Land reforms (also agrarian reform, though that can have a broader meaning) is an often-controversial alteration in the societal arrangements whereby government administers possession and use of land. Agrarian reform can refer either narrowly to government-initiated or government-backed redistribution of Agricultural land (see Land reform) or can refer more broadly Land reforms (also Agrarian reform, though that can have a broader meaning is an often- controversial alteration in the societal arrangements whereby government Land reform may consist of a government-initiated or government-backed real estate property redistribution, generally of agricultural land, or be part of an even more revolutionary program that may include forcible removal of an existing government that is seen to oppose such reforms. Real estate is a legal term (in some jurisdictions notably in the USA, United Kingdom Property redistribution is a term applied to various political policies involving Taxation or Expropriation of Property from some in order to finance payments Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture

Throughout history, popular discontent with land-related institutions has been one of the most common factors in provoking revolutionary movements and other social upheavals. To those who labor upon the land, the landowner's privilege of appropriating a substantial portion —in some cases half or even more— of production without making a commensurate contribution to production may seem a rank injustice. Consequently, land reform most often refers to transfer from ownership by a relatively small number of wealthy (or noble) owners with extensive land holdings (e. Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime g. plantations, large ranches, or agribusiness plots) to individual ownership by those who work the land. Fundamentally a plantation is usually a large Farm or estate, especially in a tropical or semitropical country on which Cotton, Tobacco A ranch is an area of landscape including various structures given primarily to the practice of ranching the practice of raising grazing livestock such as Cattle In Agriculture, agribusiness is a generic term that refers to the various Businesses involved in Food production including Farming, Seed Such transfer of ownership may be with or without consent or compensation; compensation may vary from token amounts to the full value of the land. The land value tax advocated by Georgists is a moderate, market-based version of land reform. Land value taxation (LVT (or site value taxation) is an Ad valorem tax where only the value of land itself is taxed "Georgist" redirects here For the Romanian political group see National Liberal Party-Brătianu.

This definition is somewhat complicated by the issue of state-owned collective farms. Collective farming is an organization of agricultural production in which the holdings of several farmers are run as a joint enterprise In various times and places, land reform has encompassed the transfer of land from ownership — even peasant ownership in smallholdings — to government-owned collective farms; it has also, in other times and places, referred to the exact opposite: division of government-owned collective farms into smallholdings. A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground The common characteristic of all land reforms is modification or replacement of existing institutional arrangements governing possession and use of land.

Contents 1 Land ownership and tenure 2 Arguments for and against land reform 3 Land reform efforts 3.1 Latin America 3.2 Middle East and North Africa 3.3 Europe 3.4 Africa 3.5 North America 3.6 Asia 3.7 Oceania 4 See also 5 References 6 External links 7 References

Land ownership and tenure

Main article: Land ownership and tenure

The variety of land reform derives from the variety of land ownership and tenure. There are a great variety of modes of land ownership and tenure: Traditional land tenure Among the possibilities are:

• Traditional land tenure, as in the indigenous nations or tribes of North America in the Pre-Columbian era. The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences
• Feudal land ownership, through fiefdoms
• Life estate, interest in real property that ends at death. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed Under the system of Feudalism, a fiefdom, fief, feud, feoff, or fee, often consisted of inheritable lands or revenue-producing A life estate is a concept used in Common law and Statutory law to designate the ownership of land for the duration of a person's life
• Fee tail, hereditary, non-transferable ownership of real property. Fee tail or entail is an obsolete term of art in Common law. It describes an estate of Inheritance in Real property which cannot
• Fee simple. Fee simple is an estate in land in Common law. It is the most common way Real estate is owned in common law countries and is ordinarily the most Under common law, this is the most complete ownership interest one can have in real property. Common law refers to law and the corresponding legal system developed through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive In the Common law, real property (or realty) refers to one of the two main classes of Property, the other class being Personal property (
• Leasehold or rental
• Rights to use a commons
• Sharecropping
• Easements

