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Lee De Forest

De Forest patented the Audion,
a three-electrode tube. The Audion is an electronic Amplifier device invented by Lee De Forest in 1906 A triode is an electronic amplification device having three active electrodes
Born August 26, 1873(1873-08-26)
Council Bluffs, Iowa
Died June 30, 1961 (aged 87)
Hollywood, Los Angeles, California
Occupation Inventor
Known for triode

Lee De Forest, (August 26, 1873 – June 30, 1961) was an American inventor with over 300 patents to his credit. Events 1071 - Battle of Manzikert: The Seljuk Turks defeat the Byzantine Army at Manzikert. Year 1873 ( MDCCCLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Council Bluffs is a city in and the County seat of Pottawattamie County, Iowa, United States and is on the east bank of the Missouri River Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, is defeated and killed by troops of the Usurper Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. An inventor is a person who creates or discovers a new method form device or other useful means A triode is an electronic amplification device having three active electrodes Events 1071 - Battle of Manzikert: The Seljuk Turks defeat the Byzantine Army at Manzikert. Year 1873 ( MDCCCLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, is defeated and killed by troops of the Usurper Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the An inventor is a person who creates or discovers a new method form device or other useful means De Forest invented the Audion, a vacuum tube that takes relatively weak electrical signals and amplifies them. The Audion is an electronic Amplifier device invented by Lee De Forest in 1906 This article is about the electronic device not an evacuated pipe used for experiments in Free-fall. De Forest is one of the fathers of the "electronic age", as the Audion helped to usher in the widespread use of electronics. Electronics refers to the flow of charge (moving Electrons through Nonmetal conductors (mainly Semiconductors, whereas electrical

He was involved in several patent lawsuits and he spent a fortune from his inventions on the legal bills. He had four marriages and several failed companies, he was defrauded by business partners, and he was once indicted for mail fraud, but was later acquitted.

He was a charter member of the Institute of Radio Engineers, one of the two predecessors of the IEEE (the other was the American Institute of Electrical Engineers). Following several attempts to form a technical organization of Wireless practitioners in 1908-1912 the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE was finally established in 1912 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers or IEEE (read eye-triple-e) is an international Non-profit, professional organization The American Institute of Electrical Engineers was a United States based organization of Electrical engineers that existed between 1884 and 1963 (when it merged with

Contents

Birth and education

Lee De Forest was born in 1873 in Council Bluffs, Iowa to Henry Swift DeForest and Anna Robbins. Council Bluffs is a city in and the County seat of Pottawattamie County, Iowa, United States and is on the east bank of the Missouri River [1] [2]

His father was a Congregational minister who hoped that his son would become a minister also. Congregational churches are Protestant Christian churches practicing Congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently He accepted the position of President of Talladega College, a traditionally African American school, in Talladega, Alabama where Lee spent most of his youth. Talladega College, located in Talladega County Alabama, is a private, Liberal arts college African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa Talladega (locally ˌtæləˈdɪgə is a city in Talladega County, Alabama, United States. Most citizens of the white community resented his father's efforts to educate black students. Lee De Forest had several friends among the African American children of the town. African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa

De Forest went to Mount Hermon School, and then he enrolled at the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale University in 1893. Northfield Mount Hermon School (NMH is a ninth-twelfth grade private college preparatory school located near the Connecticut River in the town of Gill, Sheffield Scientific School was founded in 1847 as a school of Yale College in New Haven Connecticut for instruction in science and engineering As an inquisitive inventor, he tapped into the electrical system at Yale one evening and completely blacked out the campus, leading to his suspension. However, he was eventually allowed to complete his studies. He paid some of his tuition with income from mechanical and gaming inventions, and he received his Bachelor's degree in 1896. A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and He remained at Yale for graduate studies, and earned his Ph.D. in 1899 with a doctoral dissertation on radio waves. "PhD" redirects here for other uses see PhD (disambiguation.

Audion

De Forest's interest in wireless telegraphy led to his invention of the Audion tube in 1906, and he developed an improved wireless telegraph receiver. The Audion is an electronic Amplifier device invented by Lee De Forest in 1906 At that time, he was a member of the faculty at the Armour Institute of Technology, now part of the Illinois Institute of Technology. Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT is a private PhD-granting university located in the greater Chicago Illinois area with programs in Engineering, Science, Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT is a private PhD-granting university located in the greater Chicago Illinois area with programs in Engineering, Science, He filed a patent for a two-electrode device for detecting electromagnetic waves, a variant of the Fleming valve invented two years earlier. The Fleming valve, also called the Fleming oscillation valve, was a Vacuum tube Diode invented by John Ambrose Fleming and used in the earliest His Audion tube, a three-electrode device (plate, cathode, control grid), was a vacuum tube which allowed for amplification for radio reception. This article is about the electronic device not an evacuated pipe used for experiments in Free-fall.

