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For the book, see Daodejing. The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic
Laozi
Born fl. 4th century BC
This article contains Chinese text. The 4th century BC started the first day of 400 BC and ended the last day of 301 BC.
Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters. Mojibake is the happenstance of incorrect unreadable characters (garbage characters shown when Computer software fails to render a text correctly according to its associated A Chinese character, also known as a Han character ( is a Logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi Japanese (
Part of a series on
Taoism
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Fundamentals

Dao (Tao) · De
Wuji · Taiji
Yin-Yang · Wu xing
Qi · Neidan
Wu wei
Texts

Daodejing (Tao Te Ching)
Zhuangzi · Liezi
Daozang
Deities

Three Pure Ones
Guan Shengdi
Eight Immortals
Yellow Emperor · Xiwangmu
Jade Emperor · Chang'e
Other deities
People

Laozi · Zhuangzi
Zhang Daoling · Zhang Jiao
Ge Hong · Chen Tuan
Wang Chongyang
Schools

Five Pecks of Rice
Yellow Turbans
Shangqing · Lingbao
Quanzhen · Zhengyi
Xuanxue
Sacred sites

Grotto-heavens
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Laozi (Chinese: 老子; pinyin: Lǎozǐ; Wade-Giles: Lao tzu; also Lao Tse, Laotze, Lao Zi, and other variations) was a philosopher of ancient China and is a central figure in Taoism (also spelled "Daoism"). Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Tao ( 道, Pinyin Dào) is a metaphysical concept found in Taoism, Confucianism, and more generally in ancient Chinese philosophy De ( is a key concept in Chinese philosophy, usually translated "inherent character inner power integrity" in Taoism, "moral character virtue morality" Wuji (無極 is the primordial state of non-being a state of Nothingness and boundlessness or that which is without Bounds or Limits. Taiji (太極 is a state of being from Tao and Wuji. It is a state of absolute and of infinite potentiality In Chinese philosophy, the concept of yin and yang ( is used to describe how seemingly opposing forces are bound together intertwined and interdependent in the In traditional Chinese philosophy, natural phenomena can be classified into the Wu Xing ( or the Five Phases, usually translated as five elements, In traditional Chinese culture, qi (zh [[wikt氣 氣]] Pinyin qì, Wade-Giles ch'i Jyutping Neidan (内丹 a Chinese method of Internal alchemy. Part of the Chinese alchemical meditative tradition that is said to have been separated into internal and external Wu wei ( is an important tenet of Taoism that involves knowing when to act and when not to act The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic For the book with the same name see Zhuangzi (book Zhuangzi ( was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th Note This article is about the Liezi text For the author Liezi please see Lie Yukou. Daozang ( meaning "Treasury of Dao " or " Daoist Canon" consists of almost 5000 individual texts that were collected circa C The Three Pure Ones ( also translated as the Three Pure Pellucid Ones, the Three Pristine Ones, the Three Clarities, or the Three Purities Guan Yu ( Chinese: 關羽 Guān Yǔ was a general under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of The Eight Immortals ( are a group of legendary xian ("immortals transcendents fairies" in Chinese mythology. Huangdi, or the Yellow Emperor, is a Legendary Chinese sovereign and cultural hero who is considered in Chinese mythology to be the The Queen Mother of the West (西王母 Pinyin: Xīwángmǔ Japanese: Seiōbo) in Chinese mythology, is the ruler of the western Paradise The Jade Emperor ( or 玉帝 Yù Dì) is the Taoist ruler of Heaven and all realms of existence below including that of Man and Hell Chang'e, Ch'ang-O or Chang-Ngo ( also known as Heng-E or Heng-O ( 姮[[wiktionary 娥|娥]] Héng'é is the Chinese Goddess Classical Chen Po (Chen Tuan Chen Hsi I 871-989 Ge Hong 284–364 Guo Xiang (Kuo Hsiang d For the book with the same name see Zhuangzi (book Zhuangzi ( was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th Zhang Daoling (張道陵 Pinyin Zhāng Dàolíng, Wade-Giles Chang Tao-ling) also commonly called Zhang Ling, was an Eastern Zhang Jiao or Zhang Jue (d 184 was the leader of the Yellow Turbans during the late Eastern Han Dynasty of China. Ge Hong ( 284–364 Courtesy name Zhichuan (稚川 was a minor southern official during the Jìn Dynasty (263-420 best known for his interest in Chen Tuan (陳摶 (birthname Chen Tuan name as a sage Chen Hsi I Chen Xi Yi (871-989 was a legendary Taoist sage Wang Chongyang ( 11 January 1113 – 22 January 1170) calendar] 宋徽宗政和二年十二月廿二 – 金世宗大定十年正月初四] The Yellow Turban Rebellion, sometimes also translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, ( was a AD 184 peasant rebellion against Emperor Ling of Han The Shangqing School (Chinese上清 or Supreme Clarity is a Daoist movement that began during the aristocracy of the Western Jin dynasty The Lingbao School (Simplified Chinese 灵宝派 Traditional Chinese 靈寶派 pinyin Ling Bao Pai also known as the School of the Sacred Jewel or the School The Quanzhen ( School is a major sect of Taoism that originated in Northern China. Zhenyi Dao (Chinese正一道 pinyin Zheng Yi Dào or the Way of Complete Orthodoxy is a Chinese Daoist movement that emerged during the Tang Dynasty Xuanxue ( Chinese: 玄[[wikt 學|學]] or Neotaoism is a sub-discipline of Confucianism and Taoism, its main theme is to study the Grotto-heavens (Chinese洞天 Pinyin Dongtian are a type of sacred Daoist site Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Wade-Giles (ˌweɪdˈʤaɪlz) sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization system (phonetic notation and Transcription) for the Mandarin Chinese philosophy is Philosophy written in the Chinese tradition of thought "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Laozi literally means "Old Master" and is generally considered an honorific. Laozi is revered as a god in religious forms of Taoism. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Taishang Laojun is a title for Laozi in the Taoist religion, which refers to him as "One of the Three Pure Ones". Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions The Three Pure Ones ( also translated as the Three Pure Pellucid Ones, the Three Pristine Ones, the Three Clarities, or the Three Purities

