The word leadership can refer to:

1. Those entities that perform one or more acts of leading.
2. The ability to affect human behavior so as to accomplish a mission.
3. Influencing a group of people to move towards its goal setting or goal achievement. (Stogdill 1950: 3)

Contents 1 Categories and types of leadership 2 Leadership associated with positions of authority 2.1 Representative democracy 2.2 Leadership cycles 2.3 Titles emphasizing authority 2.4 Symbolism of leadership 3 Leadership among primates 4 Scope of leadership 5 Leadership in organizations 5.1 Leadership in formal organizations 5.2 Leadership in informal organizations 5.3 Leader in organizations 6 Orthogonality and leadership 7 Support-structures for leadership 8 Determining what makes "effective leadership" 8.1 Suggested qualities of leadership 8.2 Leadership "styles" (per House and Podsakoff) 9 Leadership and vision 10 Leadership's relation with management 11 Leadership by a group 11.1 Orpheus orchestra 12 Historical views on leadership 13 Criticism of the concept of leadership 14 Alternatives to leadership 15 See also 16 References 16.1 General references 17 External links

Categories and types of leadership

Leadership has a formal aspect (as in most political or business leadership) or an informal one (as in most friendships). Speaking of "leadership" (the abstract term) rather than of "leading" (the action) usually it implies that the entities doing the leading have some "leadership skills" or competencies.

Different Types of leadership styles:

The laissez-faire “leave it be” leadership (Lewin, Liippit, & White, 1939) is the leadership style that gives no continuous feedback or supervision because the employees are highly experienced and need little supervision to obtain the expected outcome. On the other hand, this type of style is also associated with leaders that don’t lead at all, failing in supervising team members, resulting in lack of control and higher costs, bad service or failure to meet deadlines.

The bureaucratic leader (Weber, 1905) is very structured and follows the procedures as they have been established. Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (maks 'veːbɐ (21 April 1864 &ndash 14 June 1920 was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered This type of leadership has no space to explore new ways to solve problems and is usually slow paced to ensure adherence to the ladders stated by the company. Leaders ensure that all the steps have been followed prior to sending it to the next level of authority. Universities, hospitals, banks and government usually require this type of leader in their organizations to ensure quality, increase security and decrease corruption. Leaders that try to speed up the process will experience frustration and anxiety.

The charismatic leader (Weber, 1905) leads by infusing energy and eagerness into their team members. This type of leader has to be committed to the organization for the long run. If the success of the division or project is attributed to the leader and not the team, charismatic leaders may become a risk for the company by deciding to resign for advanced opportunities. It takes the company time and hard work to gain the employees' confidence back with other type of leadership after they have committed themselves to the magnetism of a charismatic leader.

Autocratic leadership (Lewin, Liippit, & White, 1939) occurs when the leader has been given the power to take decisions based solely on his person, having total authority. This leadership style is good for employees that need close supervision to perform certain tasks. Creative employees and team players resent this type of leadership, since they are unable to enhance processes or decision making, resulting in job dissatisfaction.

The democratic leader (Lewin, Liippit, & White, 1939) means that the leader will hear the team's ideas and study them, but will make the final decision. Team players contribute to the final decision thus increasing employee satisfaction and ownership, feeling their input was considered when the final decision was taken. When changes arises, this type of leadership helps the team assimilate the changes better and more rapidly than other styles, knowing they were consulted and contributed to the decision making process, minimizing resistance and intolerance. A shortcoming of this leadership style is that it has difficulty when decisions are needed in a short period of time or at the moment.

People-Oriented Leader (Fiedler, 1967) is the one that, in order to comply with effectiveness and efficiency, supports, trains and develops his personnel, increasing job satisfaction and genuine interest to do a good job.

Task oriented leaders (Fiedler, 1967) are those who focus on the job, and concentrate in the specific tasks assigned to each employee to reach goal accomplishment. This leadership style suffers the same motivation issues as autocratic leadership, showing no involvement in the teams needs. It requires close supervision and control to achieve expected results.

A servant leader (Greenleaf, 1977) is the leader that facilitates goal accomplishment by giving its team members what they need in order to be productive. This leader is an instrument employees use to reach the goal rather than an commanding voice that moves to change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic leadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower time frame than other styles, although employee engagement is higher.

A transaction leader (Burns, 1978) is the power given to a certain person to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team’s performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached.

A transformation leader (Burns, 1978) is the one who motivates its team to be effective and efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group in the final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and uses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on the big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details. The leader is always looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the company’s vision.

The Environment Leader (Carmazzi, 2005) is the one who nurtures group or organisational environment to affect the emotional and psychological perception of an individual’s place in that group or organisation. An understanding and application of group psychology and dynamics is essential for this style to be effective. The leader uses organisational culture to inspire individuals and develop leaders at all levels. This leadership style relies on creating an education matrix where groups interactively learn the fundamental psychology of group dynamics and culture from each other. The leader uses this psychology, and complementary language, to influence direction through the members of the inspired group to do what is required for the benefit of all.

The situation leader (Joseph Praveen Kumar,Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson, 2008) is the leader that uses different leadership styles depending on the situation and the type of employee that is being supervised.

Bibliography:

Arnold, S. B. (2001). Leader traits and leadership competencies necessary during organizational change. Tennessee.

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper and Row Publishers Inc.

Fiedler, F. E. (1967). A thery of leadership effectiveness. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). Servant Leadership: A Journey Into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness. New Jersey: Paulist Press.

Hersey, P. , Blanchard, K. , & Johnson, D. (2008). Management of Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

House, R. J. , & Podsakoff, P. M. (1994). Leadership effectiveness: past perspectives and future directions for research. In J. Greenberg, Organizational behavior: The state of the science (pp. 45-82). Hillsdale, NJ, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Kouzes, J. M. , & Posner, B. Z. (2002). The Leadership Challenge. San Francisco, Ca: John Wiley and Sons.

Krulak, C. C. (1998). The Fourteen Basic Traits of Effective Leadership. About Campus , 8-12.

Lewin, K. , Liippit, R. , & White, R. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates. Journal of Social Psychology , 271-301.

Maxwell, J. (2002). Leadership 101. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc.

Meyers, S. (2007). Leadership Styles. Trustees , 11.

Weber, M. (1905). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism: and Other Writings . New York: Penguin Group.

Zaccaro, S. J. (2007). Trait-based perspective. American Psychology , 62 (1), 7-16.

