Learning is one of most important mental function of humans, animals and artificial cognitive systems. Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors A brain-computer interface (BCI sometimes called a direct neural interface or a brain-machine interface, is a direct communication pathway between a human or animal Traumatic brain injury (TBI also called intracranial injury, occurs when Physical trauma injures the Brain. Anatomical regions of the brain are listed vertically following hierarchies that are standard in Neuroanatomy. Clinical neuropsychology is a sub-specialty of clinical Psychology that specialises in the diagnostic assessment and treatment of patients with Brain injury or Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrate underlying Cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates The human brain controls the Central nervous system (CNS by way of the Cranial nerves and Spinal cord, the Peripheral nervous system (PNS Neuroanatomy is the science for localizing function in the Human brain. Neurophysiology (from Greek grc νεῦρον neuron, "nerve" grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία Phrenology (from Greek: φρήν phrēn, "mind" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" is a defunct field of study once The human brain controls the Central nervous system (CNS by way of the Cranial nerves and Spinal cord, the Peripheral nervous system (PNS Wikipedia articles related to Brain Function Visual system Auditory system Olfactory system Arousal is a physiological and psychological state of being awake Attention is the Cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the Decision making can be regarded as an outcome of mental processes ( cognitive process) leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives The executive system is a theorized Cognitive system in Psychology that controls and manages other cognitive processes In the Philosophy of language, a natural language (or ordinary language) is a Language that is spoken or written in phonemic-alphabetic or phonemically-related In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information Gross motor coordination addresses the Gross motor skills walking running climbing jumping crawling lifting one's head sitting up etc In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. Planning in Organizations and Public policy is both the organizational process of creating and maintaining a Plan; and the psychological process of Problem solving forms part of thinking. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions problem solving has been defined as higher-order Cognitive Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both David Joseph Bohm ( December 20 1917, Wilkes-Barre Pennsylvania – October 27 1992, London) was an American António Rosa Damásio, GOSE, pron. ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (b Phineas P Gage (July 9? 1823 – May 21? 1860 was a railroad worker now remembered for his incredible survival of a Traumatic brain injury which destroyed one or both of Norman Geschwind (1926-1984 can be considered the father of modern Behavioral neurology in America Elkhonon Goldberg (b 1946 Riga, Latvia) is a Neuropsychologist and Cognitive neuroscientist known for his work in hemispheric specialization Donald Olding Hebb ( July 22, 1904 &ndash August 20, 1985) was a Canadian Psychologist who was influential in the area of Neuropsychology Kenneth M Heilman is an American Behavioral neurologist. Biography Early life and career Kenneth Heilman was born and raised in Brooklyn Muriel Deutsch Lezak is an American neuropsychologist best known for her book Neuropsychological Assessment, widely accepted as the standard in the field Benjamin Libet ( April 12, 1916 - July 23, 2007) was a researcher in the Physiology department of the University of California Rodolfo R Llinás (b Bogotá, Colombia in 1934 is the Thomas and Suzanne Murphy Professor of Neuroscience and Chairman of the department of Physiology & Neuroscience Alexander Romanovich Luria Александр Романович Лурия ( July 16, 1902 - August 14, 1977) was a famous Soviet Dr Brenda Milner CC FRS (born 15 July 1918, Manchester England) has contributed extensively to the research literature Karl H Pribram (born February 25, 1919 in Vienna Austria) is a professor at Georgetown University and George Mason University Oliver Wolf Sacks, CBE (born July 9, 1933, London is a British Neurologist residing in the United States who has written popular books about Roger Wolcott Sperry ( August 20, 1913 – April 17, 1994) was a neuropsychologist, neurobiologist and Nobel laureate who KC (Also known as Patient KC) is a famous patient in Neuropsychology who suffers from Anterograde amnesia and temporally graded Retrograde amnesia Neuropsychological tests are specifically designed tasks used to measure a psychological function known to be linked to a particular Brain structure or pathway The Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test, or simply the Bender-Gestalt test, is a Psychological test first developed by child Neuropsychiatrist Lauretta The Benton Visual Retention Test (or simply Benton Test) is an individually administered test for ages 8-adult that measures Visual perception and Visual memory The Clinical Dementia Rating or CDR is a numeric scale used to quantify the severity of Symptoms of Dementia (i A Continuous Performance Task/Test, or CPT, is a Psychological test which measures a person's sustained and selective Attention and impulsivity The Glasgow Coma Scale or GCS, sometimes also known as the Glasgow Coma Score is a