedoms of individuals and limits the will of the majority. The rule of law, in its most basic form is the principle that no one is above the law A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity A majority, also known as a simple majority in the US, is a Subset of a group that is more than half of the entire group Liberals are in favour of a pluralist system in which differing political and social views, even extreme or fringe views, compete for political power on a democratic basis and have the opportunity to achieve power through periodically held elections. Pluralism is in the general sense the acknowledgment of diversity Political power ( Imperium in Latin is a type of power held by a group in a Society which allows administration of some or all of An election is a Decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold formal office They stress the resolution of differences by peaceful means within the bounds of democratic or lawful processes. Many liberals seek ways to increase the involvement and participation of citizens in the democratic process. Some liberals favour direct democracy instead of representative democracy. Direct Democracy is a movement within the British Conservative Party dedicated to localism and Constitutional reform as a means of reviving public

Civil rights

Main article: Civil rights

Liberalism advocates civil rights for all citizens: the protection and privileges of personal liberty extended to all citizens equally by law. It includes the equal treatment of all citizens irrespective of race, gender and class. The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets Gender comprises a range of differences between men and women extending from the biological to the social Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. Liberals are divided over the extent to which positive rights are to be included, such as the right to food, shelter, and education. Critics from an internationalist human rights school of thought argue that the civil rights advocated in the liberal view are not extended to all people, but are limited to citizens of particular states. Unequal treatment on the basis of nationality is therefore possible, especially in regard to citizenship itself.

Rule of law

The rule of law and equality before the law are fundamental to liberalism. The rule of law, in its most basic form is the principle that no one is above the law Government authority may only be legitimately exercised in accordance with laws that are adopted through an established procedure. Another aspect of the rule of law is an insistence upon the guarantee of an independent judiciary, whose political independence is intended to act as a safeguard against arbitrary rulings in individual cases. In Law, the judiciary or judicial system is the system of Courts which administer Justice in the name of the sovereign or State The rule of law includes concepts such as the presumption of innocence, no double jeopardy, and Habeas Corpus. The presumption of innocence being innocent until proven guilty is a legal Right that the Accused in Criminal trials has Double jeopardy (non bis in idem is a Procedural defense (and in many countries such as the United States, Canada, Mexico and India Habeas corpus (ˈheɪbiəs ˈkɔɹpəs ( Latin: command that you have the body is the name of a legal action or Writ, through which a person can seek relief Rule of law is seen by liberals as a guard against despotism and as enforcing limitations on the power of government. In the penal system, liberals in general reject punishments they see as inhumane, including capital punishment^[21]

Neutral government

Liberals generally believe in neutral government, in the sense that it is not for the state to determine personal values. Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. As John Rawls put it, "The state has no right to determine a particular conception of the good life". John Rawls ( February 21, 1921  &ndash November 24, 2002) was an American Philosopher, a Professor of In the United States this neutrality is expressed in the Declaration of Independence as the right to the pursuit of happiness. The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then

Both in Europe and in the United States, liberals often support the pro-choice movement and advocate equal rights for women and homosexuals. Overview See also Ethical aspects of abortion Pro-choice advocates emphasize their beliefs that having a child is a personal choice that affects a woman's body and

Equality

Racism is incompatible with liberalism. List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that Liberals in Europe are generally hostile to any attempts by the state to enforce equality in employment by legal action against employers, whereas in the United States many liberals favor such affirmative action. Affirmative action in the United States|Employment equity (Canada|Reservation in India|Numerus clausus The term affirmative action describes many policies aimed at a historically Liberals in general support equal opportunity, but not necessarily equal outcome. Most European liberal parties do not favour employment quotas for women and ethnic minorities as the best way to end gender and racial inequality. Gender inequality refers to the obvious or hidden disparities among individuals based on performance of gender (gender can separate from biological sex see Sex/gender distinction However, all agree that arbitrary discrimination on the basis of race or gender is morally wrong.