In addition, there is paid agricultural labor — under which someone works the land in exchange for money, payment in kind, or some combination of the two — and various forms of collective ownership. Leasehold is a form of property tenure where one party buys the right to occupy land or a building for a given length of time Lease Renting is an agreement where a payment is made for the temporary Common land (a common) is a piece of land owned by one person but over which other people can exercise certain traditional rights such as allowing their livestock to graze Sharecropping is a system of agriculture or agricultural production in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crop produced on the land (e For railroad track easement see Track transition curve. An easement is the right or freedom to do something or the right to prevent The latter typically takes the form of membership in a cooperative, or shares in a corporation, which owns the land (typically by fee simple or its equivalent, but possibly under other arrangements). A corporation is a separate legal entity usually used to conduct business There are also various hybrids: in many communist states, government ownership of most agricultural land has combined in various ways with tenure for farming collectives. Communist state is a term used by many Political scientists to describe a Form of government in which the State operates under a one-party system

Additionally there are, and have been, well-defined systems where neither land nor the houses people live in are their personal property (Statare, as defined in Scandinavia). Statare were married agricultural laborers in Sweden who received payment primarily in kind Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well

The peasants or rural agricultural workers who are usually the intended primary beneficiaries of a land reform may be, prior to the reform, members of failing collectives, owners of inadequate small plots of land, paid laborers, sharecroppers, serfs, even slaves or effectively enslaved by debt bondage. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Debt bondage or bonded labor is a means of paying off loans with direct labor instead of currency or goods

Arguments for and against land reform

See also: Property redistribution

Land reform policies are generally advocated as an effort to eradicate food insecurity and rural poverty,^[1] often with Utilitarian (i. Property redistribution is a term applied to various political policies involving Taxation or Expropriation of Property from some in order to finance payments Food security refers to the availability of food and one's access to it Poverty (also called penury) is deprivation of common necessities that determine the quality of life including food clothing shelter and safe Drinking water, and Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall Utility, that is its contribution to happiness e. , "the greatest good for the greatest number"), philosophical or religious arguments (see Jubilee), a right to dignity, or a simple belief that justice requires a policy of "land to the tiller". Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos The Jubilee (Hebrew Yovel יובל year is the year at the end of a seven cycles of Sabbatical years (Hebrew Shmita) and according to Biblical This brief article is about how the term dignity is used The article presents dignity as it is used by international organizations governments bioethicists academics and However, many of these arguments conflict with prevailing notions of property rights in most societies and states. Implementations of land reform generally raise questions about how the members of the society view the individual's rights and the role of government.

These questions include:

• Is private property of any sort legitimate?
• If so, is land ownership legitimate?
• If so, are historic property rights in this particular state and society legitimate?
• Even if property rights are legitimate, do they protect absolutely against expropriation, or do they merely entitle the property owner to partial or complete compensation?
• How should property rights be weighed against rights to life and liberty?
• Who should adjudicate land ownership disputes?
• At what level of government is common land owned?
• What constitutes fair land reform?
• What are the internal and external political effects of the land reform?

Concern over the value of land reform is based upon the following:

• Lack of consistent track record to support land reform outcome; for example, in Zimbabwe, an aggressive land reform plan has led to a collapse of the economy and 45 percent malnutrition, while land reforms in Taiwan after WW II preceded a multi-decade economic boom that turned a poor country into a rich one.
• Question of experience and competence of those receiving land to use it productively
• Equity issues of displacing persons who have sometimes worked hard in previous farming of the land
• Question of competence of governmental entities to make decisions regarding agricultural productivity
• Question of miring a country in vast legal disputes from arbitrary property distribution
• Demotivation of any property owners to invest in land that ultimately can be seized