Leadership associated with positions of authority

According to Thomas Carlyle, leadership emerges when an entity as "leader" contrives to receive deference from other entities who become "followers". Thomas Carlyle (4 December 1795 – 5 February 1881 was a Scottish essayist satirist and historian whose work was highly influential during the Victorian era. An entity is something that has a distinct separate Existence, though it need not be a material existence The process of getting deference can become competitive in that the emerging "leader" draws "followers" from the factions of the prior or alternative "leaders". ^[1]

Representative democracy

In representative democracies the people retain sovereignty (popular sovereignty) but delegate day-to-day administration and leadership to elected officials. Representative democracy is a form of government founded on the principles of the people's representatives An English Noun The English noun people has two distinct fields of application as a countable noun, a group of Humans Sovereignty is the exclusive Right to control a Government, a country, a people or oneself Popular sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people is the belief that the legitimacy of the State is created by the will or consent of its people, who The term administration, as used in the context of Government, differs according to Jurisdiction. In the United States, for example, the Constitution provides an example of recycling authority. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity In the Constitutional Convention of 1787, the American Founders rejected the idea of a monarch, but they still proposed leadership by people in positions of authority, with the authority split into three powers: in this case the legislative, the executive, and the judiciary. The Philadelphia Convention (now also known as the Constitutional Convention, the Federal Convention, or the " Grand Convention at Philadelphia The Founding Fathers of the United States are the Political leaders who signed the Declaration of Independence or otherwise participated in the Separation of powers, a term ascribed to French Enlightenment Political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, is a model for the Governance Under the American theory, the authority of the leadership derives from the power of the voters as conveyed through the electoral college. The Electoral College consists of 538 popularly elected representatives who formally select the President and Vice President of the United States. Many individuals share authority, including the many legislators in the Senate and the House of Representatives. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives The United States House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. ^[1]

Leadership cycles

If a group or an organization wants or expects identifiable leadership, it will require processes for appointing/acquiring and replacing leaders.

Traditional closed groups rely on bloodlines or seniority to select leaders and/or leadership candidates: monarchies, tribal chiefdoms, oligarchies and aristocratic societies rely on (and often define their institutions by) such methods. A dynasty is a succession of rulers who belong to the same family for generations A gerontocracy is a form of oligarchical rule in which an entity is ruled by leaders who are significantly older than most of the adult population A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use A chiefdom is a type of complex society of varying degrees of centralization that is led by an individual known as a chief. Oligarchy' ( Greek, Oligarkhía) is a Form of government where Political power effectively rests with a small elite segment Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations Institutions are structures and mechanisms of Social order and Cooperation governing the Behavior of a Set of Individuals

Competence or perceived competence provides a possible basis for selecting leadership elites from a broader pool of potential talent. Elite (also spelled Élite) is taken originally from the Latin, eligere, "to elect" Political lobbying may prove necessary in electoral systems, but immediately demonstrated skill and character may secure leadership in smaller groups such as gangs. Lobbying includes all attempts to influence Legislators and officials whether by other legislators constituents or organized groups A voting system allows voters to choose between options often in an Election where candidates are selected for public office. A skill is the learned capacity or talent to carry out pre-determined results often with the minimum outlay of time energy or both. Moral character or character is an evaluation of a particular individual's moral qualities Gangsters redirects here For the computer game see Gangsters (video game.

Many organizations and groups aim to identify, grow, foster and promote what they see as leadership potential or ability - especially among younger members of society. See for example the Scouting movement. Scouting, also known as the Scout Movement, is a worldwide Youth movement with the stated aim of supporting young people in their physical mental and spiritual For a specific environment, see leadership development. Leadership development refers to any activity that enhances the quality of leadership within an individual or organization

The issues of succession planning or of legitimation become important at times when leadership (particularly individual leadership) might or must change due to term-expiry, accident or senescence. Management Succession Planning In organizational development, succession planning is the process of identifying and preparing suitable employees through Legitimation is the act of providing Legitimacy. Legitimation in the Social sciences refers to the Process whereby an act process or Ideology Senescence refers to the biological processes of a living Organism approaching an advanced age (i

Titles emphasizing authority

At certain stages in their development, the hierarchies of social ranks implied different degrees or ranks of leadership in society. Thus a knight led fewer men in general than did a duke; a baronet might in theory control less land than an earl. Knight is the English term for a social position originating in the Middle Ages. A duke is a member of the Nobility, historically of highest rank below the Sovereign, and historically controlled a Duchy or a Dukedom A baronet (traditional abbreviation Bart, modern abbreviation Bt) or the rare female equivalent a baronetess (abbreviation Btss) is the holder Earl was the Anglo-Saxon form and jarl the Scandinavian form of a title meaning " Chieftain " and referring especially to chieftains See peerage for a systematization of this hierarchy, and order of precedence for links to various systems. The Peerage is a system of Titles of Nobility in the United Kingdom, part of the British honours system. An order of precedence is a sequential hierarchy of nominal importance of items

In the course of the 18th and 20th centuries, several political operators took non-traditional paths to become dominant in their societies. They or their systems often expressed a belief in strong individual leadership, but existing titles and labels ("King", "Emperor", "President" and so on) often seemed inappropriate, insufficient or downright inaccurate in some circumstances. The formal or informal titles or descriptions they or their flunkies employe express and foster a general veneration for leadership of the inspired and autocratic variety. The definite article when used as part of the title (in languages which use definite articles) emphasizes the existence of a sole "true" leader.

Symbolism of leadership

Various symbolic attributes — often varying according to the cultural milieu — mark out authority-figures and help make them seem special and revered or feared. For examples and discussion, see symbols of leadership. Leadership cadres use symbols to reinforce their position power and provide a level of differentiation

Leadership among primates

Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson, in Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence present evidence that only humans and chimpanzees, among all the animals living on earth, share a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviors: violence, territoriality, and competition for uniting behind the one chief male of the land. Richard Wrangham is a British primatologist. He is a Professor in Biological Anthropology at Harvard University. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Chimpanzee (often shortened to chimp) is the common name for the two extant Species of Apes in the Genus Pan. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Violence is the exertion of force so as to injure or abuse The word is used broadly to describe the destructive action of natural phenomena like Storms and Earthquakes In Ethology, Sociobiology and Behavioral ecology, the term territory refers to any sociographical area that an Animal of a particular Species Competition is a rivalry between individuals groups nations or animals for territory or resources ^[2] This position is contentious. Many animals beyond apes are territorial, compete, exhibit violence, and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc. ), suggesting Wrangham and Peterson's evidence is not empirical.

By comparison, bonobos, the second-closest species-relatives of man, do not unite behind the chief male of the land. The Bonobo (bə'noʊboʊ Pan paniscus) until recently usually called the Pygmy Chimpanzee (and less often the Dwarf or Gracile Chimpanzee The bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as strong as the strongest male in the land. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most effective leadership. However, not all scientists agree on the allegedly "peaceful" nature of the bonobo or its reputation as a "hippie chimp". The Hippie Subculture was originally a Youth movement that began in the United States during the early 1960s and spread around the world ^[3]

Some have argued that, since the bonobo pattern inverts the dominant pattern among chimpanzees and men with regard to whether a female can get more followers than a male, humans and chimpanzees both likely inherited gender-bias against women from the ancestors of the chimpanzees; gender-bias features as a genetic condition of men. Bias is a term used to describe a Tendency or Preference towards a particular perspective, Ideology or result especially when the tendency interferes Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is And the bias against women having leadership as a position of authority occurs in most cultures in the world. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic As of 2002, Sweden had the highest percentage of women in the legislature: but only 43%. And the United States, Andorra, Israel, Sierra Leone, and Ireland tied for 57th place with less than 15% of the legislature women. ^[4] Admittedly, those percentages significantly outclass the occurrence of female chimpanzees becoming alpha of the community by getting the most followers, but similar trends exist in manifesting a general gender-bias across cultures against females gaining leadership as a position of authority over followers. In Social animals the alpha male is the individual in the community to whom the others follow and defer

An alternative explanation suggests that those individuals best suited to lead the a group will somehow rise to the occasion and that followers (for some reason) will accept them as leaders or as proto-leaders. In this scenario, the traits of the leaders (such as gender, aggressiveness, etc. ) will depend on the requirements of a given situation, and ongoing leadership may become extrapolated from a series of such situations.