Free market

Main article: Economic liberalism

Economic liberals today stress the importance of a free market and free trade, and seek to limit government intervention in both the domestic economy and foreign trade. Economic liberalism is the Economic component of Classical liberalism. Economic interventionism, is a common term used to describe any activity beyond the basic regulation of fraud and enforcement of contracts undertaken by a government in an effort to affect Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Modern liberal movements often agree in principle with the idea of free trade, but maintain some skepticism, seeing unrestricted trade as leading to the growth of multi-national corporations and the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of the few. In the post-war consensus on the welfare state in Europe, liberals supported government responsibility for health, education, and alleviating poverty while still calling for a market based on independent exchange. This article refers specifically to the Welfare state of the United Kingdom. Liberals agree that a high quality of health care and education should be available for all citizens, but differ in their views on the degree to which governments should supply these benefits. Since poverty is a threat to personal liberty, liberalism seeks a balance between individual responsibility and community responsibility. In particular, liberals favor special protection for the handicapped, the sick, the disabled, and the aged. ^[22]

European liberalism turned back to more laissez-faire policies in the 1980s and 1990s, and supported privatisation and liberalisation in health care and other public sectors. Laissez-faire ( pronunciation: French,; English,) is a French phrase literally meaning Let do (“allow to do” Privatization is the incidence or process of transferring ownership of business from the Public sector (government to the Private sector (business In general liberalization (or liberalisation) refers to a relaxation of previous government restrictions usually in areas of social or economic policy Modern European liberals generally tend to believe in a smaller role for government than would be supported by most social democrats, let alone socialists or communists. Social democracy is a Political ideology of the left and centre-left Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based The European liberal consensus appears to involve a belief that economies should be decentralized. In general, contemporary European liberals do not believe that the government should directly control any industrial production through state owned enterprises, which places them in opposition to social democrats. A government-owned corporation, state-owned enterprise or government business enterprise is a legal entity created by a Government to undertake commercial Social democracy is a Political ideology of the left and centre-left

Environment

Main article: Green liberalism

Many liberals share values with environmentalists, such as the Green Party. Green liberalism is a term used to refer to liberals who have incorporated green concerns into their Ideology. A Green party' or ecologist party is a formally organized Political party based on the principles of Green politics. They seek to minimize the damage done by the human species on the natural world, and to maximize the regeneration of damaged areas. Some such activists attempt to make changes on an economic level by acting together with businesses, but others favor legislation in order to achieve sustainable development. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present Other liberals do not accept government regulation in this matter and argue that the market should regulate itself in some fashion.

International relations

Main article: Liberal international relations theory

There is no consensus about liberal doctrine in international politics, though there are some central notions, which can be deduced from, for example, the opinions of Liberal International. Liberalism holds that state preferences rather than state capabilities are the primary determinant of state behavior Liberal International is a Political international for liberal parties. ^[23] Social liberals often believe that war can be abolished. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units Some favor internationalism, and support the United Nations. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Economic liberals, on the other hand, favor non-interventionism rather than collective security. Liberals believe in the right of every individual to enjoy the essential human liberties, and support self-determination for national minorities. Essential also is the free exchange of ideas, news, goods and services between people, as well as freedom of travel within and between all countries. Liberals generally oppose censorship, protective trade barriers, and exchange regulations. Censorship is the suppression of speech or deletion of communicative material which may be considered objectionable harmful or sensitive as determined by a censor

Some liberals were among the strongest advocates of international co-operation and the building of supra-national organizations, such as the European Union. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in In the view of social liberals, a global free and fair market can only work if companies worldwide respect a set of common minimal social and ecological standards. A controversial question, on which there is no liberal consensus, is immigration. Immigration refers to the movement of people among countries While the movement of people has existed throughout human history at various levels modern immigration implies long-term Do nations have a right to limit the flow of immigrants from countries with growing populations to countries with stable or declining populations?

Conservative liberalism

Main article: Conservative liberalism

Conservative liberalism represents the right-wing of the liberal movement, stressing much on economic issues and combining some conservative elements. Conservative liberalism is a variant of Liberalism, combining liberal values and policies with conservative stances or more simply representing the right-wing Conservatism is a term used to describe political philosophies that favour Tradition, where tradition refers to various religious cultural or nationally defined Examples include the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy in the Netherlands, the Liberal Party of Denmark and, in some ways, the Free Democratic Party of Germany. The People's Party for Freedom and Democracy ( VVD) (Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie is a Dutch liberal Political party. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Venstre (ˈʋɛnsd̥(ʁɐ in Danish literally Left) full name Venstre Danmarks Liberale Parti ( Venstre Liberal Party of Denmark) is the The Free Democratic Party ( Freie Demokratische Partei, FDP is a liberal Political party in Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.