According to Chinese tradition, Laozi lived in the 6th century BC. The 6th century BC started the first day of 600 BC and ended the last day of 501 BC. Historians variously contend that Laozi is a synthesis of multiple historical figures, that he is a mythical figure, or that he actually lived in the 4th century BC, concurrent with the Hundred Schools of Thought and Warring States Period. The 4th century BC started the first day of 400 BC and ended the last day of 301 BC. The Hundred Schools of Thought ( were philosophers and schools that had flourished from 770 to 221 BC an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China. The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the [1] Laozi was credited with writing the central daoist work the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching), which was originally known simply as the Laozi. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic

A central figure in Chinese culture, both nobility and common people claim Laozi in their lineage. The Culture of China (traditional Chinese 中國文化 simplified Chinese 中国文化 is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex Civilizations covering a history Zhuangzi, widely considered the intellectual and spiritual successor of Laozi, had a notable impact on Chinese literature, culture and spirituality. For the book with the same name see Zhuangzi (book Zhuangzi ( was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th Throughout history, Laozi's work was embraced by various anti-authoritarian movements.

Contents

Historicity of Laozi

According to legends, Laozi leaves China on his water buffalo.
According to legends, Laozi leaves China on his water buffalo. [2]

Laozi is traditionally regarded as the author of the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching), though its authorship has been debated throughout history. The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic [3][4][5]

The earliest reliable reference (circa 100 BC) to Laozi is found in the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji) by Chinese historian Sima Qian (ca. The Records of the Grand Historian, also known in English by the Chinese name 史記 or Shiji, written from 109 BC to 91 BC Early life and education Sima Qian was born and grew up in Longmen, near present-day Hancheng Shaanxi. 145–86 BC), which combines three stories. In the first, Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius (551-479 BC). Confucius ( lit " Master Kung " September 28, 551 BC - 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher His surname was Li (李 "plum"), and his personal name was Er (耳 "ear") or Dan (聃 "long ear"). He was an official in the imperial archives, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the West. In the second, Laozi was Lao Laizi (老來子 "Old Come Master"), also a contemporary of Confucius, who wrote a book in 15 parts. In the third, Laozi was the Grand Historian and astrologer Lao Dan (老聃 "Old Long-ears"), who lived during the reign (384-362 BC) of Duke Xian (獻公) of Qin). Qín or Ch'in ( Wade-Giles) (秦 ( 778 BC - 207 BC) was a State during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods [6][7]