In 1904, a De Forest transmitter and receiver were set up aboard the steamboat Haimun operated on behalf of The Times, the first of its kind. A steamboat or steamship, sometimes called a steamer, is a ship in which the primary method of propulsion is steam power, typically driving a Propeller SS Haimun was a Chinese steamer ship commanded by War correspondent Lionel James in 1904 during the Russo-Japanese War for The The Times is a daily national Newspaper published in the United Kingdom since 1785 when it was known as The Daily Universal Register. [3]

De Forest did not however understand how his invention worked, and others had to explain it to him. The American inventor Edwin H. Armstrong was the first to explain the correct operation of this device, and also to improve it to the point where it could actually provide useful amplification. Edwin Howard Armstrong ( December 18, 1890 &ndash January 31, 1954) was an American Electrical engineer and Inventor De Forest claimed that the operation was based on ions created within the gas in the tube, and warned others from removing this by creating a vacuum. His own prototypes never achieved amplification.


Marriages

Lee de Forest had four wives:

Middle years

De Forest Audion from 1906.
De Forest Audion from 1906.

De Forest invented the Audion in 1906, an improved version of John Fleming's recently invented diode vacuum tube detector. The Audion is an electronic Amplifier device invented by Lee De Forest in 1906 Sir John Ambrose Fleming ( November 29, 1849 - April 18, 1945) was an English Electrical engineer and Physicist Dioden2jpg|thumb|right|150px|Figure 2 Various semiconductor diodes A detector is a device that recovers Information of interest contained in a Modulated wave In January 1907, he filed a patent for a three-electrode version of the Audion, which was granted US Patent 879,532 in February 1908. It was also called the De Forest valve, and since 1919 has been known as the triode. A triode is an electronic amplification device having three active electrodes

De Forest's innovation was the insertion of a third electrode, the grid, in between the cathode (filament) and the anode (plate) of the previously invented diode. An electrode is an Electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e A cathode is an Electrode through which (positive Electric current flows out of a polarized electrical device An electrical filament is a thread of Metal, usually Tungsten, which is used to convert Electricity into light in Incandescent light bulbs (as developed An anode is an Electrode through which Electric current flows into a polarized electrical device The resulting triode or three-electrode vacuum tube could be used as an amplifier for electrical signals, and, equally important, as a fast (for its time) electronic switching element, later applicable in digital electronics (such as computers). This article is about the electronic device not an evacuated pipe used for experiments in Free-fall. Generally an amplifier or simply amp, is any device that changes usually increases the amplitude of a signal. A digital system uses discrete (discontinuous values usually but not always Symbolized Numerically (hence called "digital" to represent information for A computer is a Machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions. The triode was vital in the development of long-distance (e. g. transcontinental) telephone communications, radio, and radars. Basic principle A traditional landline telephone system also known as "plain old telephone service" (POTS, commonly handles both signaling and audio information Radio is the transmission of signals by Modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible Light. Radar is a system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify the range altitude direction or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as Aircraft, ships The triode was an important innovation in electronics in the first half of the 20th century, between Nikola Tesla's and Guglielmo Marconi's progress in radio in the 1890s, and the 1948 invention of the transistor. Electronics refers to the flow of charge (moving Electrons through Nonmetal conductors (mainly Semiconductors, whereas electrical There have already been discussions about Tesla's ethnicity on the talk page Marchese Guglielmo Marconi mar'koni (25 April 1874 – 20 July 1937 was an Italian inventor best known for his development of a Radiotelegraph system In Electronics, a transistor is a Semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals

De Forest came to San Francisco in 1910, and worked for the Federal Telegraph Company, which began developing the first global radio communications system in 1912. [1]

The United States Attorney General sued De Forest for fraud (in 1913) on behalf of his shareholders, stating that his claim of regeneration was an "absurd" promise (he was later acquitted). The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In most Common law jurisdictions the Attorney General, or Attorney-General, is the main legal advisor to the government and in some jurisdictions may in addition Nearly bankrupt with legal bills, De Forest sold his triode vacuum-tube patent to AT&T and the Bell System in 1913 for the bargain price of $50,000. Before proposing a merge request please see Talk and see if the merger you propose has recently been made and