Liberal conservatism

Main article: Liberal conservatism

Liberal conservatism is a variant of conservatism which includes some liberal elements. Liberal conservatism is a variant of Conservatism which combines conservative and liberal values and positions This strain often emerged in countries with strong socialist and/or labour parties, and is often strongly influenced by the writings of Edmund Burke. Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Edmund Burke ( 12 January, 1729 9 July, 1797) was an Irish statesman author orator Political theorist, and Examples include the Reform Party of Canada/Canadian Alliance, the Liberal Front Party (Brazil), the Moderate Party (Sweden), Forza Italia, Civic Platform (Poland), the Liberal Democratic Party in Japan, National Renewal in Chile, and the Liberal Party of Australia. The Reform Party of Canada ( Parti réformiste du Canada) was a Canadian federal Political party that existed from 1987 to 2000 The Canadian Alliance (in French Alliance Canadienne) formally the Canadian Reform Conservative Alliance (or in French Alliance réformiste-conservateur The Democrats ( Democratas) is a Political party in Brazil, considered the main Centre-right party of Brazil |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld This article refers to the Swedish political party for the group that dominated the Church of Scotland in the 18th century see Moderate Party (Scotland "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Forza Italia (Forward Italy FI is a Christian-democratic, liberal and liberal-conservative Italian political party led by Silvio Civic Platform ( Platforma Obywatelska, PO is a Christian-democratic and liberal-conservative Polish political party. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The, frequently abbreviated to LDP or, is a Centre right, conservative, Political party and the largest party in Japan. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. National Renewal (RN ( Spanish: "Renovación Nacional" is a center - right liberal conservative Political party belonging Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the The Liberal Party of Australia is an Australian political party. These parties are mainly member of the International Democratic Union, not of the Liberal International. The International Democrat Union (IDU is an Center-right international grouping of conservative, Christian-democratic and Liberal-conservative Liberal International is a Political international for liberal parties.

Liberal international relations theory

Main article: Liberal international relations theory

"Liberalism" in international relations is a theory that holds that state preferences, rather than state capabilities, are the primary determinant of state behavior. Liberalism holds that state preferences rather than state capabilities are the primary determinant of state behavior Unlike realism where the state is seen as a unitary actor, liberalism allows for plurality in state actions. Realism, also known as political realism, in the context of International relations, encompasses a variety of theories and approaches all of which share a belief Thus, preferences will vary from state to state, depending on factors such as culture, economic system or government type. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic An economic system is a System that involves the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services between A system of government is a term that refers to the set of political Institutions by which a Government of a State is organized in order to exert its powers Liberalism also holds that interaction between states is not limited to the political/security ("high politics"), but also economic/cultural ("low politics") whether through commercial firms, organizations or individuals. Thus, instead of an anarchic international system, there are plenty of opportunities for cooperation and broader notions of power, such as cultural capital (for example, the influence of a country's films leading to the popularity of its culture and the creation of a market for its exports worldwide). Another assumption is that absolute gains can be made through co-operation and interdependence – thus peace can be achieved.

Liberalism as an international relations theory is not inherently linked to liberalism as a more general domestic political ideology. Increasingly, modern liberals are integrating critical international relations theory into their foreign policy positions. Critical international relations theory is a set of schools of thought in international relations (IR that have criticized the status-quo—both from Positivist positions

