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Leo Tolstoy

Born August 28, 1828(1828-08-28)
Yasnaya Polyana, Russian Empire
Died November 20, 1910 (aged 82)
Astapovo, Russian Empire
Occupation Novelist
Genres Realist
Notable work(s) War and Peace
Anna Karenina
Influences
Influenced

Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy (September 9 [O.S. August 28] 1828 – November 20 [O.S. November 7] 1910) (Russian: Лев Никола́евич Толсто́й, Russian pronunciation: [lʲɛv nʲɪkɐˈlaɪvʲɪtɕ tɐlˈstoj] listen (help·info)), commonly referred to in English as Leo (Lyof, Lyoff) Tolstoy, was a Russian writer – novelist, essayist, dramatist and philosopher – as well as pacifist Christian anarchist and educational reformer. Events 475 - The Roman General Orestes forces western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos to flee his Capital The year 1828 ( MDCCCXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Yasnaya Polyana ( Russian: Ясная Поляна literally "Clear Glade" was the home of Leo Tolstoy, located 12 kilometers southwest of Tula The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Lev Tolstoy (Лев Толсто́й is a settlement in the northern part of Lipetsk Oblast, Russia. Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story A literary genre is a category of literary composition Genres may be determined by Literary technique, tone, Content, or even (as in the case of fiction Realism in the Visual arts and Literature is the depiction of subjects as they appear in Everyday life, without embellishment or interpretation War and Peace (Война и мир Voyna i mir) is a Novel by Leo Tolstoy, first published from 1865 to 1869 in Russkii Vestnik Anna Karenina ( Анна Каренина) also Anglicised as Anna Karenin, is a Novel by the Russian writer Leo Tolstoy Petr Chelčický ('petr 'xeltšitski (c 1390 &ndash c 1460 was a Christian and political leader and author in 15th century Bohemia (now the Czech Republic Laurence Sterne ( November 24, 1713 &ndash March 18, 1768) was an Irish -born English Novelist and an Anglican Harriet Beecher Stowe (June 14 1811 – July 1 1896 was an American Author and Abolitionist, whose Novel Uncle Tom's Cabin Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol (Никола́й Васи́льевич Го́голь Nikolai Vasilevich Gogol;; Микола Васильович Гоголь Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January Martin Luther King Jr ( January 15, 1929 April 4, 1968) was an American clergyman, Activist and prominent leader (Adeline Virginia Woolf (née Stephen; 25 January 1882 – 28 March 1941 was an English Novelist and Essayist, regarded as one of the foremost Ferit Orhan Pamuk (born on 7 June 1952 in Istanbul) generally known simply as Orhan Pamuk, is a Turkish Novelist and professor of Comparative Edna O'Brien (born 15 December 1930 is an Irish novelist and Short story writer whose works often revolve around the inner feelings of women and their problems in relating James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 &ndash 13 January 1941 was an Irish expatriate writer widely considered to be one of the most influential writers of the This page is about the novelist For his father the politician see Vladimir Dmitrievich Nabokov. Jerome David "J D" Salinger (born January 1 1919 (ˈsælɨndʒɚ is an American author best known for his 1951 Novel The Catcher in the Rye Modernism describes an array of Cultural movements rooted in the changes in Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century A count is a Nobleman in European countries The word count comes from French comte, itself from Latin Events 1000 - Battle of Svolder, Viking Age. 1379 - Treaty of Neuberg, splitting the Austrian Old Style (or OS) and New Style (or NS) are used in English language historical studies either to indicate that the start of the Julian year The year 1828 ( MDCCCXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Old Style (or OS) and New Style (or NS) are used in English language historical studies either to indicate that the start of the Julian year Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending A writer is anyone who creates a written work although the word usually designates those who write creatively or professionally as well as those who have written in many different forms A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story This article is an abbreviated list of Essayists - individuals notable for writing essays on various topics A playwright, also known as a dramatist, is a person who writes dramatic literature or Drama. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Christian anarchism is any of several traditions which combine Anarchism with Christianity. Education reform is a plan or movement which attempts to bring about a systematic change in Educational theory or practice across a Community or Society He was the most influential member of the aristocratic Tolstoy family. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations This article is about the Tolstoy family, for other meanings see Tolstoy (disambiguation Tolstoy, or Tolstoi

As a fiction writer, Tolstoy is widely regarded as one of the greatest of all novelists, particularly noted for his masterpieces War and Peace and Anna Karenina. War and Peace (Война и мир Voyna i mir) is a Novel by Leo Tolstoy, first published from 1865 to 1869 in Russkii Vestnik Anna Karenina ( Анна Каренина) also Anglicised as Anna Karenin, is a Novel by the Russian writer Leo Tolstoy In their scope, breadth and realistic depiction of 19th-century Russian life, the two books stand at the peak of realist fiction. Realism in the Visual arts and Literature is the depiction of subjects as they appear in Everyday life, without embellishment or interpretation As a moral philosopher Tolstoy was notable for his ideas on nonviolent resistance through works such as The Kingdom of God is Within You, which in turn influenced such twentieth-century figures as Mohandas K. Gandhi[1] and Martin Luther King, Jr.