Popular legends say that he was conceived when his mother gazed upon a falling star, stayed in the womb for sixty-two years, and was born when his mother leaned against a plum tree. He accordingly emerged a grown man with a full grey beard and long earlobes, which are a symbol of wisdom and long life. [8][9]. In other versions he was reborn in some thirteen incarnations since the days of Fuxi; in his last incarnation as Laozi he lived to nine hundred and ninety years, and traveled to India to reveal the Dao. In Chinese mythology Fu Xi or Fu Hsi ( aka Paoxi ( mid 2800s BCE was the first of the mythical Three Sovereigns (三皇 sānhuáng of ancient China India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country [10]

According to popular traditional biographies, he worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Chou. The Zhou Dynasty ( POJ: Chiu Tiau 1122 BC to 256 BC was preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. This reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics of the time. Huangdi, or the Yellow Emperor, is a Legendary Chinese sovereign and cultural hero who is considered in Chinese mythology to be the The stories relate that Laozi never opened a formal school, but he nonetheless attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. There are numerous variations of a story depicting Confucius consulting Laozi about rituals. [11][12]

Many of the popular accounts say that Laozi married and had a son named Zong, who became a celebrated soldier. A large number of people trace their lineage back to Laozi, as the Tang Dynasty did. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by According to Simpkins & Simpkins, many (if not all) of the lineages may be inaccurate. However, they are a testament to the impact of Laozi on Chinese culture. [13]

Traditional accounts state that Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of city life and noted the kingdom's decline. According to these legends, he ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at the age of 160. At the western gate of the city, or kingdom, he was recognized by a guard. The sentry asked the old master to produce a record of his wisdom. This is the legendary origin of the Daodejing. In some versions of the tale, the sentry is so touched by the work that he leaves with Laozi to never be seen again. Some legends elaborate further that the "Old Master" was the teacher of the Buddha, or the Buddha himself. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder [14][15]

By the mid-twentieth century, a consensus had emerged among scholars that the historicity of Laozi was doubtful or unprovable, and that the Daodejing was "a compilation of Taoist sayings by many hands originating in the -4th century. " Alan Watts (1975) held that this view was part of an academic fashion for skepticism about historical spiritual and religious figures, arguing that not enough would be known for years, or possibly ever, to make a firm judgment. [16] [17]

Names

Laozi is an honorific title. Lao means "venerable" or "old". Zi, or tzu, means "master". Zi was used in ancient China like a social prefix, indicating "Master", or "Sir". In popular biographies, Laozi's given name was Er, his surname was Li (forming Li Er, 李耳) and his courtesy name was Boyang. A Chinese style name, sometimes also known as a courtesy name ( zì) is a given name to be used later in life Dan is a posthumous name given to Laozi, and he is sometimes referred to as Li Dan (李聃). [18][19][20]

During the Tang Dynasty, he was honoured as an ancestor of the dynasty after Daoists drew a connection between the dynasty's family name of Li and Laozi's bearing of the same name. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by He was granted the title Taishang xuanyuan huangdi, meaning "Supreme Mysterious and Primordial Emperor". Xuanyuan and Huangdi are also, respectively, the personal and proper names of the Yellow Emperor. Huangdi, or the Yellow Emperor, is a Legendary Chinese sovereign and cultural hero who is considered in Chinese mythology to be the [21][22][23]

Daodejing

See also: Tao Te Ching, Tao, and Wu wei
Laozi, depicted as the Taoist god.
Laozi, depicted as the Taoist god. The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic Tao ( 道, Pinyin Dào) is a metaphysical concept found in Taoism, Confucianism, and more generally in ancient Chinese philosophy Wu wei ( is an important tenet of Taoism that involves knowing when to act and when not to act

Laozi's magnum opus, the Daodejing, is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese cosmogony. Magnum opus (sometimes Opus magnum, plural magna opera) from the Latin meaning great work, refers to the best the greatest This article discusses scientific theories of creation (cosmogony As with most other ancient Chinese philosophers, Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm.