In cultural anthropology, much speculation on the origins of human leadership relates to the perceived increasing need for dispute resolution in increasingly densely-populated and increasingly complex societies. Cultural anthropology is one of four fields of Anthropology (the holistic study of humanity) as it developed in the United States. Dispute resolution is the process of resolving disputes between parties. A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions

The image of swarms of lemmings which follow the first lemming off a cliff appears frequently in characterizing followers. Lemmings are small Rodents usually found in or near the Arctic, in tundra Biomes Together with the Voles and Muskrats they make The animal kingdom also provides the actual model of the bellwether function in a mob of sheep. A bellwether is any entity in a given arena that serves to create or influence trends or to presage future happenings And human society also offers many examples of emulation. The fashion industry, for example, depends on it. Fashion refers to styles of dress (but can also include cuisine literature art architecture and general comportment that are popular in a culture at any given time Fashion marketers design clothing for celebrities, then offer less expensive variations/imitations for those who emulate the celebrities.

Unintentional leadership can also occur from more pro-active forms followership. For example, in organizations which punish both leadership inaction and mistakes, and in which a predicament has no good solution, a common tendency involves declaring oneself a follower of someone else — metaphorically passing the buck. "Pass the Buck" redirects here For the 1978 United States TV game show see Pass the Buck (game show.

Another example of followership without intentional leadership comes with the market leadership of a pioneering company, or the price leadership of a monopolist. In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient Other companies will emulate a successful strategy, product, or price, but originators may certainly not desire this — in fact they often do all they can legally do to prevent such direct competition.

The term "leadership" sometimes applies (confusingly) to a winning position in a race. One can speak of a front-runner in a sprint or of the "leader" in an election or poll as in a position of leadership. But such "leadership" does not involve any influence processes, and the "leader" will have followers who may not willingly choose to function as followers. Once again: one can make an important distinction between "in the lead" and the process of leadership. Once again, leadership implies a relationship of power - the power to guide others. An interpersonal relationship is a relatively long-term association between two or more people Power is a measure of a person's ability to control the environment around them including the behavior of other people A guide is a person who leads people through unknown or unmapped country or conducts travellers and tourists through a place of interest

Scope of leadership

One can govern oneself, or one can govern the whole earth. In between, we may find leaders who operate primarily within:

• youth
• families
• bands
• tribes
• organizations
• states and nations
• empires

Intertwined with such categories, and overlapping them, we find for example religious leaders potentially with their own internal hierarchies, work-place leaders corporate officer|executives, corporate officer|officers,senior management,senior/upper managers,middle management|middle managers, staff-managers, line-managers,team leader|team-leaders,supervisors and leaders of voluntary associations. Youth is the period from infancy or childhood to maturity Usage Around the world the terms "youth" " Adolescent " "teenager" and Family denotes a group of People affiliated by consanguinity affinity or co-residence A band society is the simplest form of human Society. A band generally consists of a small kin group no larger than an Extended family or Clan. An organization (or organisation &mdash see spelling differences) is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals which controls its own performance and A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. A nation is a Human Cultural and Social Community. In as much as most members never meet each other yet feel a common bond it may be considered An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that

Some anthropological ideas envisage a widespread but by no means universal pattern of progression in the organization of society in ever-larger groups,with the needs and practices of leadership changing accordingly. Thus simple dispute resolution may become legalistic dispensation of justice before developing into proactive legislature/legislative activity. Some leadership careers parallel this sort of progression: today's school-board chairperson may become tomorrow's city councilor, then take in say a mayor dom before graduating to nation-wide politics. Compare the "cursus honorum" in ancient Rome. The cursus honorum ( Latin: "course of honors" or "honors race" was the sequential order of Public offices held by aspiring

Leadership in organizations

Leadership in formal organizations

An organization that is established as an instrument or means for achieving defined objectives has been referred to as a formal organization. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the organization. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work structure. Structure is a fundamental and sometimes Intangible notion covering the Recognition, Observation, nature, and Stability of Thus, the formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's definition, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Each employee receives a salary and enjoys a degree of tenure that safeguards him from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher his position in the hierarchy, the greater his presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. It is this bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position. ^[2]

Leadership in informal organizations

In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure. The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership. A goal or objective consists of a projected state of affairs which a Person or a System plans or intends to achieve or bring about — a personal or Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life — the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves.

In prehistoric times, man was preoccupied with his personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival. Now man spends a major portion of his waking hours working for organizations. His need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging continues unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders. ^[3]

Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization. Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures. FACTOR may also refer to the Object Oriented programming requirements caputre acronym "Functionality Application domain Conditions Technology Objects and Responsibility" Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment. ^[3]

Leader in organizations

An individual who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of his position. However, he must possess adequate personal attributes to match his authority, because authority is only potentially available to him. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate authority. ^[3] Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level. ^[4]

Orthogonality and leadership

Those who praise leadership may encounter problems in implementing consistent leadership structures. For example, a pyramidal structure in which authority consistently emanates from the summit can stifle initiative and leave no path for grooming future leaders in the ranks of subordinate levels. Similarly, a belief in universal direct democracy may become unwieldy, and a system consisting of nothing but representative leaders may well become stymied in committees.

Thus many leadership systems promote different rules for different levels of leadership. Hereditary autocrats meet in the United Nations on equal representative terms with elected governments in a collegial leadership. Or individual local democracies may assign some of their powers to temporary dictators in emergencies, as in ancient Rome. A dictator is an Authoritarian ruler (eg Absolutist or autocratic) who assumes sole and absolute power without hereditary ascension such as an Absolute Hierarchies intermingle with equality of opportunity at different levels.

Support-structures for leadership

Charisma and personality alone can work miracles, yet most leaders operate within a structure of supporters and executive agents who carry out and monitor the expressed or filtered-down will of the leader. The word charisma (origin from the Greek word χάρισμα (kharisma, "gift" or "divine favor" from kharizesthai, "to favor" Will, or willpower is a philosophical concept that is defined in several different ways This undercutting of the importance of leadership may serve as a reminder of the existence of the follower: compare followership. A more or less formal bureaucracy (in the Weberian sense) can throw up a colorless nonentity as an entirely effective leader: this phenomenon may occur (for example) in a politburo environment. Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (maks 'veːbɐ (21 April 1864 &ndash 14 June 1920 was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered Politburo, short for Political Bureau, Russian Politicheskoye Buro, is the executive organization for a number of Political parties, most notably Bureaucratic organizations can also raise incompetent people to levels of leadership (see Peter Principle). The Peter Principle is the principle that "In a Hierarchy Every Employee Tends to Rise to His Level of Incompetence

In modern dynamic environments formal bureaucratic organizations have started to become less common because of their inability to deal with fast-changing circumstances. Most modern business organizations (and some government departments) encourage what they see as "leadership skills" and reward identified potential leaders with promotions.