Contents

Biography

Leo Tolstoy was born August 28, 1828, Yasnaya Polyana, Central Russia. Nonviolent resistance (or nonviolent action) is the practice of achieving socio-political goals through Symbolic Protests Civil disobedience, The Kingdom of God Is Within You (Царство Божие внутри вас Bozhiye vnutri vas'' is the Non-fiction Magnum opus of Leo Tolstoy Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January Martin Luther King Jr ( January 15, 1929 April 4, 1968) was an American clergyman, Activist and prominent leader Events 475 - The Roman General Orestes forces western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos to flee his Capital The year 1828 ( MDCCCXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Yasnaya Polyana ( Russian: Ясная Поляна literally "Clear Glade" was the home of Leo Tolstoy, located 12 kilometers southwest of Tula The Tolstoys are a well-known family of old Russian nobility; Tolstoy was connected to the grandest families of Russian aristocracy; Alexander Pushkin was his fourth cousin. He always remained a class-conscious nobleman who cherished his impeccable French pronunciation and kept aloof from the intelligentsia. For the coffee shop company often called Intelligentsia for short see Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea.

Early life

Tolstoy's childhood was spent between Moscow and Yasnaya Polyana, in a family of three brothers and a sister. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of He lost his mother when he was two, and his father when he was nine. His subsequent education was in the hands of his aunt, Madame Ergolsky. (His father and mother are respectively the starting points for the characters of Nicholas Rostov and Princess Marya in War and Peace. ) In 1844, Tolstoy began studying law and Oriental languages at Kazan University, where teachers described him as "both unable and unwilling to learn. The Orient is a term which simply means the " East " It originated in Western Asia to describe that part of the world Kazan State University is located in Kazan, Tatarstan, Russia. " He found no meaning in further studies and left the university in the middle of a term. In 1849 he settled down at Yasnaya Polyana, where he attempted to be useful to his peasants but soon discovered the ineffectiveness of his uninformed zeal. From the very beginning, his diary (which is defunct from 1847 on) reveals an insatiable thirst for a rational and moral justification of life, a thirst that forever remained a ruling force in his mind. The same diary was his first experiment in forging a technique of psychological analysis which was to become his principal literary weapon.

Military career and first literary efforts

Stele commemorating Tolstoy's participation in 1854-55 defense of Sevastopol
Stele commemorating Tolstoy's participation in 1854-55 defense of Sevastopol

Tolstoy's first literary effort was a translation of A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy. Sevastopol ( see pronunciation below) is a port city in Ukraine, located on the Black Sea coast of the Crimea Peninsula A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy is a novel by the Irish-born English author Laurence Sterne, written and first published in 1768, as Sterne's influence on his early works was substantial, although he subsequently denigrated him as "a devious writer". Laurence Sterne ( November 24, 1713 &ndash March 18, 1768) was an Irish -born English Novelist and an Anglican In 1851, he attempted a more ambitious and more definitely creative kind of writing, his first short story "A History of Yesterday". The short story is a literary genre of Fictional Prose Narrative that tends to be more concise and to the point than longer works of fiction such In the same year, sick of his seemingly empty and useless life in Moscow, which brought heavy gambling debts, he went to the Caucasus, where he joined an artillery unit garrisoned in the Cossack part of Chechnya, as a volunteer of private rank, but of noble birth (junker). The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East The Cossacks (Каза́ки́ Kazaki; Козаки́ Kozaki; Kozacy are a group of martial people living in the southern Steppe regions of Eastern The Chechen Republic (ˈʧɛʧɨn rɪˈpʌblɨk Чече́нская Респу́блика Chechenskaya Respublika; Нохчийн Республика Noxçiyn Respublika Junker ( Юнкер in Russian, or yunker) has several meanings in the Imperial Russia. In 1852 he completed his first novel Childhood and sent it to Nikolai Nekrasov for publication in the Sovremennik. Nikolay Alexeyevich Nekrasov (Никола́й Алексе́евич Некра́сов &ndash) was a Russian poet writer critic and publisher associate of Vissarion Sovremennik ("Современник" literally The Contemporary) was a Russian literary social and political magazine published in St Although Tolstoy was annoyed with the publishing cuts, the story had an immediate success and gave Tolstoy a definite place in Russian literature and popular drinking circles.

In Sevastopol he wrote the battlefield observations Sebastopol Sketches, widely viewed as his first approach to the techniques to be used so effectively in War and Peace. Sevastopol Sketches (Севастопольские рассказы "Sevastopolskiye rasskazy" are three Historical fiction short stories written by Appearing as they did in the Sovremennik monthly while the siege of Sevastopol was still on, the stories greatly increased the general interest in their author. In fact, the Tsar Alexander II was known to have said in praise of the author of the work, "Guard well the life of that man. Alexander (Aleksandr II Nikolaevich (Александр II Николаевич ( Moscow, 29 April 1818 – 13 March 1881 in St " Soon after the abandonment of the fortress, Tolstoy went on leave of absence to St. Petersburg and Moscow. The following year he left the army.

Between retirement and marriage

The years 1856–61 were passed between Petersburg, Moscow, Yasnaya, and foreign countries. In 1857 (and again in 1860-61) he traveled abroad and returned disillusioned by the selfishness and materialism of European bourgeois civilization, a feeling expressed in his short story Lucerne and more circuitously in Three Deaths. The Philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is Matter, and is considered a form of Physicalism. As he drifted towards a more oriental worldview with Buddhist overtones, Tolstoy learned to feel himself in other living creatures. The Orient is a term which simply means the " East " It originated in Western Asia to describe that part of the world Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices He started to write Kholstomer, which contains a passage of interior monologue by a horse. " Kholstomer " also translated as " Strider " is one of the more striking stories in Russian literature. Internal monologue, also known as inner voice, internal speech, or stream of consciousness is Thinking in Words It also refers Many of his intimate thoughts were repeated by a protagonist of The Cossacks, who reflects, falling on the ground while hunting in a forest:

'Here am I, Dmitri Olenin, a being quite distinct from every other being, now lying all alone Heaven only knows where – where a stag used to live – an old stag, a beautiful stag who perhaps had never seen a man, and in a place where no human being has ever sat or thought these thoughts. The Cossacks (Казаки) is a short Novel by Leo Tolstoy, published in 1863. Here I sit, and around me stand old and young trees, one of them festooned with wild grape vines, and pheasants are fluttering, driving one another about and perhaps scenting their murdered brothers. ' He felt his pheasants, examined them, and wiped the warm blood off his hand onto his coat. 'Perhaps the jackals scent them and with dissatisfied faces go off in another direction: above me, flying in among the leaves which to them seem enormous islands, mosquitoes hang in the air and buzz: one, two, three, four, a hundred, a thousand, a million mosquitoes, and all of them buzz something or other and each one of them is separate from all else and is just such a separate Dmitri Olenin as I am myself. ' He vividly imagined what the mosquitoes buzzed: 'This way, this way, lads! Here's some one we can eat!' They buzzed and stuck to him. And it was clear to him that he was not a Russian nobleman, a member of Moscow society, the friend and relation of so-and-so and so-and-so, but just such a mosquito, or pheasant, or deer, as those that were now living all around him. 'Just as they, just as Uncle Eroshka, I shall live awhile and die, and as he says truly: "grass will grow and nothing more". '

These years after the Crimean War were the only time in Tolstoy's life when he mixed with the literary world. He was welcomed by the litterateurs of Petersburg and Moscow as one of their most eminent fellow craftsmen. As he confessed afterwards, his vanity and pride were greatly flattered by his success. But he did not get on with them. He was too much of an aristocrat to like this semi-Bohemian intelligentsia. All the structure of his mind was against the grain of the progressive Westernizers, epitomized by Ivan Turgenev, who was widely considered the greatest living Russian author of the period. Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev ( ɪˈvan sʲɪrˈgʲeɪvʲɪtɕ turˈgʲenʲɪf ( &ndash) was a Russian novelist and playwright Turgenev, who was in many ways Tolstoy's opposite, was also one of his strongest admirers; he called Tolstoy's 1862 short novel The Cossacks "the best story written in our language". Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev ( ɪˈvan sʲɪrˈgʲeɪvʲɪtɕ turˈgʲenʲɪf ( &ndash) was a Russian novelist and playwright

Tolstoy with granddaughter at Yasnaya Polyana
Tolstoy with granddaughter at Yasnaya Polyana

Tolstoy did not believe in Westernized progress and culture, and liked to tease Turgenev by his outspoken or cynical statements. Yasnaya Polyana ( Russian: Ясная Поляна literally "Clear Glade" was the home of Leo Tolstoy, located 12 kilometers southwest of Tula Westernization or occidentalization (from occident, see wiktionary) is a process whereby societies come under or adopt the Western His lack of sympathy with the literary world culminated in a resounding quarrel with Turgenev in 1861, whom he challenged to a duel but afterwards apologized for doing so. The whole story is very characteristic and revelatory of Tolstoy's character, with its profound impatience of other people's assumed superiority and their perceived lack of intellectual honesty. The only writers with whom he remained friends were the conservative "landlordist" Afanasy Fet and the democratic Slavophile Nikolay Strakhov, both of them entirely out of tune with the main current of contemporary thought. Afanasy Afanasievich Fet (Афанасий Афанасьевич Фет December 5, 1820 — December 3, 1892) or Foeth, later A Slavophile is an intellectual movement originating from 19th century that wanted the Russian Empire to be developed upon values and institutions derived from its early history Nikolay Nikolayevich Strakhov, also transliterated as Nikolai Strahov (Страхов Николай Николаевич ( October 16, 1828 - January

In 1859 he started a school for peasant children at Yasnaya, followed by twelve others, whose ground-breaking libertarian principles Tolstoy described in his 1862 essay, "The School at Yasnaya Polyana". He also authored a great number of stories for peasant children. Tolstoy's educational experiments were short-lived, but as a direct forerunner to A. S. Neill's Summerhill School, the school at Yasnaya Polyana can justifiably be claimed to be the first example of a coherent theory of libertarian education. Alexander Sutherland Neill ( October 17, 1883 - September 23, 1973) was a Scottish progressive educator, author and founder For the school of the same name in Kingswinford please see Summerhill School (Kingswinford Summerhill School is an independent British boarding school that was

In 1862 Tolstoy published a pedagogical magazine, Yasnaya Polyana, in which he contended that it was not the intellectuals who should teach the peasants, but rather the peasants the intellectuals. He came to believe that he was undeserving of his inherited wealth, and gained renown among the peasantry for his generosity. He would frequently return to his country estate with vagrants whom he felt needed a helping hand, and would often dispense large sums of money to street beggars while on trips to the city. In 1861 he accepted the post of Justice of the Peace, a magistrature that had been introduced to supervise the carrying into life of the Emancipation reform of 1861. A Justice of the Peace ( JP) is a Puisne Judicial officer appointed by means of a commission to keep the peace The Emancipation Reform of 1861 in Russia was the first and most important of liberal reforms affected during the reign of Alexander II of Russia.