Opposing "royal libertarian" (but not geolibertarian) ethical arguments to government-directed "land reform" maintain it is just a euphemism for theft, and argue that stealing is still stealing regardless of whether property was originally justly obtained, or what any group of non-owners (of the property in question) may succeed in obtaining via government intermediary, and that such policies consequently cannot ever be just. Libertarianism is a term used by a broad spectrum of political philosophies which prioritize individual Liberty and seek to minimize or even abolish the Geolibertarianism is a Political movement that strives to reconcile Libertarianism and Georgism (or geoism) Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life A euphemism is a substitution of an agreeable or less offensive expression in place of one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the listener or in the case of doublespeak In Criminal law, theft (also known as stealing or filching) is the illegal taking of another person's Property without that person's freely-given Ownership is the state or fact of exclusive rights and control over Property, which may be an object, land/real estate, Intellectual property JUSTICE is a Human rights and law reform organisation based in the United Kingdom. ^[2] They state that alleged "willing seller, willing buyer" programs also invariably involve governments buying land with tax-money (which may or may not be disproportionately collected from those whose land is the subject of the planned reform), and sometimes laws granting government first right to buy land for sale (diminishing the market value of the land by eliminating competing buyers), and so an element of coercion exists despite the "willing" label. Coercion (co-er-shion is the practice of compelling a person or manipulating them to behave in an involuntary way (whether through action or inaction by use of threats

The opposition for a land reform may also be based on other ideologies than modern-day liberalism. In countries where there has traditionally been no private land ownership (e. g. Russia in 19th century) the opposition for reforms enabling the creation of private farms may use nationalistic arguments, proposing that the private farms are inconsistent with the national culture. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending In countries where the established church was an important land owner, theological arguments have been used in the debate on privatization or nationalization of that land (e. g. 16th century Sweden). "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. The right to ownership of the land, and sometimes, the persons residing on that land, has also been argued on the theory of right of conquest, implying that the original ownership was transferred to the land-owning class's ancestors in a just war. Just War theory is a Doctrine of military ethics of Roman philosophical and Catholic origin studied by moral Theologians Ethicists and international The ownership can also be argued on the ground of god-given right, implying that a supernatural power has given the land to its owners.

For the proponents of the reform, the rights of the individuals for whose good the reform is supposed to work trump the property rights of the land owners. Usually their philosophical background differs significantly from the viewpoints outlined above, spanning from Marxism to religious ideologies. What is common for them, is that they see the rights or duties advocated as more important than a right to own real estate.

Land reform efforts

Agrarian land reform has been a recurring theme of enormous consequence in world history — see, for example, the history of the Semproninan Law or Lex Sempronia agraria proposed by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and passed by the Roman Senate (133 BC), which led to the social and political wars that ended the Roman Republic. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus ( Latin: TI·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS (168 BC-133 BC was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC and brother The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the

A historically important source of pressure for land reform has been the accumulation of significant properties by tax-exempt individuals or entities. In ancient Egypt, the tax exemption for temple lands eventually drove almost all the good land into the hands of the priestly class, making them immensely rich (and leaving the world a stunning legacy of monumental temple architecture that still impresses several millennia later), but starving the government of revenue. In Rome, the land tax exemption for the noble senatorial families had a similar effect, leading to Pliny's famous observation that the latifundia (vast landed estates) had ruined Rome, and would likewise ruin the provinces. In the Christian world, this has frequently been true of churches and monasteries, a major reason that many of the French revolutionaries saw the Catholic church as an accomplice of the landed aristos. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth In the Moslem world, land reforms such as that organized in Spain by al-Hurr in 718 have transferred property from Muslims to Christians, who were taxable by much higher rates. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion

In the modern world and in the aftermath of colonialism and the Industrial Revolution, land reform has occurred around the world, from the Mexican Revolution (1917; the revolution began in 1910) to Communist China to Bolivia (1952, 2006) to Zimbabwe and Namibia. See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the The Mexican Revolution (Revolución Mexicana was a major armed struggle that started with an uprising led by Francisco I Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. See also Great Zimbabwe National Monument. For information about the March and June 2008 presidential elections see Zimbabwean presidential election Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast Land reform has been especially popular as part of decolonization struggles in Africa and the Arab world, where it was part of the program for African socialism and Arab socialism. Decolonization refers to the undoing of Colonialism, the establishment of governance or authority through the creation of settlements by another country or jurisdiction African socialism is a belief in sharing economic resources in a "traditional" African way as distinct from classical Socialism. Arab Socialism (الاشتراكية العربية al-ishtirākīya al-‘arabīya) is a political ideology based on an amalgamation of Pan-Arabism and Cuba has seen one of the most complete agrarian reforms in Latin America. The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la Land reform was an important step in achieving economic development in many Third World countries since the post-World War II period, especially in the East Asian Tigers and "Tiger Cubs" nations such as Taiwan, South Korea, and Malaysia. Third World is a name given to nations that are generally considered to be underdeveloped economically World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The term Four Asian Tigers or East Asian Tigers refers to the Economies of South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and

Since mainland China's economic reforms led by Deng Xiaoping land reforms have also played a key role in the development of the People's Republic of China, with the re-emergence of rich property developers in urban areas (though as in Hong Kong, land in China is not privately owned but leased from the state, typically on very long terms that allow substantial opportunity for private speculative gain). Mainland China, Continental China, the Chinese mainland or simply the mainland, is a geopolitical term synonymous with the area that is under the jurisdiction Deng Xiaoping ( 22 August 1904 19 February 1997) was a prominent Chinese Revolutionary, Politician, Pragmatist and Reformer Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES

Latin America

• Brazil: In the 1930s, Getúlio Vargas reneged on a promised land reform. Brazil 's Landless Workers Movement, or in Portuguese Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra (MST is the largest Social movement in |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Getúlio Dornelles Vargas (ʒeˈtulju doɾˈnɛlis vaɾgɐs April 19, 1882 – August 24, 1954) served as president of A first attempt to make a national scale reform was set up in the government of José Sarney, as a result of the strong popular movement that had contributed to the fall of the military government. José Ribamar Ferreira de Araújo Costa Sarney, ( pron. ʒʊ'zɛ ʁi However, the so-called First Land Reform National Plan never was put into force. Strong campaign including direct action by the Landless Workers' Movement throughout the 1990s has managed to get some advances for the past 10 years, during the Fernando Cardoso and Lula da Silva administrations. Direct action is political action which happens outside normal political channels via indirect actions such as electing representatives. Brazil 's Landless Workers Movement, or in Portuguese Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra (MST is the largest Social movement in Fernando Henrique Cardoso, PC (born June 18, 1931) - also known by his initials FHC - was the President of the Federative Republic of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (pronounced /lu'iz i'nasju 'lulɐ da 'siwvɐ/; born October 27, 1945) known simply as Lula, is the thirty-fifth and
• Bolivia: The revolution of 1952 was followed by a land reform law, but in 1970 only 45% of peasant families had received title to land, although more land reform projects continued in the 1970s and 1980s. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. Bolivian president Evo Morales restarted land reform when he took office in 2006. Juan Evo Morales Ayma (born October 26 1959 in Orinoca, Oruro) popularly known as Evo (ˈeβo is the President of Bolivia since ^[3] On 29 November 2006, the Bolivian Senate passed a bill authorizing the government redistribution of land among the nation's mostly indigenous poor. The bill was signed into law hours later, though significant opposition is expected^[4]
• Chile: Attempts at land reform began under the government of Jorge Alessandri in 1960, were accelerated during the government of Eduardo Frei Montalva (1964-1970), and reached its climax during the 1970-1973 presidency of Salvador Allende. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the Jorge Alessandri Rodríguez ( May 19, 1896 &ndash August 31, 1986) was President of Chile from 1958 to 1964 and was the Eduardo Nicanor Frei Montalva (1911&ndash1982 was a Chilean political figure and President of Chile from 1964 to 1970 Salvador Isabelino Allende Gossens (June 26 1908 – September 11 1973 was President of Chile from November 1970 until his death during the coup d'état of Farms of more than 198 acres (80 hectares) were expropriated. After the 1973 coup the process was halted, and up to a point reversed by the market forces. The Chilean coup d'état of 1973 is a landmark in the History of Chile and the Russo-American Cold War.
• Colombia: Alfonso López Pumarejo (1934-1938) passed the Law 200 of 1936, which allowed for the expropriation of private properties, in order to promote "social interest". Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. Alfonso López Pumarejo (1886 - 1959 was a two-time Colombian President and Political figure, as a member of the Colombian Liberal Party Later attempts declined, until the National Front presidencies of Alberto Lleras Camargo (1958-1962) and Carlos Lleras Restrepo (1966-1970), which respectively created the Colombian Institute for Agrarian Reform (INCORA) and further developed land entitlement. See also History of South America, History of present-day nations and states The History of Colombia has been characterized by the interaction of Alberto Lleras Camargo (1906 &ndash 1990 was an important Colombian Diplomat and Political figure. Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Carlos Lleras Restrepo ( April 12, 1908 Bogotá - September 27, 1994, Bogotá was an important Colombian lawyer In 1968 and 1969 alone, the INCORA issued more than 60,000 land titles to farmers and workers. Despite this, the process was then halted and the situation began to reverse itself, as the subsequent violent actions of drug lords, paramilitaries, guerrillas and opportunistic large landowners severely contributed to a renewed concentration of land and to the displacement of small landowners. In the early 21st century, tentative government plans to use the land legally expropriated from drug lords and/or the properties given back by demobilized paramilitary groups have not caused much practical improvement yet.
• Cuba: (See also main article Agrarian Reform Laws of Cuba) Land reform was among the chief planks of the revolutionary platform of 1959. The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la The agrarian reform laws of Cuba have sought to break up large landholdings and redistribute them to those who worked them to cooperatives and the state Almost all large holdings were seized by the National Institute for Agrarian Reform (INRA), which dealt with all areas of agricultural policy. The National Institute for Agrarian Reform (Instituto Nacional de Reforma Agraria or INRA was an agency of the Cuban Government that was formed to institute the Agrarian Reform Law A ceiling of 166 acres (67 hectares) was established, and tenants were given ownership rights, though these rights are constrained by government production quotas and a prohibition of real estate transactions.