In a potential down-side to this sort of development, a big-picture grand-vision leader may foster another sort of hierarchy: a fetish of leadership amongst subordinate sub-leaders, encouraged to seize resources for their own sub-empires and to apply to the supreme leader only for ultimate arbitration. @@@ main@@@ - title Hierarchy@@@ keywords structure; sociology; information@@@ review@@@ - Arbitration, a form of Alternative dispute resolution (ADR is a legal technique for the resolution of Disputes outside the Courts wherein the

Some leaders build coalitions and alliances: political parties abound with this type of leader. Still others depend on rapport with the masses: they labor on the shop-floor or stand in the front-line of battle, leading by example.

Determining what makes "effective leadership"

Leadership maintains its effectiveness sometimes by natural succession according to established rules, and sometimes by the imposition of brute force.

The simplest way to measure the effectiveness of leadership involves evaluating the size of the following that the leader can muster. By this standard, Adolf Hitler became a very effective leader for a period — even if through delusional promises and coercive techniques. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately However, this approach may measure power rather than leadership. To measure leadership more specifically, one may assess the extent of influence on the followers, that is, the amount of leading. Within an organizational context this means financially valuing productivity. Effective leaders generate higher productivity, lower costs, and more opportunities than ineffective leaders. Effective leaders create results, attain goal, realize vision, and other objectives more quickly and at a higher level of quality than ineffective leaders.

James MacGregor Burns introduced a normative element: an effective Burnsian leader will unite followers in a shared vision that will improve an organization and society at large. A goal or objective consists of a projected state of affairs which a Person or a System plans or intends to achieve or bring about — a personal or Burns calls leadership that delivers "true" value, integrity, and trust transformational leadership. Transformational leadership is a Leadership style where one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of He distinguishes such leadership from "mere" transactional leadership that builds power by doing whatever will get more followers. Transactional leaders use conventional reward and punishment to gain compliance from their followers Power is a measure of a person's ability to control the environment around them including the behavior of other people ^[5] But problems arise in quantifying the transformational quality of leadership - evaluation of that quality seems more difficult to quantify than merely counting the followers that the straw man of transactional leadership James MacGregor Burns has set as a primary standard for effectiveness. In the vernacular quality can mean a high degree of excellence (“a quality product” a degree of excellence or the lack of it (“work of average quality” or a property of Thus transformational leadership requires an evaluation of quality, independent of the market demand that exhibits in the number of followers. In Economics, aggregate demand is the total demand for final goods and services in the economy ( Y) at a given time and Price level.

Current assessments of transformational and transactional leadership commonly make use of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), developed by Bass and Avolio in 1990 and revised in 1995. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. It measures five dimensions of transformational leadership:

1. idealized influence - attributions
2. idealized influence - behaviors
3. inspirational motivation
4. individualized consideration
5. intellectual stimulation

The three dimensions of transactional leadership measured by the MLQ cover:

1. contingent reward
2. management by exception (active)
3. management by exception (passive)

The functional leadership model conceives leadership as a set of behaviors that helps a group perform a task, reach their goal, or perform their function. In the functional leadership model, one conceives of Leadership not as a person but rather as a set of behaviors that help a group perform their task or reach their goal In this model, effective leaders encourage functional behaviors and discourage dysfunctional ones.

In the path-goal model of leadership, developed jointly by Martin Evans and Robert House and based on the "Expectancy Theory of Motivation", a leader has the function of clearing the path toward the goal(s) of the group, by meeting the needs of subordinates. September 2007 In Organizational studies, the path-goal model is a Leadership theory that states that a leader's function is to clear the path toward the goal

Some commentators use the metaphor of an orchestral conductor to describe the quality of the leadership process. An orchestra is an instrumental ensemble, usually fairly large with string brass woodwind sections and possibly a percussion section as well Conducting is the act of directing a Musical performance by way of visible gestures An effective leader resembles an orchestra conductor in some ways. He/she has to somehow get a group of potentially diverse and talented people - many of whom have strong personalities - to work together toward a common output. Will the conductor harness and blend all the gifts his or her players possess? Will the players accept the degree of creative expression they have? Will the audience enjoy the sound they make? The conductor may have a clear determining influence on all of these questions.

Suggested qualities of leadership

Studies of leadership have suggested qualities that people often associate with leadership. They include:

• Technical/specific skill at some task at hand
• Charismatic inspiration - attractiveness to others and the ability to leverage this esteem to motivate others
• Preoccupation with a role - a dedication that consumes much of leaders' life - service to a cause
• A clear sense of purpose (or mission) - clear goals - focus - commitment
• Results-orientation - directing every action towards a mission - prioritizing activities to spend time where results most accrue
• Cooperation - work well with others
• Optimism - very few pessimists become leaders
• Rejection of determinism - belief in one's ability to "make a difference"
• Ability to encourage and nurture those that report to them - delegate in such a way as people will grow
• Role models - leaders may adopt a persona that encapsulates their mission and lead by example
• Self-knowledge (in non-bureaucratic structures)
• Self-awareness - the ability to "lead" (as it were) one's own self prior to leading other selves similarly
• Awareness of environment - the ability to understand the environment they lead in and how they affect and are affected by it
• With regards to people and to projects, the ability to choose winners - recognizing that, unlike with skills, one cannot (in general) teach attitude. The word charisma (origin from the Greek word χάρισμα (kharisma, "gift" or "divine favor" from kharizesthai, "to favor" Strategic planning is an Organization 's process of defining its Strategy, or direction and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy Distinguish from Corporation. Cooperation, co-operation, or coöperation is the process of working or acting together The term role model was introduced by Robert K Merton. Merton says that individuals compare themselves with "reference groups" of people who occupy the social A persona, in the word's everyday usage is a social Role or a character played by an Actor. Self-knowledge describes ideas pertaining to Psychology, Philosophy and Mysticism. Self-awareness is the concept that one exists as an individual separate from other people with private Thoughts. Note that "picking winners" ("choosing winners") carries implications of gamblers' luck as well as of the capacity to take risks, but "true" leaders, like gamblers but unlike "false" leaders, base their decisions on realistic insight (and usually on many other factors partially derived from "real" wisdom). Risk is a Concept that denotes the precise probability of specific eventualities
• Empathy - Understanding what others say, rather than listening to how they say things - this could partly sum this quality up as "walking in someone else's shoes" (to use a common cliché). Empathy is the capacity to recognize or understand another's state of mind or Emotion.
• Integrity - the integration of outward actions and inner values. Integrity is Consistency of actions values methods measures and principles
• Sense of Humour - Men work better when they're happy.