Meanwhile his insatiate quest for moral stability continued to torment him. He had now abandoned the wild living of his youth, and thought of marrying. In 1856 he made his first unsuccessful attempt to marry Mlle Arseniev. In 1860 he was profoundly affected by the death of his brother Nicholas. Although he had lost his parents and guardian aunts during his childhood, Tolstoy considered the death of his brother to be his first encounter with the inevitable reality of death. After these reverses, Tolstoy reflected in his diary that at thirty four, no woman could love him, since he was too old and ugly. In 1862, at last, he proposed to Sofia Andreyevna Behrs and was accepted. They were married on 23 September of the same year. Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English

Marriage and family life

Tolstoy's wife, Sofia Andreevna Tolstaya, and daughter Alexandra Tolstaya
Tolstoy's wife, Sofia Andreevna Tolstaya, and daughter Alexandra Tolstaya

His marriage is one of the two most important landmarks in the life of Tolstoy, the other being his conversion. Once he entertained a passionate and hopeless aspiration after that whole and unreflecting "natural" state which he found among the peasants, and especially among the Cossacks in whose villages he had lived in the Caucasus. His marriage provided for him an escape from unrelenting self-questioning. It was the gate towards a more stable and lasting "natural state". Family life, and an unreasoning acceptance of and submission to the life to which he was born, now became his religion.

For the first fifteen years of his married life he lived in a blissful state of confidently satisfied life, whose philosophy is expounded in War and Peace. War and Peace (Война и мир Voyna i mir) is a Novel by Leo Tolstoy, first published from 1865 to 1869 in Russkii Vestnik Sophie Behrs, almost a girl when he married her and 16 years his junior, proved an ideal wife and mother and mistress of the house. On the eve of their marriage, Tolstoy gave her his diaries detailing his sexual relations with female serfs. Together they had twelve children, five of whom died in their childhoods. [2]

Sophie was, moreover, a devoted help to her husband in his literary work, and the story is well known how she acted as copyist to his War and Peace, copying seven times from beginning to end. The family fortune, owing to Tolstoy's efficient management of his estates and to the sales of his works, was prosperous, making it possible to provide adequately for the increasing family.

Conversion

Church of St. Nicholas in Khamovniki, of which Tolstoy was a parishioner before his excommunication
Church of St. Nicholas in Khamovniki, of which Tolstoy was a parishioner before his excommunication

Tolstoy had always been fundamentally a rationalist. Church of Saint Nicholas in Khamovniki (Церковь Cвятителя Николая Чудотворца в Хамовниках is a late 17th century parish church of a former weavers In Epistemology and in its broadest sense rationalism is "any view appealing to Reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286 But at the time he wrote his great novels, his rationalism was suffering an eclipse. The philosophy of War and Peace and Anna Karenina (which he formulates in A Confession as "that one should live so as to have the best for oneself and one's family") was a surrender of his rationalism to the inherent irrationality of life. Any notion that one could have control over one's own life and the lives of others was abandoned, in favor of the notion that the sum of the free wills of thousands made for the massive movements of history. Hence the greatest wisdom (according to War and Peace) consisted in accepting without sophistication one's place in life and making the best of it. But already in the last part of Anna Karenina a growing disquietude becomes very apparent. When he was writing it the crisis had already begun that is so memorably recorded in A Confession and from which he was to emerge with a new religious and ethical teaching.

Tolstoy's rationalism found satisfaction in the admirably constructed system of his doctrine. But the irrational Tolstoy remained alive beneath the hardened crust of crystallized dogma. Dogma (the plural is either dogmata or dogmas, Greek, plural) is the established Belief or Tolstoy's diaries reveal that the desires of the flesh were active in him until an unusually advanced age; and the desire for expansion, the desire that gave life to War and Peace, the desire for the fullness of life with all its pleasure and beauty, never died in him. We catch few glimpses of this in his writings, for he subjected them to a strict and narrow discipline. He wrote as effortlessly as ever in his late years and produced admirable works of art, such as Hadji Murad, one of many pieces that appeared posthumously. Hadji Murad (or alternatively Hadji Murat, although the first spelling best captures the Phoneme of the original language title in Хаджи-Мурат) was a short It became increasingly apparent that, in the words of Vladimir Nabokov, there were only two subjects that Tolstoy was really interested in and thought worth writing about – and that is life and death. This page is about the novelist For his father the politician see Vladimir Dmitrievich Nabokov. Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism Death is the termination of the biological functions that define living Organisms It refers both to a specific The relationship between life and death was examined by him over and over again, with increasing complexity, in the final version of Kholstomer, in War and Peace, in The Death of Ivan Ilyich, in How Much Land Does a Man Need? and in Master and Man. For the Austrian development critic see Ivan Illich The Death of Ivan Ilych (Смерть Ивана Ильича Smert' Ivana How Much Land Does a Man Need? ( Russian: Много ли человеку земли нужно? Mnogo li cheloveku zemli nuzhno) is an 1886 Short Master and Man (Хозяин и работник is a short story by Leo Tolstoy ( 1893)