• El Salvador: One among several land reform efforts was made during the revolution/civil-war during the 1980s. El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. Salvadoran President Jose Napoleon Duarte promoted land-reform as counter-strategy in the war, while the FMLN carried out their own land-reform in the territory under their control. José Napoleón Duarte Fuentes ( November 23 1925 &ndash February 23 1990) was a Salvadoran political figure who from 1980 to 1982 The Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (in Spanish: Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN) is a Left-wing political
• Guatemala: land reform occurred during the "Ten Years of Spring", 1944–1954 under the governments of Juan José Arévalo and Jacobo Arbenz. Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest The History of Guatemala can be traced back to the arrival of the first human settlers presumed to have migrated from the north at least 12000 years ago {5} Juan José Arévalo Bermejo ( 10 September 1904 – 8 October 1990) was the first of the reformist presidents of Guatemala Colonel Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán ( September 14, 1913 &ndash January 27, 1971) was the President of Guatemala from 1951 to 1954 when It has been remarked that it was one of the most successful land reforms in history, given that it was relatively thorough and had minimal detrimental effects on the economy and on the incomes of wealthy classes (who were mostly spared because only uncultivated land was expropriated). The reforms were reversed entirely after a US-backed coup deposed the Arbenz government. ^[5]
• Mexico: The first land reform was the Ley Lerma, enacted during the Reform War of the 1850s. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. The War of Reform was a Mexican Civil war fought from December 1857 to January 1861 The reform government financed its war effort by seizing and selling large properties, starting with church property. After the war the principles of the Ley Lerma were perverted by Pres. Porfirio Diaz, which contributed to causing the Mexican Revolution in 1910. José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori was a Mexican politician ( September 15, 1830 – 2 July 1915) that would later become the president of Mexico The Mexican Revolution (Revolución Mexicana was a major armed struggle that started with an uprising led by Francisco I A certain degree of land reform was introduced, albeit unevenly, as part of the Mexican Revolution. The Mexican Revolution (Revolución Mexicana was a major armed struggle that started with an uprising led by Francisco I Francisco Madero and Emiliano Zapata were strongly identified with land reform, as are the present-day (as of 2006) Zapatista Army of National Liberation. Francisco Indalecio Madero González ( October 30, 1873 &ndash February 22, 1913) was a politician writer and Revolutionary who served Emiliano Zapata Salazar ( August 8, 1879 – April 10, 1919) was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, which broke out in The Zapatista Army of National Liberation ( Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, EZLN) is an armed Revolutionary group based in Chiapas See Mexican Agrarian Land Reform. Before the 1910 Mexican Revolution that overthrew Porfirio Díaz most of the land was owned by a single elite ruling class
• Nicaragua: Land reform was one of the programs of the Sandinista government. Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America The Sandinista National Liberation Front ( Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional) is a socialist Nicaraguan Political party. The last months of Sandinista rule were criticized for the Piñata Plan which distributed large tracts of land to prominent Sandinistas.
• Peru: land reform in the 1950s largely eliminated a centuries-old system of debt peonage. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. Debt bondage or bonded labor is a means of paying off loans with direct labor instead of currency or goods Further land reform occurred after the 1968 coup by left-wing colonel Juan Velasco Alvarado, and again as part of a counterterrorism effort against the Shining Path during the Internal conflict in Peru roughly 1988–1995, led by Hernando de Soto and the Institute for Liberty and Democracy during the early years of the government of Alberto Fujimori, before the latter's auto-coup. Counter-terrorism or counterterrorism refers to the practices tactics, techniques and strategies that Governments militaries, Police departments The Communist Party of Peru (Spanish Partido Comunista del Perú) more commonly known as the Shining Path ( Sendero Luminoso) is a Maoist It has been estimated that nearly 70000 people died in the internal conflict in Peru that started in 1980 and although still ongoing had greatly wound down by 2000 Hernando de Soto (born 1941 - 06-02) is a Peruvian Economist known for his work on the Informal economy and on the importance of The Institute for Liberty and Democracy (or ILD) is a Lima -based Think tank devoted to the promotion of Property rights in Developing countries Alberto Ken'ya Fujimori (Japanese name) (born in Lima, Peru on July 28 1938 is a Peruvian and Japanese ref> Fujimori secures Japanese haven
• Venezuela: Hugo Chávez's government enacted Plan Zamora to redistribute government and unused private land to campesinos in need. Venezuela (ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə) officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish República Bolivariana de Venezuela) is a country on the Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (ˈuɰo rafaˈel ˈtʃaβ̞es ˈfɾias (born July 28 1954 is the current President of Venezuela. Mission Zamora is an integrated Land reform and land Redistribution program in Venezuela, created in law by the Ley de Tierras ("Law of