In 2008 Burman and Evans^[5] published a 'charter' for leaders:

1. Leading by example in accordance with the company’s core values.
2. Building the trust and confidence of the people with which they work.
3. Continually seeking improvement in their methods and effectiveness.
4. Keeping people informed.
5. Being accountable for their actions and holding others accountable for theirs.
6. Involving people, seeking their views, listening actively to what they have to say and representing these views honestly.
7. Being clear on what is expected, and providing feedback on progress.
8. Showing tolerance of people’s differences and dealing with their issues fairly.
9. Acknowledging and recognizing people for their contributions and performance.
10. Weighing alternatives, considering both short and long-term effects and then being resolute in the decisions they make.

The approach of listing leadership qualities, often termed "trait theory of leadership", assumes certain traits or characteristics will tend to lead to effective leadership. In Psychology, Trait theory is a major approach to the study of human personality. Although trait theory has an intuitive appeal, difficulties may arise in proving its tenets, and opponents frequently challenge this approach. The "strongest" versions of trait theory see these "leadership characteristics" as innate, and accordingly labels some people as "born leaders" due to their psychological makeup. On this reading of the theory, leadership development involves identifying and measuring leadership qualities, screening potential leaders from non-leaders, then training those with potential. Leadership development refers to any activity that enhances the quality of leadership within an individual or organization

David McClelland saw leadership skills, not so much as a set of traits, but as a pattern of motives. He claimed that successful leaders will tend to have a high need for power, a low need for affiliation, and a high level of what he called activity inhibition (one might call it self-control). Self control is perceived in a few ways One of which is philosophical and might be described as the exertion of one's own will on one's personal self - their behaviors actions

Situational leadership theory offers an alternative approach. Situational leadership theories in Organizational studies are a type of Leadership theory leadership style and leadership model that presumes that different leadership It proceeds from the assumption that different situations call for different characteristics. According to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. The situational leadership model of Hersey and Blanchard, for example, suggest four leadership-styles and four levels of follower-development. For effectiveness, the model posits that the leadership-style must match the appropriate level of followership-development. In this model, leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader, but of the characteristics of followers as well. Other situational leadership models introduce a variety of situational variables. These determinants include:

• the nature of the task (structured or routine)
• organizational policies, climate, and culture
• the preferences of the leader's superiors
• the expectations of peers
• the reciprocal responses of followers

The contingency model of Vroom and Yetton uses other situational variables, including:

• the nature of the problem
• the requirements for accuracy
• the acceptance of an initiative
• time-constraints
• cost constraints

However one determines leadership behavior, one can categorize it into various leadership styles. Many ways of doing this exist. For example, the Managerial Grid Model, a behavioral leadership-model, suggests five different leadership styles, based on leaders' strength of concern for people and their concern for goal achievement. The Managerial Grid Model ( 1964) is a Behavioral Leadership model developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton.

Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and R. Kurt Zadek Lewin (1890 - 1947 a German-born psychologist, is one of the modern pioneers of social, organizational, and Applied psychology K. White identified three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire, based on the amount of influence and power exercised by the leader.

The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader’s effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational contingency. The Fiedler contingency model is a Leadership theory of Industrial and organizational psychology developed by Fred Fiedler (born 1922 one of the leading Fred Edward Fiedler (born 1922 was one of the leading scientists in Industrial and organizational psychology of the 20th century This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorableness (later called "situational control").

Leadership "styles" (per House and Podsakoff)

In 1994 House and Podsakoff attempted to summarize the behaviors and approaches of "outstanding leaders" that they obtained from some more modern theories and research findings. These leadership behaviors and approaches do not constitute specific styles, but cumulatively they probably characterize the most effective style of today's leaders/managers. Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) The listed leadership "styles" cover:

1. Vision. Strategic planning is an Organization 's process of defining its Strategy, or direction and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy Outstanding leaders articulate an ideological vision congruent with the deeply-held values of followers, a vision that describes a better future to which the followers have an alleged moral right.
2. Passion and self-sacrifice. Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" Leaders display a passion for, and have a strong conviction of, what they regard as the moral correctness of their vision. They engage in outstanding or extraordinary behavior and make extraordinary self-sacrifices in the interest of their vision and mission.
3. Confidence, determination, and persistence. Confidence is generally described as a state of being certain either that a hypothesis or prediction is correct or that a chosen course of action is the best or most effective given the Outstanding leaders display a high degree of faith in themselves and in the attainment of the vision they articulate. Faith is a Belief in the trustworthiness of an Idea. Formal usage of the word "faith" is usually reserved for concepts of Religion, as in Theoretically, such leaders need to have a very high degree of self-confidence and moral conviction because their mission usually challenges the status quo and, therefore, may offend those who have a stake in preserving the established order.
4. Image-building. A brand is a collection of Images and ideas representing an economic producer more specifically it refers to the descriptive verbal attributes and concrete symbols such as a House and Podsakoff regard outstanding leaders as self-conscious about their own image. They recognize the desirability of followers perceiving them as competent, credible, and trustworthy.
5. Role-modeling. The term role model was introduced by Robert K Merton. Merton says that individuals compare themselves with "reference groups" of people who occupy the social Leader-image-building sets the stage for effective role-modeling because followers identify with the values of role models whom they perceived in positive terms.
6. External representation. Outstanding leaders act as spokespersons for their respective organizations and symbolically represent those organizations to external constituencies. A spokesman ( spokeswoman or spokesperson) is someone engaged to speak on behalf of others A constituency is any cohesive corporate unit or body bound by shared structures goals or loyalty
7. Expectations of and confidence in followers. Outstanding leaders communicate expectations of high performance from their followers and strong confidence in their followers’ ability to meet such expectations. A performance, in Performing arts, generally comprises an event in which one group of people (the performer or performers behave in a particular way for another group of people
8. Selective motive-arousal. Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior especially Human behavior as studied in Philosophy, Conflict, Economics Outstanding leaders selectively arouse those motives of followers that the outstanding leaders see as of special relevance to the successful accomplishment of the vision and mission.
9. Frame alignment. To persuade followers to accept and implement change, outstanding leaders engage in "frame alignment". This refers to the linkage of individual and leader interpretive orientations such that some set of followers’ interests, values, and beliefs, as well as the leader’s activities, goals, and ideology, becomes congruent and complementary. An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics
10. Inspirational communication. Communication is the process of conveying information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood the same way Outstanding leaders often, but not always, communicate their message in an inspirational manner using vivid stories, slogans, symbols, and ceremonies. A narrative or story is a construct created in a suitable format (written spoken poetry prose images song Theater, or Dance) that describes a sequence of A slogan is a memorable Motto or Phrase used in a Political, commercial, Religious and other context as a repetitive expression of The musical instrument is spelled Cymbal. A symbol is something --- such as an object, Picture, written word a sound a piece A ceremony is an activity infused with Ritual significance performed on a special occasion

Even though these ten leadership behaviors and approaches do not really equate to specific styles, evidence has started to accumulate that a leader’s style can make a difference. Style becomes the key to the formulation and implementation of strategy and plays an important role in work-group members’ activity and in team citizenship. A team comprises a group of people or Animals linked in a common purpose Little doubt exists that the way (style) in which leaders influence work-group members can make a difference in their own and their people’s performance.