Later life

Soon after A Confession became known, Tolstoy began, at first against his will, to attract disciples. The first of these was Vladimir Chertkov, an ex-officer of the Horse Guards and founder of the Tolstoyans, described by D.S. Mirsky as a "narrow fanatic and a hard, despotic man, who exercised an enormous practical influence on Tolstoy and became a sort of grand vizier of the new community". Vladimir Grigoryevich Chertkov (Владимир Григорьевич Чертков sometimes transcribed as Chertkoff or Tchertkoff) ( - November 9 The adjective Tolstoyan (also spelled Tolstoian)refers to the author Leo Tolstoy. DS Mirsky is the English pen-name of Dmitry Petrovich Svyatopolk-Mirsky (Дми́трий Петро́вич Святопо́лк-Ми́рский (&ndash June 6 A Vizier ( - wazīr) (sometimes also spelled Vazir Vizir Vasir Wazir Vesir, or Vezir - grammatical vowel changes are common in many western Asian Tolstoy also established contact with certain sects of Christian communists and anarchists, like the Dukhobors. Christian Communism is a form of Religious communism centered around Christianity. Christian anarchism is any of several traditions which combine Anarchism with Christianity. The Doukhobors or Doukhabors (Духоборы Dukhobory) earlier Dukhobortsy (Духоборцы are a Christian group of Russian Despite his unorthodox views and support for Thoreau's doctrine of civil disobedience, Tolstoy was unmolested by the government, solicitous to avoid negative publicity abroad. Civil disobedience is the active refusal to obey certain Laws demands and commands of a Government, or of an occupying power, without resorting to physical Only in 1901 did the Synod excommunicate him. A synod (also known as a council) is a council of a church, usually a Christian church convened to decide an issue of doctrine administration or application This act, widely but rather unjudiciously resented both at home and abroad, merely registered a matter of common knowledge – that Tolstoy had ceased to be a follower of the Orthodox Church.

As his reputation among people of all classes grew immensely, a few Tolstoyan communes formed throughout Russia in order to put into practice Tolstoy's religious doctrines. The adjective Tolstoyan (also spelled Tolstoian)refers to the author Leo Tolstoy. And, by the last two decades of his life, Tolstoy enjoyed a place in the world's esteem that had not been held by any man of letters since the death of Voltaire. François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French [3] Yasnaya Polyana became a new Ferney – or even more than that, almost a new Jerusalem. Ferney-Voltaire is a commune in the department of Ain in eastern France. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the Pilgrims from all parts flocked there to see the great old man. But Tolstoy's own family remained hostile to his teaching, with the exception of his youngest daughter Alexandra Tolstaya. Alexandra Lvovna (1884-1979 also known by her nickname Sasha was the youngest daughter and secretary of the famous Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy. His wife especially took up a position of decided opposition to his new ideas. She refused to give up her possessions and asserted her duty to provide for her large family. Tolstoy renounced the copyright of his new works but had to surrender his landed property and the copyright of his earlier works to his wife. Copyright is a legal concept enacted by Governments, giving the creator of an original work of authorship Exclusive rights to control its distribution usually for The later years of his married life have been described by biographer A. N. Wilson as some of the unhappiest in literary history. Andrew Norman Wilson (born 27 October, 1950) is an English writer known for his critical biographies novels and works of popular and cultural history

Tolstoy was remarkably healthy for his age, but he fell seriously ill in 1901 and had to live for a long time in Gaspra and Simeiz, Crimea. Gaspra (Гаспра Гаспра Gaspra is a Spa town in Crimea, Ukraine. Simeiz (Сімеїз Симеиз Simeiz is a Resort town in Crimea, Ukraine. Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым Still he continued working to the last and never showed the slightest sign of any weakening brain power. Ever more oppressed by the apparent contradiction between his preaching of communism and the easy life he led under the regime of his wife, full of a growing irritation against his family, which was urged on by Chertkov, he finally left Yasnaya, in the company of his daughter Alexandra and his doctor, for an unknown destination. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based After some restless and aimless wandering he headed for a convent where his sister was the mother superior but had to stop at Astapovo junction. Lev Tolstoy (Лев Толсто́й is a settlement in the northern part of Lipetsk Oblast, Russia. There he was laid up in the stationmaster's house and died, apparently of cold, on November 20, 1910. Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting He was buried in a simple peasant's grave in a wood 500 meters from Yasnaya Polyana. Thousands of peasants lined the streets at his funeral.

Novels and fiction

Tolstoy's grave at Yasnaya Polyana
Tolstoy's grave at Yasnaya Polyana

Tolstoy's fiction realistically conveys the Russian society in which he lived. Yasnaya Polyana ( Russian: Ясная Поляна literally "Clear Glade" was the home of Leo Tolstoy, located 12 kilometers southwest of Tula Fiction is the telling of stories which are not real More specifically fiction is an imaginative form of Narrative, one of the four basic Rhetorical modes. Matthew Arnold commented that Tolstoy's work is not art, but a piece of life. Matthew Arnold (24 December 1822 &ndash 15 April 1888 was an English Poet, and Cultural critic who worked as an inspector of schools Arnold's assessment was echoed by Isaak Babel who said that, "if the world could write by itself, it would write like Tolstoy. Isaac Emmanuilovich Babel, Исаак Эммануилович Бабель ( – January 27, 1940) was a Soviet journalist playwright and short story writer who " Virginia Woolf argued that Tolstoy was "the greatest of all novelists. (Adeline Virginia Woolf (née Stephen; 25 January 1882 – 28 March 1941 was an English Novelist and Essayist, regarded as one of the foremost "

His first publications were three autobiographical novels, Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth (1852 – 1856). An autobiographical novel is a Novel based on the life of the author They tell of a rich landowner's son and his slow realization of the differences between him and his peasants. A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground Although in later life Tolstoy rejected these books as sentimental, a great deal of his own life is revealed, and the books still have relevance for their telling of the universal story of growing up.