The Daodejing, often called simply the Laozi after its reputed author, describes the Dao (or Tao) as the mystical source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. According to the Daodejing, humans have no special place within the Dao, being just one of its many ("ten thousand") manifestations. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Dao. The Daodejing intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Dao. [24] Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Conventional wisdom (CW is a term used to describe ideas or explanations that are generally accepted as true by the public or by experts in a field Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point. [25]

Livia Kohn provides an example of how Laozi encouraged a change in approach, or return to "nature", rather than action. Technology may bring about a false sense of progress. The answer provided by Laozi is not the rejection of technology, but instead seeking the calm state of wu wei, free from desires. This relates to many statements by Laozi encouraging rulers to keep their people in "ignorance", or "simple-minded". Some scholars insist this explanation ignores the religious context, and others question it as an apologetic of the philosophical coherence of the text. It is not unusual political advice if Laozi literally intended to tell rulers to keep their people ignorant. However, some terms in the text, such as "valley spirit" (gushen) and "soul" (po), bear a religious context and cannot be easily reconciled with a purely ethical reading of the work. [26]

Wu wei, literally "non-action" or "not acting", is a central concept of the Daodejing. Wu wei ( is an important tenet of Taoism that involves knowing when to act and when not to act The concept of wu wei is very complex and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment. "[27]

It is a concept used to explain ziran, or harmony with the Dao. Ziran ( is a key concept in Daoism that literally means "self so so of its own so of itself" and thus "naturally natural spontaneously freely in the It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source. Laozi used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. Simplicity is the property condition or quality of being simple or un-combined Humility, or being humble, is the defining characteristic of an unpretentious and modest person someone who does not think that he or she is better or more important On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices, such as the "sitting in oblivion" (emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought) found in the Zhuangzi. [28]

According to esoteric adherents, the book contains specific instructions for Daoist adepts relating to qigong meditations, and in veiled preachings the way to revert to the primordial state. Qigong (or ch'i kung) refers to a wide variety of traditional cultivation practices that involve methods of accumulating circulating and working with Qi or energy [29] This interpretation supports the view that Taoism is a religion addressing the quest of immortality. [30][31]

Daoism

A Daoist dragon with the Taijitu, the symbol representing the Dao
A Daoist dragon with the Taijitu, the symbol representing the Dao
See also: Taoism

Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Daoism, intimately connected with the Daodejing and "primordial" (or "original") Daoism. In Chinese philosophy, the concept of yin and yang ( is used to describe how seemingly opposing forces are bound together intertwined and interdependent in the Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Popular ("religious") Daoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity. The Jade Emperor ( or 玉帝 Yù Dì) is the Taoist ruler of Heaven and all realms of existence below including that of Man and Hell See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always Intellectual ("elite") Daoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, "Lord Lao") and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities. The Three Pure Ones ( also translated as the Three Pure Pellucid Ones, the Three Pristine Ones, the Three Clarities, or the Three Purities [32][33]

The story of Laozi has taken on strong religious overtones since the Han dynasty. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. As Daoism took root, Laozi was recognized as a god. Belief in the revelation of the Dao from the divine Laozi resulted in the formation of the Way of the Celestial Master, the first organized religious Daoist sect. In later mature Daoist tradition, Laozi came to be seen as a personification of Dao. He is said to have undergone numerous "transformations", or taken on various guises in various incarnations throughout history to initiate the faithful in the Way. Religious Daoism often holds that the "Old Master" did not disappear after writing the Daodejing, but rather traveled to India to reveal the Dao. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country [34]