(Adopted from: Robert House and Philip M. Podsakoff, "Leadership Effectiveness: Past Perspectives and Future Directions for Research" in Greenberg, Jerald ed. ),pp. 45-82 Organizational Behavior: The State of the Science, Hillsdale, NJ, England: Erlbaum Associates, Inc, 1994. x, 312 pp. }} . )

Leadership and vision

Many definitions of leadership involve an element of Goal management|vision — except in cases of involuntary leadership and often in cases of traditional leadership. A vision provides direction to the influence process. A leader or group of leaders can have one or more visions of the future to aid them to move a group successfully towards this goal. A vision, for effectiveness, should allegedly:

• appear as a simple, yet vibrant, image in the mind of the leader
• describe a future state, credible and preferable to the present state
• act as a bridge between the current state and a future optimum state
• appear desirable enough to energize followers
• succeed in speaking to followers at an emotional or spiritual level (logical appeals by themselves seldom muster a following)

For leadership to occur, according to this theory, some people "leaders" must communicate the vision to others "followers" in such a way that the followers adopt the vision as their own. Leaders must not just see the vision themselves, they must have the ability to get others to see it also. Numerous techniques aid in this process, including: narratives, metaphors, symbolic actions, leading by example,incentives, and penalty|penalties.

Stacey (1992) has suggested that the emphasis on vision puts an unrealistic burden on the leader. Such emphasis appears to perpetuate the myth that an organization must depend on a single, uncommonly talented individual to decide what to do. Stacey claims that this fosters a culture of dependency and conformity in which followers take no pro-active incentives and do not think independently.

Kanungo's charismatic leadership model describes the role of the vision in three stages that are continuously ongoing, overlapping one another. Assessing the status quo, formulation and articulation of the vision, and implementation of the vision.

Leadership's relation with management

Some commentators link leadership closely with the idea of management. Some regard the two as synonymous, and others consider management a subset of leadership. If one accepts this premise, one can view leadership as:

• centralized or decentralized
• broad or focused
• decision-oriented or morale-centred
• intrinsic or derived from some authority

Any of the bipolar labels traditionally ascribed to management style could also apply to leadership style. Hersey and Blanchard use this approach: they claim that management merely consists of leadership applied to business situations; or in other words: management forms a sub-set of the broader process of leadership. They put it this way: "Leadership occurs any time one attempts to influence the behavior of an individual or group, regardless of the reason. Management is a kind of leadership in which the achievement of organizational goals is paramount. "

However, a clear distinction between management and leadership may nevertheless prove useful. This would allow for a reciprocal relationship between leadership and management, implying that an effective manager should possess leadership skills, and an effective leader should demonstrate management skills. One clear distinction could provide the following definition:

• Management involves power by position.
• Leadership involves power by influence.

Abraham Zaleznik (1977),for example, delineated differences between leadership and management. He saw leaders as inspiring visionaries, concerned about substance; while managers he views as planners who have concerns with process. Warren Bennis (1989) further explicated a dichotomy between managers and leaders. He drew twelve distinctions between the two groups:

• Managers administer, leaders innovate
• Managers ask how and when, leaders ask what and why
• Managers focus on systems, leaders focus on people
• Managers do things right, leaders do the right things
• Managers maintain, leaders develop
• Managers rely on control, leaders inspire trust
• Managers have a short-term perspective, leaders have a longer-term perspective
• Managers accept the status-quo, leaders challenge the status-quo
• Managers have an eye on the bottom line, leaders have an eye on the horizon
• Managers imitate, leaders originate
• Managers emulate the classic good soldier, leaders are their own person
• Managers copy, leaders show originality

Paul Birch (1999) also sees a distinction between leadership and management. He observed that, as a broad generalization, managers concerned themselves with tasks while leaders concerned themselves with people. Birch does not suggest that leaders do not focus on "the task. " Indeed, the things that characterise a great leader include the fact that they achieve. Effective leaders create and sustain competitive advantage through the attainment of cost leadership, revenue leadership, time leadership, and market value leadership. Managers typically follow and realize a leader's vision. The difference lies in the leader realising that the achievement of the task comes about through the goodwill and support of others (influence), while the manager may not.

This goodwill and support originates in the leader seeing people as people, not as another resource for deployment in support of "the task". The manager often has the role of organizing resources to get something done. People form one of these resources, and many of the worst managers treat people as just another interchangeable item. A leader has the role of causing others to follow a path he/she has laid out or a vision he/she has articulated in order to achieve a task. Often, people see the task as subordinate to the vision. For instance, an organization might have the overall task of generating profit, but a good leader may see profit as a by-product that flows from whatever aspect of their vision differentiates their company from the competition.

Leadership does not only manifest itself as purely a business phenomenon. Many people can think of an inspiring leader they have encountered who has nothing whatever to do with business: a politician, an officer in the armed forces, a Scout or Guide leader, a teacher, etc. Similarly, management does not occur only as a purely business phenomenon. Again, we can think of examples of people that we have met who fill the management niche in non-business organisationsNon-business organizations should find it easier to articulate a non-money-driven inspiring vision that will support true leadership. However, often this does not occur.

Differences in the mix of leadership and management can define various management styles. Some management styles tend to de-emphasize leadership. Included in this group one could include participatory management, democratic management, and collaborative management styles. Other management styles, such as authoritarian management, micro-management, and top-down management, depend more on a leader to provide direction. Note, however, that just because an organisation has no single leader giving it direction, does not mean it necessarily has weak leadership. In many cases group leadership (multiple leaders) can prove effective. Having a single leader (as in dictatorship) allows for quick and decisive decision-making when needed as well as when not needed. Group decision-making sometimes earns the derisive label "committee-itis" because of the longer times required to make decisions, but group leadership can bring more expertise, experience, and perspectives through a democratic process.

Patricia Pitcher (1994) has challenged the bifurcation into leaders and managers. She used a factor analysis (in marketing)factor analysis technique on data collected over 8 years, and concluded that three types of leaders exist, each with very different psychological profiles:'Artists' imaginative, inspiring, visionary, entrepreneurial, intuitive, daring, and emotional Craftsmen: well-balanced, steady, reasonable, sensible, predictable, and trustworthy Technocrats: cerebral, detail-oriented, fastidious, uncompromising, and hard-headed She speculates that no one profile offers a preferred leadership style. She claims that if we want to build, we should find an "artist leader" if we want to solidify our position, we should find a "craftsman leader" and if we have an ugly job that needs to get done like downsizing. we should find a "technocratic leader". Pitcher also observed that a balanced leader exhibiting all three sets of traits occurs extremely rarely: she found none in her study.

Bruce Lynn postulates a differentiation between 'Leadership' and ‘Management’ based on perspectives to risk. Specifically,"A Leader optimises upside opportunity; a Manager minimises downside risk. " He argues that successful executives need to apply both disciplines in a balance appropriate to the enterprise and its context. Leadership without Management yields steps forward, but as many if not more steps backwards. Management without Leadership avoids any step backwards, but doesn’t move forward.