Neoliberalism

Main article: Neoliberalism

Neoliberalism is a label for some economic liberal doctrines. Originally coined by its critics and opponents " neoliberalism " is a label referring to the recent reemergence of Economic liberalism or Classical liberalism Economic liberalism is the Economic component of Classical liberalism. The swing away from government action in the 1970s led to the introduction of this term, which refers to a program of reducing trade barriers and internal market restrictions, while using government power to enforce opening of foreign markets. Neoliberalism accepts a certain degree of government involvement in the domestic economy, particularly a central bank with the power to print fiat money. This is strongly opposed by libertarians. While neoliberalism is sometimes described as overlapping with Thatcherism, economists as diverse as Joseph Stiglitz and Milton Friedman have been described — by others — as "neoliberal". Thatcherism is the system of political thought attributed to the governments of Margaret Thatcher, British Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990 Joseph Eugene Stiglitz (born February 9, 1943) is an American Economist and a professor at Columbia University. Milton Friedman (July 31 1912 November 16 2006 was an American Nobel Laureate Economist and Public intellectual. This economic agenda is not necessarily combined with a liberal agenda in politics: neoliberals often do not subscribe to individual liberty on ethical issues or in sexual mores. An extreme example was the Pinochet regime in Chile, but some also classify Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher and even Tony Blair and Gerhard Schröder as being neo-liberal. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the Margaret Hilda Thatcher Baroness Thatcher LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925 Anthony Charles Lynton "Tony" Blair (born 6 May 1953 is a British Politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2 May 1997 to ˌɡeɐ̯haɐ̯t fʁɪʦ kʊɐ̯t ˈʃʁøːdɐ (born 7 April 1944 German politician, was Chancellor of Germany from 1998 to 2005

In the 1990s, many social democratic parties adopted "neoliberal" economic policies such as privatization of industry and open markets, much to the dismay of many of their own voters. This has led these parties to become de facto neoliberal, and has often resulted in a drastic loss of popular support. For example, critics to the left of the German Social Democratic Party and the British Labour Party accuse them of pursuing neoliberal policies by refusing to renationalise industry. As a result of this, much support for these parties has been lost to the Christian Democratic Union and the Liberal Democrats, respectively. This "adopting of the wolves clothes" has led Labour in the UK to spectacular electoral success. However, tensions between the executive and Labour's backbenches is a consistent issue.

Sometimes "Neoliberalism" is used as a catch-all term for the anti-socialist reaction which swept through some countries during the 70s, 80s and 90s. "Neoliberalism" in the form of Thatcher, Reagan, and Pinochet claimed to move from a bureaucratic welfare-based society toward a meritocracy acting in the interests of business. In actuality, these governments cut funding for education and taxed income more heavily than wealth, which increased the influence of big business and the upper class.

Some conservatives see themselves as the true inheritors of classical liberalism. Jonah Goldberg of National Review argues that "most conservatives are closer to classical liberals than a lot of Reason-libertarians" because conservatives want to preserve some institutions that they see as needed for liberty. Jonah Jacob Goldberg (born March 21, 1969) is an American syndicated columnist and author National Review ( NR) is a biweekly Magazine and Web site, founded by the late author William F Reason is a libertarian monthly magazine from the Reason Foundation. ^[24] Further confusing the classification of liberalism and conservatism is that some conservatives claim liberal values as their own.

Liberalism and social democracy

Liberalism shares many basic goals and methods with social democracy, but in some places diverges. The fundamental difference between liberalism and social democracy is disagreement over the role of the state in the economy. Social democracy can be understood to combine features from both social liberalism and democratic socialism. Social liberalism, also called new liberalism (as it was originally termed high liberalism radical liberalism, modern liberalism, or Democratic socialism is a description used by various socialist movements tendencies and organizations to emphasize the democratic character of their political orientation Democratic socialism seeks to achieve some minimum equality of outcome. Equality of outcome or equality of condition is a form of Egalitarianism which seeks to reduce or eliminate differences in material condition between individuals or Democratic socialists support a large public sector and the nationalization of utilities such as gas and electricity in order to avoid private monopolies, achieve social justice, and raise the standard of living. The public sector is the part of economic and administrative life that deals with the delivery of goods and services by and for the Government, whether national Regional Nationalization, also spelled nationalisation, is the act of taking an industry or assets into the Public ownership of a national government Social justice, sometimes called civil justice, refers to the concept of a Society in which Justice is achieved in every aspect of society rather than By contrast, liberalism, in its distrust of monopolies (both public and private), prefers much less state intervention, choosing for example subsidies and regulation rather than outright nationalization. In Economics, a subsidy (also known as a subvention is a form of financial assistance paid to a business or economic sector Liberalism also emphasizes equality of opportunity, and not equality of outcome, citing the desire for a meritocracy. Equal opportunity is a term which has differing definitions and there is no consensus as to the precise meaning Meritocracy is a system of a government or another organization wherein Appointments are made and responsibilities are given based on demonstrated talent and Ability American liberalism, in contrast to liberalism in most countries, never took a major focus on socialism nor ever demanded the same social welfare state programs as its European counterparts. Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Today, the United States does not share the welfare state programs applied in most of Europe and has implemented fewer social programs to aid those in the lower socioeconomic level than Canada and Australia. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the This article refers specifically to the Welfare state of the United Kingdom. Socioeconomics or socio-economics is the study of the relationship between economic activity and Social life. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics.