Tolstoy served as a second lieutenant in an artillery regiment during the Crimean War, recounted in his Sevastapol Sketches. Second Lieutenant is the lowest commissioned officer Military rank in many Armed forces. The Crimean War, also known in Russia as the Eastern War (Восточная война Vostochnaya Vojna) (March 1854–February 1856 was fought Sevastopol Sketches (Севастопольские рассказы "Sevastopolskiye rasskazy" are three Historical fiction short stories written by His experiences in battle helped develop his pacifism, and gave him material for realistic depiction of the horrors of war in his later work. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units

The Cossacks (1863) is an unfinished novel which describes the Cossack life and people through a story of Dmitri Olenin, a Russian aristocrat in love with a Cossack girl. The Cossacks (Каза́ки́ Kazaki; Козаки́ Kozaki; Kozacy are a group of martial people living in the southern Steppe regions of Eastern This text was acclaimed by Ivan Bunin as one of the finest in the language. Ivan Alekseyevich Bunin ( Ива́н Алексе́евич Бу́нин) (— November 8, 1953) was the first Russian writer to win the The magic of Tolstoy's language is naturally lost in translation, but the following excerpt may give some idea as to the lush, sensuous, pulsing texture of the original:

'Along the surface of the water floated black shadows, in which the experienced eyes of the Cossack detected trees carried down by the current. Only very rarely sheet-lightning, mirrored in the water as in a black glass, disclosed the sloping bank opposite. The rhythmic sounds of night — the rustling of the reeds, the snoring of the Cossacks, the hum of mosquitoes, and the rushing water, were every now and then broken by a shot fired in the distance, or by the gurgling of water when a piece of bank slipped down, the splash of a big fish, or the crashing of an animal breaking through the thick undergrowth in the wood. Once an owl flew past along the Terek, flapping one wing against the other rhythmically at every second beat. '

War and Peace (1869) is generally thought to be one of the greatest novels ever written, remarkable for its breadth and unity. War and Peace (Война и мир Voyna i mir) is a Novel by Leo Tolstoy, first published from 1865 to 1869 in Russkii Vestnik A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story Its vast canvas includes 580 characters, many historical, others fictional. The story moves from family life to the headquarters of Napoleon, from the court of Alexander I of Russia to the battlefields of Austerlitz and Borodino. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Alexander I of Russia ( Russian: Александр I Павлович / Aleksandr I Pavlovich (23 December 1777 – November 19 1825 served as Emperor of The Battle of Austerlitz (Bitva u Slavkova also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of Napoleon's greatest victories effectively destroying the Borodino (Бородино is a Village in Moscow Oblast, Russia, 12 km southwards of Mozhaysk. The novel explores Tolstoy's theory of history, and in particular the insignificance of individuals such as Napoleon and Alexander. But more importantly, Tolstoy's imagination created a world that seems to be so believable, so real, that it is not easy to realize that most of his characters actually never existed and that Tolstoy never witnessed the epoch described in the novel.

Somewhat surprisingly, Tolstoy did not consider War and Peace to be a novel (nor did he consider many of the great Russian fictions written at that time to be novels). It was to him an epic in prose. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation Anna Karenina (1877), which Tolstoy regarded as his first true novel, was one of his most impeccably constructed and compositionally sophisticated works. Anna Karenina ( Анна Каренина) also Anglicised as Anna Karenin, is a Novel by the Russian writer Leo Tolstoy It tells parallel stories of an adulterous woman trapped by the conventions and falsities of society and of a philosophical landowner (much like Tolstoy) who works alongside the peasants in the fields and seeks to reform their lives. His last novel was Resurrection, published in 1899, which told the story of a nobleman seeking redemption for a sin committed years earlier and incorporated many of Tolstoy's refashioned views on life. Resurrection (Воскресение Voskresyeniye) first published in 1899, was the last Novel written by Leo Tolstoy. An additional short novel, Hadji Murat, was published posthumously in 1912.

Tolstoy's later work is often criticized as being overly didactic and patchily written, but derives a passion and verve from the depth of his austere moral views. The sequence of the temptation of Sergius in Father Sergius, for example, is among his later triumphs. Gorky relates how Tolstoy once read this passage before himself and Chekhov and that Tolstoy was moved to tears by the end of the reading. Aleksey Maksimovich Peshkov ( In Алексе́й Макси́мович Пешко́в ( &ndash June 18, 1936) better known as Maxim Gorky (Максим Other later passages of rare power include the crises of self faced by the protagonists of After the Ball and Master and Man, where the main character (in After the Ball) or the reader (in Master and Man) is made aware of the foolishness of the protagonists' lives. The Death of Ivan Ilyich is perhaps the greatest fictional meditation on death ever written.

Tolstoy had an abiding interest in children and children's literature and wrote tales and fables. Some of his fables are free adaptations of fables from Aesop and from Hindu tradition. Aesop (also spelled Æsop, from the Greek Αἴσωπος — Aisōpos) (620-560 BC) known only for the genre of Fables A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical

Reputation

Tolstoy's contemporaries paid him lofty tributes: Fyodor Dostoyevsky thought him the greatest of all living writers and Gustave Flaubert, on reading War and Peace for the first time in translation, compared him to Shakespeare and gushed: "What an artist and what a psychologist!". Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский, sometimes transliterated Dostoyevsky, Dostoievsky, Gustave Flaubert (gystaːv flobɛːʁ in French ( December 12, 1821 &ndash May 8, 1880) was a French writer who is counted among William Shakespeare ( baptised Ivan Turgenev called Tolstoy a "great writer of the Russian land"[4] and on his deathbed implored Tolstoy not to abandon literature . Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev ( ɪˈvan sʲɪrˈgʲeɪvʲɪtɕ turˈgʲenʲɪf ( &ndash) was a Russian novelist and playwright Anton Chekhov, who often visited Tolstoy at his country estate, wrote: "When literature possesses a Tolstoy, it is easy and pleasant to be a writer; even when you know you have achieved nothing yourself and are still achieving nothing, this is not as terrible as it might otherwise be, because Tolstoy achieves for everyone. Anton Pavlovich Chekhov ( –) (Анто́н Па́влович Че́хов) was a Russian short-story writer and Playwright, considered to be one What he does serves to justify all the hopes and aspirations invested in literature. "