neurological scale which aims to give a reliable objective The Hayling and Brixton tests are Neuropsychological tests of Executive function created by psychologists Paul W The lexical decision task is a procedure used in many Psychology and Psycholinguistics experiments The mini-mental state examination ( MMSE) or Folstein test is a brief 30-point questionnaire test that is used to assess Cognition. Demonstration Say aloud the colors of each of these words as fast Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS is a general test of intelligence ( IQ) published in February 1955 as a revision of the Wechsler - Bellevue test The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST is a Neuropsychological test of "set-shifting" i A Johari window is a cognitive psychological tool created by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955 in the United States used to help people better understand In engineering in psychology as well as in common parlance function denotes the property of something which is used/applied for an objective/ goal / Purpose / Scope Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought It relies on the acquisition of different types of knowledge supported by perceived information. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. Information as a concept has a diversity of meanings from everyday usage to technical settings It leads to the development of new capacities, skills, values, understanding, and preferences. A skill is the learned capacity or talent to carry out pre-determined results often with the minimum outlay of time energy or both. A personal and cultural value is a Relative ethic value, an assumption upon which implementation can be extrapolated Understanding (also called intellection) is a psychological Process related to an abstract or physical object such as Person, situation or Preference (also called " taste " or "penchant" is a concept used in the Social sciences particularly Economics. Its goal is the increasing of individual and group experience. Experience as a general concept comprises Knowledge of or skill in or Observation of some thing or some event gained through involvement in or Learning function can be performed by different brain learning processes, which depend on the mental capacities of learning subject, the type of knowledge which has to be acquitted, as well as on socio-cognitive and environmental circumstances[1]. Socio-cognitive or sociocognitive describes integrated cognitive and Social properties of Systems Processes functions
Learning ranges from simple forms of learning such as habituation and classical conditioning seen in many animal species, to more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals[2][3] and humans. See also Habit (psychology In Psychology, habituation is the psychological process in humans and animals in which there is a decrease in behavioral Classical Conditioning (also Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning) is a form of Associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov Play is a Rite and a quality of mind in engaging with one's worldview. Therefore, in general, a learning can be conscious and not conscious. Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the
For example, for small children, not conscious learning processes are as natural as breathing. Breathing takes Oxygen in and Carbon dioxide out of the body Aerobic Organisms require oxygen to create energy via respiration, in In fact, there is evidence for behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development. Pregnancy ( Latin graviditas) is the carrying of one or more offspring known as a Fetus or Embryo, inside the Uterus of a Female See also Habit (psychology In Psychology, habituation is the psychological process in humans and animals in which there is a decrease in behavioral Gestation is the carrying of an Embryo or Fetus inside a Female Viviparous Animal. In Vertebrates the central nervous system ( CNS) is the part of the Nervous system which is enclosed in the Meninges. [4]
From the social perspective, learning is the goal of teaching and education. A goal or objective consists of a projected state of affairs which a Person or a System plans or intends to achieve or bring about — a personal or In Education, a teacher is one who helps Students or pupils often in a School, as well as in a Family, religious or Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency
Conscious learning is a capacity requested by students, therefore is usually goal-oriented and requires a motivation. The word student is etymologically derived through Middle English from the Latin second-type conjugation Verb "studēre" A system person or organization that tends to achieve a goal and demonstrate it in subsequent actions Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior especially Human behavior as studied in Philosophy, Conflict, Economics
Learning has also been mathematically modeled using a differential equation related to an arbitrarily defined knowledge indicator with respect to time, and dependent on a number of interacting factors (constants and variables) such as initial knowledge, motivation, intelligence, knowledge anchorage or resistance, etc. [5][6] Thus, learning does not occur if there is no change in the amount of knowledge even for a long time, and learning is negative if the amount of knowledge is decreasing in time. Inspection of the solution to the differential equation also shows the sigmoid and logarithmic decay learning curves, as well as the knowledge carrying capacity for a given learner.