Criticisms

Collectivist opponents of liberalism reject its emphasis on individual rights, and instead emphasize the collective or the community to a degree where the rights of the individual are either diminished or abolished. Collectivism is a term used to describe any moral political or social outlook that stresses human Interdependence and the importance of a Collective, rather than A collective is a group of people who share or are motivated by at least one common issue or interest or work together on a specific project(s to achieve a common objective In biological terms a community is a group of interacting Organisms sharing an environment. Collectivism can be found both to the right and to the left of liberalism. On the left, the collective that tends to be enhanced is the state, often in the form of state socialism. State Socialism is a term introduced to describe the type of government in countries ruled by communist parties such as the former USSR, which are generally known as Communist On the right, conservative and religious opponents argue that liberalism has removed the traditional mores that informally regulated societies, replacing them with abstract and idealistic principles which are imposed by the liberal-dominated schools, media, courts and bureaucracy. Mores (ˈmɔːreɪz are norms or customs Mores derive from the established practices of a society rather than its written Laws. "Popular press" redirects here note that the University of Wisconsin Press publishes under the imprint "The Popular Press" Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government Opponents like Theodore Dalrymple claim that these new principles have actually undermined the concepts of self control and personal responsibility which are vital to any functional society. Anthony (AM Daniels (born 1949 is a British writer and retired Physician (prison doctor and psychiatrist who generally uses the Pen name Theodore Self control is perceived in a few ways One of which is philosophical and might be described as the exertion of one's own will on one's personal self - their behaviors actions The liberal answer to this is that it is not the purpose of the law to legislate morality, but to protect the citizen from harm. Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings Injury or bodily injury is Damage or Harm caused to the Structure or function of the Body caused by an outside agent or However, conservatives often see the legislation of morality as an essential aspect of protecting citizens from harm.

Anti-statist critiques of liberalism, such as anarchism, assert the illegitimacy of the state for any purposes. Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i

A softer critique of liberalism can be found in communitarianism, which emphasizes a return to communities without necessarily denigrating individual rights. Communitarianism, as a group of related but distinct philosophies began in the late 20th century opposing in its opinion exalted forms of Individualism while advocating phenomena

Beyond these clear theoretical differences, some liberal principles can be disputed in a piecemeal fashion, with some portions kept and others abandoned (see Liberal democracy and Neoliberalism. The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of ) This ongoing process – where putatively liberal agents accept some traditionally liberal values and reject others – causes some critics to question whether or not the word "liberal" has any useful meaning at all.

In terms of international politics, the universal claims of human rights which liberalism tends to endorse are disputed by rigid adherents of non-interventionism, since intervention in the interests of human rights can conflict with the sovereignty of nations. Sovereignty is the exclusive Right to control a Government, a country, a people or oneself By contrast, World federalists criticize liberalism for its adherence to the doctrine of sovereign nation-states, which the World federalists believe is not helpful in the face of genocide and other mass human rights abuses. World government is the concept of a political body that would make interpret and enforce International law.