Middle East and North Africa

Land reform is discussed in the article on Arab Socialism

• Egypt: Initially, Egyptian land reform essentially abolished the political influence of major land owners. The White Revolution (انقلاب سفید Enghelāb-e Sefid) was a far-reaching series of reforms launched in 1963 by the last Shah of Iran Arab Socialism (الاشتراكية العربية al-ishtirākīya al-‘arabīya) is a political ideology based on an amalgamation of Pan-Arabism and This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The post-revolution Egyptian Land Reform was an effort to change land ownership practices in Egypt following the 1952 Revolution launched by Gamal Abdel Nasser However, land reform only resulted in the redistribution of about 15% of Egypt's land under cultivation, and by the early 1980s, the effects of land reform in Egypt drew to a halt as the population of Egypt moved away from agriculture. The Egyptian land reform laws were greatly curtailed under Anwar Sadat and eventually abolished.
• Syria: Land reforms were first implemented in Syria during 1958. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية The Agricultural Relations Law laid down a redistribution of rights in landownership, tenancy and management . A culmination of factors led to the halt of the reforms in 1961, these included opposition from large landowners and sever crop failure during a drought between 1958 and 1961, whilst Syria was a member of the doomed United Arab Republic (UAR). After the Ba’th Party gained power in 1963 the reforms were resumed.

The reforms were portrayed by the governing Ba’th Party as politically motivated to benefit the rural property-less communities. According to Arsuzi, a co-founder of the Ba’th Party, the reforms would, “liberate 75 percent of the Syrian population and prepare them to be citizens qualified to participate in the building of the state” ^[6]. It has been argued that the land reform represented work by the ‘socialist government’ however, by 1984 the private sector controlled 74 percent of Syria's arable land ^[7]. This questions both Ba’th claims of commitment to the redistribution of land to the majority of peasants as well as the state government being socialist - if it allowed the majority of land to be owned in the private sector how could it truly be socialist. Hinnebusch argued that the reforms were a way of galvanising support from the large rural population, “they[Ba’th Party members] used the implementation of agrarian reform to win over and organise peasants and curb traditional power in the countryside” ^[8]. To this extent the reforms succeeded with increase in Ba’th party membership, they also prevented political threat emerging from rural areas by bringing the rural population into the system as supporters.

• Iran: Significant land reform in Iran took place under the Shah as part of the socio-economic reforms of the White Revolution, begun in 1962, and agreed upon through a public referendum. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. At this time the Iranian economy was not performing well and there was political unrest. Essentially, the land reforms amounted to a huge redistribution of land to rural peasants who previously had no possibility of owning land as they were poorly paid labourers.

The land reforms continued from 1962 until 1971 with three distinct phases of land distribution: private, government-owned and endowed land. These reforms resulted in the newly-created peasant landowners owning six to seven million hectares, around 52-63% of Iran’s agricultural land. According to Country-Data, even though there had been a considerable redistribution of land, the amount received by individual peasants was not enough to meet most families' basic needs, “About 75 percent of the peasant owners [however] had less than 7 hectares, an amount generally insufficient for anything but subsistence agriculture. ”^[9].

By 1979 a quarter of prime land was in disputed ownership and half of the productive land was in the hands of 200,000 absentee landlords ^[10] The large land owners were able to retain the best land with the best access to fresh water and irrigation facilities. In contrast, not only were the new peasant land holdings too small to produce an income but the peasants also lacked both quality irrigation system and sustained government support to enable them to develop their land to make a reasonable living. Set against the economic boom from oil revenue it became apparent that the Land Reforms did not make life better for the rural population: according to Amid, “. . only a small group of rural people experienced increasing improvements in their welfare and poverty remained the lot of the majority” ^[11].

Moghadam ^[12] argues that the structural changes to Iran, including the land reforms, initiated by the White Revolution, contributed to the revolution in 1979 which overthrew the Shah and turned Iran into an Islamic republic.

• Iraq (1970)

Europe

• Albania: In 1946 the estates of Albania’s land owners were sized by the communist government and redistributed among small peasant landowners. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. This article is about the country in southern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Albania topics. In the 1950’s the land was reorganized into collective farms, but after 1991 the land was redistributed among private smallholders.
• Bulgaria: Upon independence in 1878 the overwhelmingly Turkish nobles estates were redistributed among peasant smallholdings. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian Additional reforms were implemented in 1920-23 and a maximum ownership 30 hectares was fixed.
• Czechoslovakia: Major land reform was passed in 1919 redistributing mainly German noble’s estates to peasant smallholdings. Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. By 1937 60% of noble land was expropriated with remaining land mainly in unarable arias or German and Hungarian lands. Almost all remaining lands were redistributed in reforms of 1945 and 1948.