De Forest filed another patent in 1916 that became the cause of a contentious lawsuit with the prolific inventor Edwin Howard Armstrong, whose patent for the regenerative circuit had been issued in 1914. Edwin Howard Armstrong ( December 18, 1890 &ndash January 31, 1954) was an American Electrical engineer and Inventor The regenerative circuit (or self-regenerative circuit) allows an electronic signal to be amplified many times by the same Vacuum tube or other active component The lawsuit lasted twelve years, winding its way through the appeals process and ending up before the Supreme Court in 1926. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the United States and leads the federal judiciary. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of De Forest, although the view of many historians is that the judgment was incorrect.

Radio pioneer

In 1916, De Forest, from experimental radio station 2XG in New York City, broadcast the first radio advertisements (for his own products) and the first Presidential election report by radio in November 1916 for Charles Evans Hughes and Woodrow Wilson. The City of New York Radio is the transmission of signals by Modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible Light. Advertising is a form of Communication that typically attempts to persuade potential Customers to Purchase or to consume more of a particular Brand President is a Title leaders of Organizations companies, Trade unions universities, and countries. An election is a Decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold formal office Charles Evans Hughes Sr ( April 11, 1862 – August 27, 1948) was a Lawyer and Republican politician from the State Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. A few months later, DeForest moved his tube transmitter to High Bridge, New York. The High Bridge (officially the Aqueduct Bridge) is a stone Masonry Arch bridge, with a height of almost 140 feet (40 m over the Harlem River Like Charles Herrold in San Jose, California -- who had been broadcasting since 1909 with call letters "FN", "SJN", and then "6XF" -- De Forest had a license from the Department of Commerce for an experimental radio station, but, like Herrold, had to cease all broadcasting when the U. Charles David 'Doc' Herrold, ( November 16, 1875 – July 1, 1948) was an American Radio broadcasting The United States Department of Commerce is the Cabinet department of the United States government concerned with promoting Economic growth S. entered World War I in April 1917. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All

Just like Pittsburgh’s KDKA four years later in November 1920, DeForest used the Hughes/Wilson presidential election returns for his broadcast. The New York American installed a private wire and bulletins were sent out every hour. The New York Journal American was a Newspaper published from 1937 to 1966 About 2000 listeners heard The Star-Spangled Banner and other anthems, songs, and hymns. DeForest went on to sponsor radio broadcasts of music, featuring opera star Enrico Caruso and many other events, but he received little financial backing. Radio is the transmission of signals by Modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible Light. Enrico Caruso (born Errico Caruso; February 25 1873 &ndash August 2 1921) was an Italian Opera singer

Phonofilm sound-on-film process

In 1919, De Forest filed the first patent on his sound-on-film process, which improved on the work of Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt and the German partnership Tri-Ergon, and called it the De Forest Phonofilm process. Sound-on-film refers to a class of Sound film processes where the sound accompanying picture is physically recorded onto photographic film usually but not always the same Eric Magnus Campbell Tigerstedt ( August 4, 1887 &ndash April 20, 1925) was one of the most significant inventors in Finland at the beginning The Tri-Ergon Sound-on-film system was patented from 1919 on by German inventors Josef Engl Hans Vogt and Joseph Massolle In 1919 Lee De Forest, inventor of the Audion tube, filed his first patent on a Sound-on-film process DeForest Phonofilm, which recorded sound directly Phonofilm recorded sound directly onto film as parallel lines of variable shades of gray, and later became known as a "variable density" system as opposed to "variable area" systems such as RCA Photophone. RCA Photophone was the trade name given to one of four major competing technologies that emerged in the American film industry in the late 1920s for synchronizing electrically recorded These lines photographically recorded electrical waveforms from a microphone, which were translated back into sound waves when the movie was projected. A photograph (often shortened to photo) is an Image created by Light falling on a light-sensitive surface usually Photographic film or an electronic Sound' is Vibration transmitted through a Solid, Liquid, or Gas; particularly sound means those vibrations composed of Frequencies This system, which synchronized sound directly onto film, was used to record stage performances (such as in vaudeville), speeches, and musical acts. In November 1922, De Forest established his De Forest Phonofilm Company at 314 East 48th Street in New York City, but none of the Hollywood movie studios expressed any interest in his invention. A movie studio (aka film studio) is in the established sense of the term a company that distributes films.