Later critics and novelists continue to bear testaments to his art: Virginia Woolf went on to declare him "greatest of all novelists", and James Joyce, defending him from criticism, noted: "He is never dull, never stupid, never tired, never pedantic, never theatrical". (Adeline Virginia Woolf (née Stephen; 25 January 1882 – 28 March 1941 was an English Novelist and Essayist, regarded as one of the foremost James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 &ndash 13 January 1941 was an Irish expatriate writer widely considered to be one of the most influential writers of the Thomas Mann wrote of his seemingly guileless artistry — "Seldom did art work so much like nature" — sentiments shared in part by many others, including Marcel Proust and William Faulkner. Paul Thomas Mann ( June Valentin Louis Georges Eugène Marcel Proust (maʁsɛl pʁust (10 July 1871 &ndash 18 November 1922 was a French Novelist Essayist and Critic William Faulkner (born William Cuthbert Falkner) ( September 25, 1897 – July 6, 1962) was an American Author Vladimir Nabokov, himself a Russian and an infamously harsh critic, placed him above all other Russian fiction writers, even Gogol, and equalled him with Pushkin among Russian writers. This page is about the novelist For his father the politician see Vladimir Dmitrievich Nabokov. Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol (Никола́й Васи́льевич Го́голь Nikolai Vasilevich Gogol;; Микола Васильович Гоголь

Religious and political beliefs

Leo Tolstoy, by Repin (1887)
Leo Tolstoy, by Repin (1887)

At about age 50, Tolstoy experienced a spiritual crisis, at which point he was so agonized about discovering life's meaning as to seriously contemplate ending his life. Ilya Yefimovich Repin (Илья́ Ефи́мович Ре́пин Ілля Юхимович Рєпін ( Chuhuiv, Russian Empire (now in Ukraine He relates the story of this spiritual crisis in A Confession, and the conclusions of his studies in My Religion, The Kingdom of God is Within You and The Gospels in Brief. A Confession (Исповедь) is a short work on questions of Religion by Leo Tolstoy. The Kingdom of God Is Within You (Царство Божие внутри вас Bozhiye vnutri vas'' is the Non-fiction Magnum opus of Leo Tolstoy

Social Christianity

The teaching of mature Tolstoy concentrated exclusively on the moral teaching of the Gospels. Tolstoy's Christian beliefs were based on the Sermon on the Mount, and particularly on the phrase "turn the other cheek", which he saw as a justification for pacifism, nonviolence and nonresistance. In the Gospel of St Matthew, the Sermon on the Mount is a compilation of Jesus' sayings epitomizing his moral teaching. Turning the other cheek is to respond to an aggressor without violence (in every sense of the word Nonviolence is a philosophy and strategy for social change that rejects the use of physical Violence. Nonresistance (or non-resistance) discourages physical resistance to an enemy and is a subdivision of Nonviolence. Of the moral teaching of Christ, the words "Resist not evil" were taken to be the principle out of which all the rest follows. Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " He condemned the State, which sanctioned violence and corruption, and rejected the authority of the Church, which sanctioned the State. His condemnation of every form of compulsion authorizes many to classify Tolstoy's later teachings, in its political aspect, as Christian anarchism. Christian anarchism is any of several traditions which combine Anarchism with Christianity.

Christian anarchism

Main article: Christian anarchism

Although he did not call himself an anarchist because he applied the term to those who wanted to change society through violence,[5] Tolstoy is commonly regarded as an anarchist. Christian anarchism is any of several traditions which combine Anarchism with Christianity. Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i His doctrine of nonresistance (nonviolence) when faced by conflict is another distinct attribute of his philosophy based on Christ's teachings. By directly influencing Mahatma Gandhi with this idea through his work The Kingdom of God is Within You, Tolstoy has had a huge influence on the nonviolent resistance movement to this day. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January He opposed private property and the institution of marriage and valued the ideals of chastity and sexual abstinence (as discussed in Father Sergius and his preface to The Kreutzer Sonata), ideals also held by the young Gandhi. Chastity is Sexual behavior of a man or woman acceptable to the ethical norms and guidelines of a culture civilization or Religion. Sexual abstinence is the practice of voluntarily refraining from some or all aspects of Sexual activity. The Kreutzer Sonata is a novella by Leo Tolstoy, published in 1889 and promptly censored by the Russian authorities

Tolstoy Plowing, by Repin
Tolstoy Plowing, by Repin

In hundreds of essays over the last twenty years of his life, Tolstoy reiterated the anarchist critique of the State and recommended books by Kropotkin and Proudhon to his readers, while rejecting anarchism's espousal of violent revolutionary means, writing in the 1900 essay, "On Anarchy":

The Anarchists are right in everything; in the negation of the existing order, and in the assertion that, without Authority, there could not be worse violence than that of Authority under existing conditions. Ilya Yefimovich Repin (Илья́ Ефи́мович Ре́пин Ілля Юхимович Рєпін ( Chuhuiv, Russian Empire (now in Ukraine Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (ˈpruːd ɒn in British English, dɔ̃ in French) ( 15 January 1809 – 19 January 1865) was They are mistaken only in thinking that Anarchy can be instituted by a revolution. But it will be instituted only by there being more and more people who do not require the protection of governmental power…There can be only one permanent revolution - a moral one: the regeneration of the inner man.