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Physiology of learning
"Thought," in a general sense, is commonly conceived as something arising from the stimulation of neurons in the brain. Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both Stimulation is the action of various agents ( stimuli) on Muscles Nerves or a sensory end organ by which activity is evoked especially the nervous Neurons (ˈnjuːɹɒn also known as neurones and nerve cells) are responsive cells in the Nervous system that process and transmit information Current understanding of neurons and the central nervous system implies that the process of learning corresponds to changes in the relationship between certain neurons in the brain. In Vertebrates the central nervous system ( CNS) is the part of the Nervous system which is enclosed in the Meninges. Research is ongoing in this area.
It is generally recognized that memory is more easily retained when multiple parts of the brain are stimulated, such as through combinations of hearing, seeing, smelling, motor skills, touch sense, and logical thinking. In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain A motor skill is generally agreed as a learned skill that involves voluntary movement to complete a task Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference.
Repeating thoughts and actions is an essential part of learning. Thinking about a specific memory will make it easy to recall. This is the reason why reviews are such an integral part of education. On first performing a task, it is difficult as according to current theory synaptic modification is necessary for the task to be acquired. After several repetitions it is believed that structural changes occur in relevant synapses, thus rendering the task easier. When the task becomes so easy that you can perform it at any time, these structural changes have likely ceased.
Types of learning
Simple non-associative learning
Habituation
In psychology, habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which there is a progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition of a stimulus. See also Habit (psychology In Psychology, habituation is the psychological process in humans and animals in which there is a decrease in behavioral Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually Stimulation is the action of various agents ( stimuli) on Muscles Nerves or a sensory end organ by which activity is evoked especially the nervous It is another form of integration. An animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal reduces subsequent responses. One example of this can be seen in small song birds - if a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. The Owls are an order of birds of prey. Most are Solitary, and nocturnal, with some exceptions (e Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, including the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus. [7]
Sensitization
Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell et al. Sensitization is an example of non-associative Learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell Stimulation is the action of various agents ( stimuli) on Muscles Nerves or a sensory end organ by which activity is evoked especially the nervous , 1995). An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation will create a warm sensation that will eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.
Associative learning
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from Pavlovian conditioning in that operant conditioning deals with the modification of voluntary behavior. Classical Conditioning (also Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning) is a form of Associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov Behavior modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior change techniques to improve behavior such as altering an individual's behaviors and reactions to stimuli through Discrimination learning is a major form of operant conditioning. One form of it is called Errorless learning. Errorless learning Errorless Learning is a procedure introduced by Herbert Terrace (1963 which allows discrimination learning to occur with few or even with no responses
Classical conditioning
The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a particular response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Classical Conditioning (also Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning) is a form of Associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned response.
Imprinting
Imprinting is the term used in psychology and ethology to describe any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. This article is about the psychological term For other meanings see Imprinting. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Ethology ( from Greek ἦθος ethos, "character" and λόγος logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of Animal It was first used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject.
Observational learning
The most basic learning process is imitation; one's personal repetition of an observed process, such as a smile. Observational learning (also known as vicarious learning or social learning or modeling or monkey see monkey do) is learning that occurs as Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data This article is about the facial expression For the typographical symbol see Smiley. Thus an imitation will take one's time (attention to the details), space (a location for learning), skills (or practice), and other resources (for example, a protected area). For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of Space is the extent within which Matter is physically extended and objects and Events have positions relative to one another A skill is the learned capacity or talent to carry out pre-determined results often with the minimum outlay of time energy or both. A resource is any physical or virtual entity of limited availability or anything used to help one earn a living Through copying, most infants learn how to hunt (i. e. , direct one's attention), feed and perform most basic tasks necessary for survival.