Leadership by a group

In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this situation, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the maintenance of the boss becomes too expensive - either by draining the resources of the group as a whole, or by impeding the creativity within the team, even unintentionally. A team comprises a group of people or Animals linked in a common purpose

A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional teams. In business a cross-functional team is a group of people with different functional expertise working toward a common goal A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project. A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues, but more commonly uses rotating leadership. The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s). According to Ogbonnia (2007), "effective leadership is the ability to successfully integrate and maximize available resources within the internal and external environment for the attainment of organizational or societal goals". Ogbonnia defines an effective leader "as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given conditions and be recognized as meeting the expectations of the organization or society. "

Orpheus orchestra

For example, the Orpheus orchestra has performed for over thirty years without a conductor -- that is, without a sole leader. The Orpheus Chamber Orchestra is a world-renowned Grammy Award-winning classical music Chamber orchestra based in New York City Conducting is the act of directing a Musical performance by way of visible gestures As a team of over 25 members, it has drawn discriminating audiences, and has produced over 60 recordings for Deutsche Grammophon in successful competition with other world-class orchestras. ^[6]

Rather than an autocratic or charismatic conductor deciding the overall conception of a work and then dictating how each individual is to perform the individual tasks, the Orpheus team generally selects a different "core group" for each piece of music. An autocracy is a Form of government in which the Political power is held by a single self-appointed ruler The word charisma (origin from the Greek word χάρισμα (kharisma, "gift" or "divine favor" from kharizesthai, "to favor" A team comprises a group of people or Animals linked in a common purpose The core group provides leadership in working out the details of the piece, and presents their ideas to the whole team. Members of the whole team then participate in refining the final conception, rehearsal, and product, including checking from various places in the auditorium how the sound balances and verifying the quality of the final recording. Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of Sound, Ultrasound and Infrasound (all mechanical waves in gases liquids and solids A recording studio is a facility for sound recording. Ideally the space is specially designed by an acoustician to achieve the desired acoustic properties (sound

At times the entire Orpheus team may follow a single leader, but whom the team follows rotates from task to task, depending on the capabilities of its members. A team comprises a group of people or Animals linked in a common purpose

The orchestra has developed seminars and training sessions for adapting the Orpheus Process to business. A business (also called firm or an enterprise) is a legally recognized organizational entity designed to provide goods and/or services to ^[7]

Historical views on leadership

Sanskrit literature identifies ten types of leaders. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Defining characteristics of the ten types of leaders are explained with examples from history and mythology. ^[6]

Aristocratic thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on one's blue blood or genes: monarchy takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction: see the divine right of kings. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations History See also History of genetics The existence of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822-1884 who in the 1860s studied inheritance A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or The Divine Right of Kings is a general term that refers to the philosophy and ideas used to justify the authority and legitimacy of Monarchs in Medieval and Contrariwise, more democratically-inclined theorists have pointed to examples of meritocratic leaders, such as the Napoleonic marshals profiting from careers open to talent. Meritocracy is a system of a government or another organization wherein Appointments are made and responsibilities are given based on demonstrated talent and Ability Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Career is a term defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as an individual's "course or progress through life (or a distinct portion of life"

In the autocratic/paternalistic strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman pater familias. An autocracy is a Form of government in which the Political power is held by a single self-appointed ruler Paternalism refers usually to an attitude or a policy stemming from the hierarchic pattern of a Family based on Patriarchy, that is there is a figurehead " Pater Familias " or " Pater Families " is the third Season finale of Ghost Whisperer, it originally aired on May Feminist thinking, on the other hand, may damn such models as patriarchal and posit against them emotionally-attuned, responsive, and consensual empathetic guidance and matriarchies. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Patriarchy is the structuring of Society on the basis of Family units where fathers have primary responsibility for the welfare of hence authority over Empathy is the capacity to recognize or understand another's state of mind or Emotion. Matriarchy is a term which is applied to gynocentric form of Society, in which the leading role is by the Female and especially by the Mothers

Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of Confucianism on "right living" relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B

In On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History, Thomas Carlyle demonstrated the concept of leadership associated with a position of authority. Thomas Carlyle (4 December 1795 – 5 February 1881 was a Scottish essayist satirist and historian whose work was highly influential during the Victorian era. In Politics, authority ( Latin Auctoritas, used in Roman law as opposed to Potestas and Imperium In praising Oliver Cromwell's use of power to bring King Charles I to trial and eventual beheading, he wrote the following: "Let us remark, meanwhile, how indispensable everywhere a King is, in all movements of men. Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 Old Style &ndash 3 September 1658 Old Style) was an English military and political leader best known Power is a measure of a person's ability to control the environment around them including the behavior of other people Charles I, (19 November 1600 &ndash 30 January 1649 was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution. The English Civil War (1642-1651 was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. It is strikingly shown, in this very War, what becomes of men when they cannot find a Chief Man, and their enemies can. " ^[1]

Within the context of Islam, views on the nature, scope and inheritance of leadership have played a major role in shaping sects and their history. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. See caliphate. A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history

In the 19th century, the elaboration of anarchist thought called the whole concept of leadership into question. Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i (Note that the Oxford English Dictionary traces the word "leadership" in English only as far back as the 19th century. The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED) published by the Oxford University Press (OUP is a comprehensive Dictionary of the English ) One response to this denial of élitism came with Leninism, which demanded an élite group of disciplined cadres to act as the vanguard of a socialist revolution, bringing into existence the dictatorship of the proletariat. Elitism is the belief or attitude that those individuals who are considered members of the Elite &mdash a select group of people with outstanding personal abilities intellect Leninism refers to various related political and economic theories elaborated by Bolshevik revolutionary leader Vladimir Lenin. The concept of professional revolutionaries, alternatively called cadre, is in origin a Leninist concept used to describe a body of devoted Communists who A vanguard party is a Political party at the forefront of a mass action movement or revolution The " dictatorship of the proletariat " or workers' state is a term employed by Marxists that refers to what they see as a temporary state between the

Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of Caesaro-papism have recurred and had their detractors over several centuries. Caesaropapism is the idea of combining the power of secular government with or making it superior to the spiritual authority of the Christian Church; especially Christian thinking on leadership has often emphasized stewardship of divinely-provided resources - human and material - and their deployment in accordance with a Divine plan. Stewardship is personal responsibility for taking care of another person's property or financial affairs or in religious orders taking care of finances Compare servant leadership. Servant leadership is an approach to Leadership development, coined and defined by Robert Greenleaf and advanced by several authors such as Stephen Covey

For a more general take on leadership in politics, compare the concept of the statesman. Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions A statesman or stateswoman or statesperson is usually a Politician or other notable figure of State who has had a long and respected career in

The great traits that a leader must have, have been debated over time, and most people agree that these are the five key traits. You must have a vision. We've all heard the saying "You must stand for something, or you'll fall for everything. " But what does that really mean? Standing firm when it comes to your company's policies and procedures is all well and good, but it doesn't speak to having a vision. As a leader, you have to learn to communicate your vision or the vision of your company to the people you want to follow you. You must have passion, you have to show your team that you want to accomplish the goal as badly as they do, your passion will drive them. You must learn to be a great decision maker. Sometimes, leaders must face times of pressure where they are forced to make quick decisions, a great leader must have this skill. You must be a team builder. To become a great leader, you must first make your team great, you must have the power to give your team responsibilities, and trust them too, you must slowly make them greater and greater. You must have character. Without character, all the other "keys" are for naught. That's because your innate character strengths and limitations play a critical role in your leadership style. The real question is, are you aware of just what role they play? All great leaders have taken steps to learn about their individual personality and what part it plays in their leadership style.