Yinxi

Laozi's relationship with the guardian of the western pass, named Yinxi (Wade Giles Yin Hsi), is the subject of numerous legends. It is Yinxi who asked Laozi to write down his wisdom in the traditional account of the Daodejing's creation. The story of Laozi transmitting the Daodejing to Yinxi is part of a broader theme involving Laozi the deity delivering salvific truth to a suffering humanity. Regardless, the deliverance of the Daodejing was the ultimate purpose of his human incarnation. Folklore developed around Laozi and Yinxi to demonstrate the ideal interaction of Taoist master and disciple. [35]

A seventh century work, Sandong zhunang ("Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns"), provides one account of their relationship. Laozi pretended to be a farmer when reaching the western gate, but was recognized by Yinxi, who asked to be taught by the great master. Laozi was not satisfied by simply being noticed by the guard and demanded an explanation. Yinxi expressed his deep desire to find the Tao and explained that his long study of astrology allowed him to recognize Laozi's approach. Yinxi was accepted by Laozi as a disciple. This is considered an exemplary interaction between Daoist master and disciple, reflecting the testing a seeker must undergo before being accepted. A would-be adherent is expected to prove his determination and talent, clearly expressing his wishes and showing that he had made progress on his own towards realizing the Tao. [36] .

The Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns continues the parallel of an adherent's quest. Yinxi received his ordination When Laozi transmitted the Daodejing, along with other texts and precepts, just as Taoist adherents receive a number of methods, teachings and scriptures at ordination. The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic This is only an initial ordination and Yinxi still needed an additional period to perfect his faith, thus Laozi gave him three years to perfect his Dao. Yinxi gave himself over to a full-time devotional life. After the appointed time, Yinxi again demonstrates determination and perfect trust, sending out a black sheep to market as the agreed sign. He eventually meets again with Laozi, who announces that Yinxi's immortal name is listed in the heavens and calls down a heavenly procession to clothe Yinxi in the garb of immortals. The story continues that Laozi bestowed a number of titles upon Yinxi and took him on a journey throughout the universe, even into the nine heavens. After this fantastic journey, the two sages set out to western lands of the barbarians. The training period, reuniting and travels represent the attainment of the highest religious rank in medieval Taoism called "Preceptor of the Three Caverns". In this legend, Laozi is the perfect Daoist master and Yinxi is the ideal Taoist student. Laozi is presented as the Tao personified, giving his teaching to humanity for their salvation. Yinxi follows the formal sequence of preparation, testing, training and attainment. [37]

Influence

Statue of Laozi in Quanzhou, China
Statue of Laozi in Quanzhou, China

Potential officials throughout Chinese history drew on the authority of non-Confucian sages, especially Laozi and Zhuangzi, to deny serving any ruler at any time. "Zaytun" redirects here For the South Korean military division in Iraq see Zaytun Division. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Zhuangzi, Laozi's most famous follower, had a great deal of influence on Chinese literati and culture. The Culture of China (traditional Chinese 中國文化 simplified Chinese 中国文化 is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex Civilizations covering a history Zhuangzi is a central authority regarding eremitism, a particular variation of monasticism sacrificing social aspects for religious aspects of life. A hermit (from the Greek ἔρημος erēmos, signifying " Desert " "uninhabited" hence "desert-dweller" adjective "eremitic" Zhuangzi considered eremitism the highest ideal, if properly understood. [38]

Scholars such as Aat Vervoom have postulated that Zhuangzi advocated a hermit immersed in society. This view of eremitism holds that seclusion is hiding anonymously in society. To a Zhuangzi hermit, being unknown and drifting freely is a state of mind. This reading is based on the "inner chapters" of the self-titled Zhuangzi. [39]

Scholars such as James Bellamy hold that this could be true and has been interpreted similarly at various points in Chinese history. However, the "outer chapters" of Zhuangzi have historically played a pivotal role in the advocacy of reclusion. While some scholars state that Laozi was the central figure of Han Dynasty eremitism, historical texts do not seem to support that position. [40]