Play
Play generally describes behavior which has no particular end in itself, but improves performance in similar situations in the future. Play is a Rite and a quality of mind in engaging with one's worldview. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. The Orca or Killer Whale ( Orcinus orca) less commonly Blackfish or Seawolf, is the largest species of the Oceanic dolphin family Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk or injury and possibly infection. Injury or bodily injury is Damage or Harm caused to the Structure or function of the Body caused by an outside agent or An infection is the detrimental Colonization of a host Organism by a foreign Species. It also consumes energy, so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving physical fitness. Physical fitness is used in two close meanings general fitness (a state of Health and well-being and specific fitness (a task-oriented definition based on the ability
Multimedia learning
The learning where learner uses multimedia learning environments (Mayer, 2001). Multimedia learning is the common name used to describe a the “Cognitive theory of Multimedia learning” (Mayer and Moreno 1998 Moreno and Mayer 1999 Mayer 2001 This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1971). Dual-coding theory, a theory of cognition was first advanced by Allan Paivio of the University of Western Ontario.
e-Learning and m-Learning
Electronic learning or e-learning is a general term used to refer to Internet-based networked computer-enhanced learning. Electronic learning (or e-Learning or eLearning) is a type of education where the medium of instruction is computer technology The Internet is a global system of interconnected Computer networks A specific and always more diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-Learning), it uses different mobile telecommunication equipments, such as cellular phones. M-learning, or "mobile learning" now commonly abbreviated to "mLearning" has different meanings for different communities
Machine learning
Although learning is often thought of as a property associated with living things, computers are also able to modify their own behaviors as a result of experiences. Machine learning is a subfield of Artificial intelligence that is concerned with the design and development of Algorithms and techniques that allow computers to "learn" Known as machine learning, this is a broad subfield of artificial intelligence concerned with the design and development of algorithms and techniques that allow computers to "learn". In Mathematics, Computing, Linguistics and related subjects an algorithm is a sequence of finite instructions often used for Calculation At a general level, there are two types of learning: inductive, and deductive. Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed Deductive reasoning is Reasoning which uses deductive Arguments to move from given statements ( Premises to Conclusions which must be true if the Inductive machine learning methods extract rules and patterns out of massive data sets.
The major focus of machine learning research is to extract information from data automatically, by computational and statistical methods. Hence, machine learning is closely related to data mining and statistics but also theoretical computer science. Data mining is the process of Sorting through large amounts of data and picking out relevant information Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection analysis interpretation or explanation and presentation of Data. Theoretical computer science is the collection of topics of Computer science that focuses on the more abstract logical and mathematical aspects of Computing, such
Machine learning has a wide spectrum of applications including natural language processing, syntactic pattern recognition, search engines, medical diagnosis, bioinformatics and cheminformatics, detecting credit card fraud, stock market analysis, classifying DNA sequences, speech and handwriting recognition, object recognition in computer vision, game playing and robot locomotion. Natural language processing ( NLP) is a subfield of Artificial intelligence and Computational linguistics. Syntactic pattern recognition or structural pattern recognition is a form of Pattern recognition, where items are presented pattern structures which can take into Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to the field of molecular biology Cheminformatics (also known as chemoinformatics and chemical informatics) is the use of computer and informational techniques applied to a range of problems Credit card fraud is a wide-ranging term for Theft and Fraud committed using a Credit card or any similar payment mechanism as a fraudulent source A stock market, or (equity market is a private or public market for the trading of company Stock and derivatives of company A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the Primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA Molecule Speech recognition (also known as automatic speech recognition or computer speech recognition) converts spoken words to machine-readable input (for example to keypresses Handwriting recognition is the ability of a computer to receive and interpret intelligible Handwritten input such as pendrives digital cameras and other devices Object recognition in Computer vision is a task of finding given object in an image or video sequence Computer vision is the science and technology of machines that see A strategy game is a Game (eg computer, video or Board game) in which the players' decision-making skills have a high significance Robot locomotion is the study of how to design Robot appendages and control mechanisms to allow robots to move fluidly and efficiently
Approaches to learning
Rote learning
Rote learning is a technique which avoids understanding the inner complexities and inferences of the subject that is being learned and instead focuses on memorizing the material so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. Rote learning is a Learning technique which avoids understanding of a subject and instead focuses on memorization. Recollection is the retrieval of Memory. It is not a passive process people employ Metacognitive strategies to make the best use of their memory and priming The major practice involved in rote learning techniques is learning by repetition, based on the idea that one will be able to quickly recall the meaning of the material the more it is repeated. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Although it has been criticized by some schools of thought, rote learning is a necessity in many situations.