Liberalism has also been accused of being non-political in the works of some critics, for instance in "Imperium: The Philosophy of History and Politics" by Francis Parker Yockey:

Liberalism, however, with its compromising, vague attitude, incapable of precise formulation, incapable also of rousing precise feelings, either affirmative or negative, is not an idea of political force. Imperium The Philosophy of History and Politics is a book by ideologue Francis Parker Yockey (using the pen name Ulick Varange Its numerous devotees, in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries have taken part in practical politics only as the ally of other groups. ^[25]

Left-leaning opponents of economic liberalism reject the view that the private sector can act for the collective benefit, citing the harm done to those individuals who lose out in competition. They oppose the use of the state to impose market principles, usually through an enforced market mechanism in a previously non-market sector. They argue that the dominance of liberal principles in economy and society has contributed to inequality among states, and inequality within states. In Mathematics, an inequality is a statement about the relative size or order of two objects or about whether they are the same or not (See also equality They argue that liberal societies are characterised by long-term poverty, and by ethnic and class differentials in health, by (infant) mortality and lower life expectancy. Poverty (also called penury) is deprivation of common necessities that determine the quality of life including food clothing shelter and safe Drinking water, and Some would even say they have much higher unemployment than centrally planned economies.

A response to these claims is that liberal states tend to be wealthier than less free states, that the poor in liberal states are better off than the average citizen in non-liberal states, and that inequality is a necessary spur to the hard work that produces prosperity. Throughout history, poverty has been the common lot of mankind, and it is only the progress of science and the rise of the modern industrial state that has brought prosperity to large numbers of people.

See also

Conservatism Ethicism Anarchism Anarcho-capitalism Libertarianism Socialism Communism Market liberalism John Locke's theory of consciousness as the basis of personal identity Environmentalism Freiwirtschaft Modern liberalism Neoliberalism Methodological Individualist Localism (Political Philosophy)

Ordoliberalism Small-l liberal Left-wing politics Social liberalism Anders Chydenius Christian left Progressive Christianity Classical liberalism Political Correctness Liberal democracy Liberal autocracy Marriage gap List of liberal theorists

References

Notes

Other references

• Michael Scott Christofferson "An Antitotalitarian History of the French Revolution: François Furet's Penser la Révolution française in the Intellectual Politics of the Late 1970s" (in French Historical Studies, Fall 1999)
• Piero Gobetti La Rivoluzione liberale. Saggio sulla lotta politica in Italia, Bologna, Rocca San Casciano, 1924

Further reading on liberalism

Literature by thinkers contributing to liberal theory is listed at Contributions to liberal theory. This is a partial list of individual contributions to liberal political theory on a worldwide scale

Prominent law scholars

• Putting liberalism in its place / Paul W Kahn. , 2005 (YALE)
• Liberalism divided : freedom of speech and the many uses of State power / Owen M Fiss. , 1996 (YALE)
• The future of liberal revolution / Bruce A Ackerman. , 1992 (YALE)
• Social justice in the liberal state / Bruce A Ackerman. , 1980 (YALE)
• Notions of fairness versus the Pareto principle : on the role of logical consistency / Louis Kaplow. , 2000 (HARVARD)
• Knowledge & politics / Roberto Mangabeira Unger. , 1975 (HARVARD)
• Principles for a free society / Richard Allen Epstein. , 1999 (UCHICAGO)
• Fairness in a liberal society / Richard Allen Epstein. , 2005 (UCHICAGO)
• Skepticism and freedom : a modern case for classical liberalism / Richard Allen Epstein. , 2003 (UCHICAGO)
• Cultivating humanity : a classical defense of reform in liberal education / Martha Nussbaum. , 1997 (UCHICAGO)
• Free markets and social justice / Cass R Sunstein. , 1997 (UCHICAGO)
• Reasonably radical : deliberative liberalism and the politics of identity / Anthony Simon Laden. , 2001 (UCHICAGO)
• The new inequality : creating solutions for poor America / ed. Joshua Cohen. , 1999 (STANFORD)
• The rise and fall of British liberalism, 1776-1988 / Alan Sykes. , 1997 (STANFORD)
• A stream of windows : unsettling reflections on trade, immigration, and democracy / Jagdish Bhagwati. , 1998 (COLUMBIA)
• Nature and politics : liberalism in the philosophies of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau / Andrzej Rapaczynski. , 1987 (COLUMBIA)
• Law and liberalism in the 1980s : the Rubin lectures at Columbia University / Vincent Blasi. , 1991 (COLUMBIA)
• Ways of war and peace : realism, liberalism, and socialism / Michael W Doyle. , 1997 (COLUMBIA)
• The Liberal future in America : essays in renewal / ed. Michael B Levy. , 1985 (UCBERKELEY)
• Boundaries and allegiances : problems of justice and responsibility in liberal thought / Samuel Scheffler. , 2001 (UCBERKELEY)
• The anatomy of antiliberalism / Stephen Holmes. , 1993 (NYU)
• Passions and constraint : on the theory of liberal democracy / Stephen Holmes. , 1995 (NYU)
• Benjamin Constant and the making of modern liberalism / Stephen Holmes. , 1984 (NYU)
• Liberal rights : collected papers, 1981-1991 / Jeremy Waldron. , 1993 (NYU)
• Liberals and social democrats / Peter Clarke. , 1978 (OXFORD)
• Law and the community : the end of individualism? / ed. Leslie Green. , 1989 (OXFORD)
• From promise to contract : towards a liberal theory of contract / Dori Kimel. , 2003 (OXFORD)
• The new enlightenment : the rebirth of liberalism / ed. Peter Clarke. , 1986 (OXFORD)
• Constitutional justice: a liberal theory of the rule of law / T. R. S Allan. , 2001 (CAMBRIDGE)