Pacifism

Tolstoy's room at Yasnaya Polyana
Tolstoy's room at Yasnaya Polyana

Despite his misgivings about anarchist violence, Tolstoy took risks to circulate the prohibited publications of anarchist thinkers in Russia, and corrected the proofs of Peter Kropotkin's "Words of a Rebel", illegally published in St Petersburg in 1906. Yasnaya Polyana ( Russian: Ясная Поляна literally "Clear Glade" was the home of Leo Tolstoy, located 12 kilometers southwest of Tula Two years earlier, during the Russo-Japanese War, Tolstoy publicly condemned the war and wrote to the Japanese Buddhist priest Soyen Shaku in a failed attempt to make a joint pacifist statement. The Russo-Japanese War (日露戦争 Romaji: Nichi-Ro Sensō Русско-японская война Russko-Yaponskaya Voyna;, 10 February 1904 – 5 September The history of Buddhism in Japan can be roughly divided into three periods namely the Nara period (up to 784 the Heian period (794–1185 and the post-Heian period Soyen Shaku ( 釈 宗演, 1859 – October 29, 1919, Kamakura, Japan; sometimes written as Soen Shaku or Kogaku So’en

A letter Tolstoy wrote in 1908 to an Indian newspaper entitled "Letter to a Hindu" resulted in intense correspondence with Mohandas Gandhi, who was in South Africa at the time and was beginning to become an activist. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country A Letter to a Hindu was a letter written by Count Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy in 1908 to the Indian newspaper Free Hindustan. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Reading "The Kingdom of God is Within You" made a strong impression on Gandhi in terms of his public commitment to nonviolent resistance, a debt Gandhi acknowledged in his autobiography, calling Tolstoy "the greatest apostle of non-violence that the present age has produced". The Kingdom of God Is Within You (Царство Божие внутри вас Bozhiye vnutri vas'' is the Non-fiction Magnum opus of Leo Tolstoy Nonviolent resistance (or nonviolent action) is the practice of achieving socio-political goals through Symbolic Protests Civil disobedience, The correspondence between Tolstoy and Gandhi would only last a year, from October 1909 until Tolstoy's death in November 1910, but led Gandhi to give the name the Tolstoy Colony to his second ashram in South Africa. An Ashram in ancient India was a Hindu hermitage where sages lived in Peace and tranquility amidst Nature. Besides non-violent resistance, the two men shared a common belief in the merits of vegetarianism, the subject of several of Tolstoy's essays (see Christian vegetarianism). Vegetarianism is the practice of a diet that excludes Meat (including game and slaughter by-products Fish (including Shellfish and other sea Christian vegetarianism is based on extending the compassionate teachings of Jesus, the Twelve apostles and the Early church to all living beings through

Along with his growing idealism, Tolstoy also became a major supporter of the Esperanto movement. is by far the most widely spoken constructed International auxiliary language in the world Tolstoy was impressed by the pacifist beliefs of the Doukhobors and brought their persecution to the attention of the international community, after they burned their weapons in peaceful protest in 1895. The Doukhobors or Doukhabors (Духоборы Dukhobory) earlier Dukhobortsy (Духоборцы are a Christian group of Russian He aided the Doukhobors in migrating to Canada. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page In 1908, he was also the founding president of the International Union of Vegetarian Esperantists (Internacia Vegetarana Unuiĝo). [6]


References

This article incorporates text from D.S. Mirsky's "A History of Russian Literature" (1926-27), a publication now in the public domain. DS Mirsky is the English pen-name of Dmitry Petrovich Svyatopolk-Mirsky (Дми́трий Петро́вич Святопо́лк-Ми́рский (&ndash June 6 The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone

  1. ^ Martin E. Hellman, Resist Not Evil in World Without Violence (Arun Gandhi ed.), M.K. Gandhi Institute, 1994, retrieved on 14 December 2006]
  2. ^ Feuer,Kathryn B. Tolstoy and the Genesis of War and Peace, Cornell University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-8014-1902-6
  3. ^ D. S. Mirsky. DS Mirsky is the English pen-name of Dmitry Petrovich Svyatopolk-Mirsky (Дми́трий Петро́вич Святопо́лк-Ми́рский (&ndash June 6 A History of Russian Literature. Northwestern University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8101-1679-0. Page 324.
  4. ^ Victor Terras ed. , Handbook of Russian Literature, p. 476-480, Yale University Press, 1985 (retrieved on 14 December 2006 from this website)
  5. ^ Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements, Broadview Press, 2004, p. 185
  6. ^ "TEVA: The Esperantist Vegetarian Movement celebrates its 90th year"

External links

Leo Tolstoy dedicated websites

Biographies and critiques

Leo Tolstoy in the media

Persondata
NAME Tolstoy, Leo
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Tolstoy, Lev Nikolayevich; Tolstoi, Leo; Лев Никола́евич Толсто́й (Russian)
SHORT DESCRIPTION Russian novelist
DATE OF BIRTH August 28, 1828(1828-08-28)
PLACE OF BIRTH Yasnaya Polyana, Russia
DATE OF DEATH November 20, 1910
PLACE OF DEATH Astapovo, Russia

Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950 who used the Pseudonym George Orwell, was an English writer Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij Lives and Deaths of the Poets is an upcoming Comedy film written & directed by Leland Steigs and due to be released in 2009. Events 475 - The Roman General Orestes forces western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos to flee his Capital The year 1828 ( MDCCCXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Yasnaya Polyana ( Russian: Ясная Поляна literally "Clear Glade" was the home of Leo Tolstoy, located 12 kilometers southwest of Tula Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Lev Tolstoy (Лев Толсто́й is a settlement in the northern part of Lipetsk Oblast, Russia.
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