Informal learning
Informal learning occurs through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the danger inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). Definition Combs (1985 defines informal learning as "the spontaneous unstructured learning that goes on daily in the home and neighborhood behind the school and on the play It is learning from life, during a meal at table with parents, Play, exploring. Play is a Rite and a quality of mind in engaging with one's worldview.
Formal learning
Formal learning is learning that takes place within a teacher-student relationship, such as in a school system. Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency The University of Bologna (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna UNIBO) is one of the oldest continually operating degree-granting universities in the world
Non-formal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example: learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, workshops.
Non-formal learning and combined approaches
The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and non-formal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share and can proof this offered valuable new insights, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc. In Education, a teacher is one who helps Students or pupils often in a School, as well as in a Family, religious or
In order to learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik's cube quickly, several factors come into play at once:
- Directions help one learn the patterns of solving a Rubik's cube
- Practicing the moves repeatedly and for extended time helps with "muscle memory" and therefore speed
- Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which in turn helps to speed up future attempts. The Rubik's Cube is a Mechanical puzzle invented in 1974 by Hungarian Sculptor and Professor of Architecture Ernő Rubik
- The Rubik's cube's six colors help anchor solving it within the head.
- Occasionally revisiting the cube helps prevent negative learning or loss of skill
See also
- Animal cognition
- Developmental Psychology
- History of education
- Intelligence
- Machine learning
- Pedagogy
- Reasoning
- Sequence learning
- Sleep and learning
- Study skills
References
- ^ Interpretation based on the IPK model of the systemic TOGA meta-theory, Adam Maria Gadomski, 1993
- ^ Jungle Gyms: The Evolution of Animal Play
- ^ What behavior can we expect of octopuses?
- ^ Sandman, Wadhwa, Hetrick, Porto & Peeke. Animal cognition is the title given to a modern approach to the mental capacities of (non-human Animals. In its widest sense the history of Education is the history of Teaching and of Learning, and the history of what might be described as the Curricula Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities Machine learning is a subfield of Artificial intelligence that is concerned with the design and development of Algorithms and techniques that allow computers to "learn" Pedagogy (ˈpɛdəgɒdʒi or paedagogy is the Art or Science of being a Teacher. Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for Reasons for beliefs conclusions actions or feelings Serial organization is fundamental to human Behaviour. Most of our day-to-day activities involve sequencing of actions to achieve a desired goal from sequencing words toform a sentence Many competing theories have been advanced to discover the possible connections between sleep and learning in Humans. Study skills are strategies and methods of purposeful Learning, usually centered around reading and Writing. (1997). Human fetal heart rate dishabituation between thirty and thirty-two weeks gestation. Child Development, 68, 1031-1040.
- ^ Fadul, J. "Mathematical Formulations of Learning: Based on Ten Learning Principles" International Journal of Learning. Volume 13 (2006) Issue 6. pp. 139-152.
- ^ deFigueiredo, R. J. P. Mathematical formulation of cognitive and learning processes in neural networks, 1990
- ^ Wood, D. C. (1988). Habituation in Stentor produced by mechanoreceptor channel modification. Journal of Neuroscience, 2254 (8).
- Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52178-749-1.
- Paivio, A (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
- Holt, John (1983). How Children Learn. UK: Penguin Books. ISBN 0140225706
External links
- Education & Learning List of selected links
- Pedagogy Iran
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