Prominent philosophers

• Liberalism and social action / John Dewey. , 1963 (UCHICAGO)
• Combat liberalism / Mao Zedong. , 1954 (PEKING)
• Free thought and official propaganda / Bertrand Russell. , 1922 (CAMBRIDGE)
• Political Liberalism / John Rawls. , 2005 (HARVARD)
• Lectures on the history of political philosophy / John Rawls. , 2007 (HARVARD)
• The law of peoples ; with, The idea of public reason revisited / John Rawls. , 1999 (HARVARD)
• Conditions of liberty : civil society and its rivals / Ernest Gellner. , 1994 (CAMBRIDGE)
• Liberty : incorporating four essays on liberty / Isaiah Berlin. , 2002 (OXFORD)
• Objectivity and liberal scholarship / Noam Chomsky. , 2003 (MIT)
• Profit over people : neoliberalism and global order / Noam Chomsky. , 1999 (MIT)
• Democracy in a neoliberal order : doctrines and reality / Noam Chomsky. , 1997 (MIT)
• Liberal politics and the public sphere / Charles Taylor. , 1995 (MCGILL)
• Beyond liberalization : social opportunity and human capability / Amartya Kumar Sen. , 1994 (HARVARD)
• Sovereign virtue : the theory and practice of equality / Ronald Dworkin. , 2000 (NYU)
• The legacy of Isaiah Berlin / ed. Ronald Dworkin. , 2001 (NYU)
• Concealment and exposure : and other essays / Thomas Nagel. , 2002 (NYU)
• Liberals and communitarians / Stephen Mulhall. , 1992 (OXFORD)
• John Dewey and the High Tide of American Liberalism / Alan Ryan. , 1995 (OXFORD)
• Liberal reform in an illiberal regime: the creation of private property in Russia / Stephen Williams. , 2006 (OXFORD)
• Liberalism, religion, and the sources of value / Simon Blackburn. , 2005 (CAMBRIDGE)
• Achieving Our Country : Leftist Thought in Twentieth-Century America / Richard Rorty. , 1999 (STANFORD)
• Bridging Liberalism and Multiculturalism in American Education / Bob Reich. , 2002 (STANFORD)
• Boundaries and allegiances : problems of justice and responsibility in liberal thought / Samuel Scheffler. , 2001 (UCBERKELEY)
• The logos reader : rational radicalism and the future of politics / ed. Michael Thompson. , 2006 (UPITTSBURGH)
• The feminist critique of liberalism / Martha Craven Nussbaum. , 1997 (UCHICAGO)
• Nietzsche, politics, and modernity : a critique of liberal reason / David Owen. , 1995 (UARIZONA)
• Contemporary Theories of Liberalism / Gerald Gaus. , 2003 (UARIZONA)
• Pragmatic Liberalism and the Critique of Modernity / Gary Gutting. , 1999 (NOTREDAME)