Political theorists influenced by Laozi have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained approach to statecraft, either for ethical and pacifist reasons, or for tactical ends. Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions In a different context, various anti-authoritarian movements have embraced the Laozi teachings on the power of the weak. Anti-authoritarianism is opposition to Authoritarianism, which is defined as a "political doctrine advocating the principle of absolute rule absolutism autocracy despotism [41]

The economist Murray N. Rothbard suggests that Laozi was the first libertarian, likening Laozi's ideas on government to F.A. Hayek's theory of spontaneous order. An economist is an expert in the Social science of Economics. Murray Newton Rothbard (March 2 1926 – January 7 1995 was an American economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern Libertarianism Friedrich August von Hayek CH ( May 8, 1899 March 23, 1992) was an Austrian British Economist See also the closely related articles Emergence and Self-organization. [42][43] Similarly, the Cato Institute's David Boaz includes passages from the Daodejing in his 1997 book The Libertarian Reader. The Cato Institute is a Libertarian Think tank headquartered in Washington D David Boaz is the executive vice president of the Cato Institute, an American libertarian Think tank. Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar [44] Philosopher Roderick Long, however, argues that libertarian themes in Taoist thought are actually borrowed from earlier Confucian writers. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B [45]

Footnotes

  1. ^ Kohn (2000). Pg 4.
  2. ^ Renard, (2002), p. 16
  3. ^ Simpkins & Simpkins (1999). Pp 11-13.
  4. ^ Morgan (2001). Pg 223.
  5. ^ Hornstein (2002). Pp 403-404.
  6. ^ Fowler (2005). Pg 96
  7. ^ Robinet(1997). Pg 26.
  8. ^ Simpkins & Simpkins (1999). Pp 11-12.
  9. ^ Morgan (2001). Pg 303.
  10. ^ Kohn (2000). Pp 3-4
  11. ^ Simpkins & Simpkins (1999). Pp 12-13.
  12. ^ Morgan (2001). Pp 223-224.
  13. ^ Simpkins & Simpkins (1999). Pg 12.
  14. ^ Simpkins & Simpkins (1999). Pp 12-13.
  15. ^ Morgan (2001). Pp 224-225.
  16. ^ Watts (1975), p. xxiii
  17. ^ Watson (1968) Introduction, p8 -- "Most scholars now agree that it is impossible to say Lao Tzu ever lived, or, if he did, to determine exactly when. "
  18. ^ Luo (2004). Pg 118.
  19. ^ Kramer (1986). Pg 118.
  20. ^ Kohn (2000). Pg 2.
  21. ^ Kohn (2000). Pg 720.
  22. ^ Drompp (2004). Pg. 254.
  23. ^ Fowler (2005). Pg. 153
  24. ^ Ivanhoe & Van Nording (2005). Pg 162.
  25. ^ Kohn (2000). Pg 22.
  26. ^ Kohn (2000). Pg 22.
  27. ^ Watts (1975). Pp 78-86.
  28. ^ Kohn (2000). Pg 22.
  29. ^ Robinet (1997). Pp 26, 28.
  30. ^ Maspero (1950) Pg 211.
  31. ^ Creel (1982) Pg 40.
  32. ^ Maspero (1981). Pg 41.
  33. ^ Robinet (1997). Pg 63.
  34. ^ Kohn (2000). Pp 3-4
  35. ^ Kohn & Lafargue (1998). Pp 14, 17, 54.
  36. ^ Kohn & Lafargue (1998). Pg 55.
  37. ^ Kohn & Lafargue (1998). Pp 55-56.
  38. ^ Bellamy (1993). Pp 55-56.
  39. ^ Bellamy (1993). Pp 58-63.
  40. ^ Bellamy (1993). Pp 64, 67.
  41. ^ Roberts (2001). Pp 1-2.
  42. ^ Rothbard (2005).
  43. ^ Rothbard (1990)
  44. ^ Boaz (1997)
  45. ^ Long (2003)

References

Further reading

External links

Persondata
NAME Laozi
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Lao Tse, Laotze
SHORT DESCRIPTION Chinese philosopher
DATE OF BIRTH circa 6th century BC
PLACE OF BIRTH China
DATE OF DEATH unknown
PLACE OF DEATH China
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