De Forest premiered 18 short films made in Phonofilm on 15 April 1923 at the Rivoli Theater in New York City. Events 1450 - Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. He was forced to show his films in independent theaters such as the Rivoli, since Hollywood movie studios controlled all major theater chains. De Forest chose to film primarily vaudeville acts, not features, limiting the appeal of his process. Max Fleischer and Dave Fleischer used the Phonofilm process for their Song Car-Tune series of cartoons -- featuring the "Follow the Bouncing Ball" gimmick -- starting in May 1924. Max Fleischer ( July 19, 1883 – September 11, 1972) was an important Austrian American pioneer in the development of the David Fleischer ( July 14 1894 – June 25 1979) was an Austrian-American Animator of Jewish ancestry Film director Ko-Ko Song Car-Tunes (some sources erroneously say Sound Car-Tunes) is a series of short three minute Animation films produced by Max Fleischer De Forest also worked with Freeman Harrison Owens and Theodore Case, using Owens's and Case's work to perfect the Phonofilm system. Freeman Harrison Owens ( July 20, 1890 - December 9, 1979) born in Pine Bluff Arkansas, the only child of Charles H Theodore Willard Case (1888 Auburn New York &ndash 1944 known for the invention of the Movietone Sound-on-film Sound film system was born However, DeForest had a falling out with both men. Case took his patents to studio head William Fox, owner of Fox Film Corporation, who then perfected the Fox Movietone process. William Fox ( January 1, 1879 &ndash May 8, 1952) was a pioneering American Motion picture executive who founded the The Movietone sound system is a Sound-on-film method of recording sound for motion pictures which guarantees synchronisation between the sound and the picture Shortly before the Phonofilm Company filed for bankruptcy in September 1926, Hollywood introduced a new method for sound film, the sound-on-disc process developed by Warner Brothers as Vitaphone, with the John Barrymore film Don Juan, released 6 August 1926. A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image as opposed to a Silent film. The term Sound-on-disc refers to a class of Sound film processes utilizing a Phonograph or other disc to record or playback Sound in sync with a motion Warner Bros Entertainment Inc (or Warner Bros, Warner Bros Pictures) is one of the world's largest producers of Film and Vitaphone was a Sound film process used on features and nearly 2000 Short subjects produced by Warner Bros John Sidney Blyth Barrymore ( February 15 1882 – May 29 1942) was an American Actor, frequently called the greatest Don Juan ( 1926) is a Warner Brothers film directed by Alan Crosland. Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Year 1926 ( MCMXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

In 1927 and 1928, Hollywood began to use sound-on-film systems, including Fox Movietone and RCA Photophone. Meanwhile, a theater chain owner, M. B. Schlesinger, acquired the UK rights to Phonofilm and released short films of British music hall performers from September 1926 to May 1929. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Music hall is a form of British theatrical Entertainment which was popular between 1850 and 1960 Almost 200 short films were made in the Phonofilm process, and many are preserved in the collections of the Library of Congress and the British Film Institute. The Library of Congress is the De facto National library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress The British Film Institute ( BFI) is a charitable organisation established by Royal Charter to encourage the development of the arts of film television [4]

Later years and death

De Forest sold one of his radio manufacturing firms to RCA in 1931. RCA Corporation, founded as Radio Corporation of America, was an electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986 In 1934, the courts sided with De Forest against Edwin Armstrong (although the technical community did not agree with the courts). Edwin Howard Armstrong ( December 18, 1890 &ndash January 31, 1954) was an American Electrical engineer and Inventor De Forest won the court battle, but he lost the battle for public opinion. His peers would not take him seriously as an inventor or trust him as a colleague.

In 1940 he sent a famous open letter to the National Association of Broadcasters in which he demanded to know, "What have you done with my child, the radio broadcast? You have debased this child, dressed him in rags of ragtime, tatters of jive and boogie-woogie. An open letter is a letter that is intended to be read by a wide audience or a letter intended for an individual but that is nonetheless widely distributed intentionally National Association of Broadcasters (NAB is a trade association representing the interests of for-profit over-the-air radio and television broadcasters in the United States "

For De Forest's initially rejected, but later adopted, movie soundtrack method, he was given an Academy Award (Oscar) in 1959/1960 for "his pioneering inventions which brought sound to the motion picture", and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The Academy Honorary Award, instituted in 1948 for the 21st Academy Awards (previously called the Special Award) is given by the discretion of the The Hollywood Walk of Fame is a Sidewalk along Hollywood Boulevard and Vine Street in Hollywood Los Angeles California, USA, that

De Forest was the guest celebrity on the May 22, 1957 episode of the television show This Is Your Life, where he was introduced as the "Father Of Radio and the Grandfather of Television". Events 334 BC - The Greek army of Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of the Granicus. Year 1957 ( MCMLVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar) This Is Your Life was a television documentary series hosted by its producer Ralph Edwards.