Criticism of the concept of leadership

Noam Chomsky has criticized the concept of leadership as involving people subordinating their needs to that of someone else. While the conventional view of leadership is rather satisfying to people who "want to be told what to do", one should question why they are being subjected to acts that may or may not be rational or even desirable. Rationality is the key element missing when "leaders" say "believe me" and "have faith". It is fairly easy to have people simplistically follow you as their "leader", if no attention is paid to rationality. Moving to the public domain-presidents, senators, people in congress- such positions are dubbed as leaders. In this domain, representatives ARE desirable NOT "leaders". The representative simply take the view of the group being represented and help to move forward with these objectives. If they don't follow what the representatives have asked, they should easily be removed and replaced. Ask yourself when the last time such a system of representation existed! When "leaders" in the form of politicians come to town there is a parade of celebration and cheering without any room for such rationality but plenty of room for empty rhetoric and in some cases a rock star status. It should be noted that people need to ask themselves why they would want leaders, given the brutal history of such unaccountable people, and not representatives.

Alternatives to leadership

Within groups, alternatives to the cult of leadership include using decision-making structures such as co-operative ventures, collegiality, consensus, anarchism and applied democracy. Collegiality is the relationship between colleagues Definition of collegiality Colleagues are those explicitly united in a common Purpose and respecting Consensus has two common meanings One is a general agreement among the members of a given group or Community, each of which exercises some discretion in Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system One can downplay the ubiquitous idea of leadership by using structures such as information clearing houses or stressing functions such as administration. Note the different implications and connotations of the two phrases "coalition of the willing" and "US-led coalition". The term coalition of the willing is a post-1990 political phrase used to describe military or military/humanitarian interventions for which the United Nations Security Council Multi-National Force - Iraq (MNF-I, is a military command, led by the United States that is fighting the Iraq War against Iraqi insurgents or resistants The Orpheus Chamber Orchestra, which practices a form of distributed leadership, provides a textbook example of alternative leadership. The Orpheus Chamber Orchestra is a world-renowned Grammy Award-winning classical music Chamber orchestra based in New York City

See also

Aikido John Adair (Leadership Guru) Max Weber's Charismatic authority Chieftain Coaching Crowd psychology Antonio Gramsci's theory of Cultural hegemony Dale Carnegie Dependability Determination Discipline Excellence Fairness Focus

Foresight Forgiveness Fortitude Fiedler contingency model Followership Functional leadership model Hero Islamic leadership Ideal leadership Model Justice Lance Secretan Leader (Scouting) Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX) Leadership Character Model Leadership development

Managerial grid model Minister Morality Nicomachean Ethics Parent Perseverance Potential Purposefulness Priest Professional development Path-goal model Respectfulness Responsibility Restraint

Self-awareness Self-discipline Self-reliance sensitivity Servant leadership Situational leadership theory Social skills Three theological virtues Trait theory Transformational leadership Trustworthiness Truthfulness Toxic Leadership Youth leadership

References

General references

• Argyris, C. (1976) Increasing Leadership Effectiveness, Wiley, New York, 1976 (even though published in 1976, this still remains a "standard" reference text)
• Bass, B. M. & Avolio, B. J. (1995). MLQ Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire for Research: Permission Set. Redwood City, CA: Mindgarden.
• Bennis, W. (1989) On Becoming a Leader, Addison Wesley, New York, 1989
• Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership, New York, NY: Harper Torchbooks.
• Crawford, C. J. (2005). Corporate rise the X principles of extreme personal leadership. Santa Clara, CA: XCEO. ISBN 0-976-90190-0 9780976901907
• APA
• Greiner, K. (2002). The inaugural speech. ERIC Accession Number ED468083 ^[8].
• Heifetz, R. (1994). Leadership without easy answers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-51858-6
• House, R. J. (2004) Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, 2004 ^[9].
• Kouzes, J. M. and Posner, B. Z. (2002). The leadership challenge. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Laubach, R. (2005) Leadership is Influence
• Machiavelli, Niccolo (1530) The Prince
• Maxwell, J. C. & Dornan, J. (2003) Becoming a Person of Influence
• McGovern, George S. , Donald C. Simmons, Jr. and Daniel Gaken (2008) Leadership and Service: An Introduction, Kendall/Hunt Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7575-5109-3.
• Nanus, Burt (1995) The visionary leadership
• Ogbonnia, SKC. (2007). Political Parties and Effective Leadership: A contingency Approach
• Pitcher, P. (1994 French) Artists, Craftsmen, and Technocrats: The dreams realities and illusions of leadership, Stoddart Publishing, Toronto, 2nd English edition, 1997. ISBN 0-7737-5854-2
• Renesch, John (1994) Leadership in a New Era: Visionary Approaches to the Biggest Crisis of Our Time, San Francisco, New Leaders Press (paperback 2002, New York, Paraview Publishing
• Renesch, John (2001) "Conscious Leadership: Taking Responsibility for Our Better Future," LOHAS Weekly Newsletter, March 1, 2001 [10]
• Roberts, W. (1987) Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun
• Stacey, R. (1992) Managing Chaos, Kogan-Page, London, 1992
• Stogdill, R. M. (1950) 'Leadership, membership and organization', Psychological Bulletin, 47: 1-14
• Terry, G. (1960) The Principles of Management, Richard Irwin Inc, Homewood Ill, pg 5.
• Torbert, W. (2004) Action Inquiry: the Secret of Timely and Transforming Leadership, San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
• Warneka, P and Warneka, T. (2007). The Way of Leading People: Unlocking Your Integral Leadership Skills with the Tao Te Ching. Asogomi Publications Intl. Cleveland, Ohio. website
• Warneka, T. (2006). Leading People the Black Belt Way: Conquering the Five Core Problems Facing Leaders Today. Asogomi Publications Intl. Cleveland, Ohio. website
• Warneka, T. (2008). Black Belt Leader, Peaceful Leader: An Introduction to Catholic Servant Leadership. website
• Zaleznik, A. (1977) "Managers and Leaders: Is there a difference?", Harvard Business Review, May-June, 1977

External links

Leadership at the Open Directory Project

• Article on CEO Supercoaching
• USA Today articles on corporate leadership
• Executive suite link to USA Today profiles and Q&As with CEOs

The Open Directory Project ( ODP) also known as dmoz (from directory

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