Prominent political scientists

• Liberal America and the Third World; political development ideas in foreign aid and social science / Robert A Packenham. , 1973 (STANFORD)
• Structural conflict : the Third World against global liberalism / Stephen D Krasner. , 1985 (STANFORD)
• Democracy's discontent : America in search of a public philosophy / Michael J Sandel. , 1998 (HARVARD)
• Liberalism and the limits of justice / Michael J Sandel. , 1998 (HARVARD)
• The spirit of liberalism / Harvey Claflin Mansfield. , 1978 (HARVARD)
• Liberalism and the moral life / Nancy L Rosenblum. , 1989 (HARVARD)
• Bentham's theory of the modern state / Nancy L Rosenblum. , 1978 (HARVARD)
• Another liberalism : romanticism and the reconstruction of liberal thought / Nancy L Rosenblum. , 1987 (HARVARD)
• Liberalism and its critics / Michael J Sandel. , 1984 (HARVARD)
• Technopols : freeing politics and markets in Latin America in the 1990s / Jorge I Domínguez. , 1997 (HARVARD)
• The new majority : towards a popular progressive politics / Theda Skocpol. , 1999 (HARVARD)
• Tyranny and liberty : big government and the individual in Tocqueville's science of politics / Harvey Mansfield. , 1999 (HARVARD)
• The new American dilemma : liberal democracy and school desegregation / Jennifer L Hochschild. , 1984 (HARVARD)
• Politics out of history / Wendy Brown. , 2001 (UCBERKELEY)
• Radicals and conservatives / William McGovern; David S Collier. , 1957 (UCBERKELEY)
• Tocqueville's revenge : state, society, and economy in contemporary France / Jonah D Levy. , 1999 (UCBERKELEY)
• Liberalism's crooked circle : letters to Adam Michnik / Ira Katznelson. , 1996 (COLUMBIA)
• Liberal socialism (Carlo Rosselli) / ed. Nadia Urbinati. , 1994 (COLUMBIA)
• On liberal revolution (Piero Gobetti) / ed. Nadia Urbinati. , 2000 (COLUMBIA)
• The clash of orthodoxies : law, religion, and morality in crisis / Robert P George. , 2001 (PRINCETON)
• Liberal equality / Amy Gutmann. , 1980 (PRINCETON)
• Diversity and distrust : civic education in a multicultural democracy / Stephen Macedo. , 1999 (PRINCETON)
• Liberal virtues : citizenship, virtue, and community in liberal constitutionalism / Stephen Macedo. , 1991 (PRINCETON)
• The inner ocean : individualism and democratic culture / George Kateb. , 1992 (PRINCETON)
• Economic change and political liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa / Jennifer A Widner. , 1994 (PRINCETON)
• Natural law, liberalism, and morality : contemporary essays / Robert P George. , 1996 (PRINCETON)
• Natural law and public reason / Robert P George. , 2000 (PRINCETON)
• Liberal international relations theory : a social scientific assessment / Andrew Moravcsik. , 2001 (PRINCETON)
• Liberalism and international relations theory / Andrew Moravcsik. , 1992 (PRINCETON)

For secondary literature bibliographies in languages other than English see Additional reading on Liberalism

External links

• Liberal International
• Liberalism entry at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Peter Berkowitz on "Modern Liberalism"
• French Liberalism in the 18th and 19th century
• What's the Matter With Liberalism, political theorist Ronald Beiner's classic critique
• The divergence between American and English definitions of "liberal", a personal view by Jeffry Fischer
• The program of liberalism, Ludwig von Mises
• The Oxford Manifesto of 1947
• Australian Liberalism: The Continuing Vision
• Liberalism vs. Fascism by Roderick T. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP is a freely-accessible Online encyclopedia of Philosophy maintained by Stanford University. Long
• The Liberal Magazine committed to reinvigorating Liberalism
• Liberal Review an online magazine relating to liberalism in the UK

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