He died in Hollywood in 1961 and was interred in San Fernando Mission Cemetery in Los Angeles, California. The San Fernando Mission Cemetery is a Roman Catholic cemetery operated by the Los Angeles Archdiocese since 1800 and is located at 11160 Stranwood Avenue in Los Angeles (lɑˈsændʒələs los ˈaŋxeles in Spanish) is the largest City in the state of California and the American West [5]

Legacy

De Forest received the IRE Medal of Honor in 1922, as "recognition for his invention of the three-electrode amplifier and his other contributions to radio". The IEEE Medal of Honor is the highest recognition of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE In 1946, he received the Edison Medal of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 'For the profound technical and social consequences of the grid-controlled vacuum tube which he had introduced'. The Edison Medal is presented by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE "for a career of meritorious achievement in electrical science electrical The American Institute of Electrical Engineers was a United States based organization of Electrical engineers that existed between 1884 and 1963 (when it merged with An important annual medal awarded to engineers by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers is named the Lee De Forest Medal. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers or IEEE (read eye-triple-e) is an international Non-profit, professional organization

Politics

De Forest was a conservative Republican and fervent anti-communist and anti-fascist. In 1932 he had voted for Franklin Roosevelt, in the midst of the Great Depression, but later came to resent him and his statist policies called him American's "first Fascist president. Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology " In 1949, he "sent letters to all members of Congress urging them to vote against socialized medicine, federally subsidized housing, and an excess profits tax. " In 1952, he wrote newly elected Vice President Richard Nixon, urging him to "prosecute with renewed vigor your valiant fight to put out Communism from every branch of our government. " In December 1953, he cancelled his subscription to The Nation, accusing it of being "lousy with Treason, crawling with Communism. This article is about the US Publication. For other newspapers magazines and alternate uses by the same name see The Nation (disambiguation. "[6]

Quotes

De Forest was given to expansive predictions, many of which were not borne out, but he also made many correct predictions, including microwave communication and cooking.

"I came, I saw, I invented--its that simple--no need to sit and think--its all in your imagination"

Trivia

Lee De Forest's great nephew, actor Calvert DeForest, became well known in another broadcasting venue some 75 years following his uncle's Audion invention. Calvert DeForest ( July 23, 1921 – March 19, 2007) also known by his character Larry "Bud" Melman, was an American Calvert DeForest portrayed the comic "Larry 'Bud' Melman" character on David Letterman's late night television programs for two decades. David Michael Letterman (born April 12, 1947) is an American late-night Talk show host and Comedian and the host since 1993

References and notes

  1. ^ Lee De Forest in the 1900 US Census in Milwaukee, Wisconsin
  2. ^ Lee De Forest in the 1920 US Census in the Bronx, New York
  3. ^ The De Forest Wireless Telegraphy Tower: Bulletin No. 1, Summer 1904.
  4. ^ Today, many sources such as the Encyclopaedia Britannica list De Forest as one of the inventors of sound film. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc
  5. ^ "Lee De Forest, 87, Radio Pioneer, Dies; Lee De Forest, Inventor, Is Dead at 87", New York Times, July 2, 1961, Sunday. Events 310 - Pope Miltiades is elected 626 - In fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushes and kills his rival Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 356 BC - Herostratus sets fire to the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World  "Hollywood, California, July 1, 1961. "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Dr. Lee De Forest, the inventor known as the father of radio, died last night at his home. He was 87 years old. " 
  6. ^ James A. Hijya, Lee De Forest and the Fatherhood of Radio (1992), Lehigh University Press, pages 119-120
  7. ^ a b c "Dawn of the Electronic Age", Popular Mechanics, January 1952. Popular Mechanics is an American magazine devoted to Science and Technology. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 356 BC - Herostratus sets fire to the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World  
  8. ^ Wikiquote: Incorrect predictions (television)
  9. ^ Wikiquote: Incorrect predictions (space travel)

External links

Patents

Patent images in TIFF format

Other sites

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