• Finland: In the general reparcelling out of land, begun in 1757, the medieval model of all fields consisting of numerous strips, each belonging to a farm, was replaced by a model of fields and forest areas each belonging to a single farm. Evacuation of Finnish Karelia was the resettlement of the population of Finnish Karelia and other territories ceded by Finland to the Soviet Union into the remaining The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Year 1757 ( MDCCLVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a In the further reparcellings which started to took place in 1848, the idea of concentrating all the land in a farm to a single piece of real estate was reinforced. Year 1848 ( MDCCCXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap In these reparcelling processes, the land is redistributed in direct proportion to earlier prescription. Both the general reparcelling and the further reparcelling processes are still active in some parts of the country. In 1918, Finland fought a civil war resulting in a series of land reforms. The Finnish Civil War was a part of the national and social turmoil caused by World War I (1914&ndash1918 in Europe These included the compensated transfer of lease-holdings (torppa) to the leasers and prohibition of forestry companies to acquire land. After the Second World War, Karelians evacuated from areas ceded to Russia were given land in remaining Finnish areas, taken from public and private holdings. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Karelia ( Karelian and Finnish Karjala, Карелия ( Kareliya) Karelen the land of the Karelian peoples, is an area in Also the veterans of war benefited from these allotments.
• France: a major and lasting land reform took place under the Directory during the latter phases of the French Revolution. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an
• Greece: At independence in 1835 the predominately Turkish nobles estates were redistributed as peasant smallholdings. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία
• Estonia and Latvia: at their founding as states in 1918–1919, they expropriate the large estates of Baltic German landowners, most of which was distributed among the peasants and became smallholdings. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. The Baltic Germans (Deutschbalten or Baltendeutsche) were mostly ethnically German inhabitants of the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, which today
• Hungary: In 1945 every estate bigger than 142 acres was expropriated without compensation and distributed among the peasants. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic In the 1950s collective ownership was introduced according to the Soviet model, but after 1990 co-ops were dissolved and the land was redistributed among private smallholders.
• Ireland: after the Irish Famine, land reform became the dominant issue in Ireland, where almost all of the land was owned by the Protestant Ascendancy. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world The Protestant Ascendancy is a convenient phrase used when referring to the political economic and social domination of the former Kingdom of Ireland by a minority of great The Irish Parliamentary Party pressed for reform in a largely indifferent British House of Commons. The Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP (commonly called the Irish Party was formed in 1882 by Charles Stewart Parnell, the leader of the Nationalist Party, replacing The House of Commons' is the Lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords Reform began tentatively in 1870 and continued for fifty years during which a number of Irish Land Acts were passed (see also Land War). British Prime Minister William Gladstone had taken up the " Irish Question " in part to win the general election of 1868 by uniting the Liberal Party The Land War in Irish History was a period of Agrarian agitation in rural Ireland in the 1870s 1880s and 1890s
• Lithuania: the major land reform was initiated since the 1919 and was fully launched in 1922. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the The excess land was taken from the major landowners, mostly aristocracy, and redistributed among new landowners, primarily soldiers, or small landowners, 65,000 in total.
• Montenegro and Serbia: At independence in 1830 the predominately Turkish nobles estates were divided up among peasant smallholdings. Montenegro ( British English) Montenegrin / Serbian: PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE LANGUAGES WITHOUT CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE! Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country
• Poland: there have been several land reforms in Poland. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The most important include land reforms in the Second Polish Republic (1919, 1921, 1923, 1925 and 1928) and land reforms (1944) in the People's Republic of Poland. The Second Polish Republic or interwar Poland is the Republic of Poland between World War I and World War II. The People's Republic of Poland or Polish People's Republic ( Polish: Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa, PRL Russian
• Romania: After failed attempts at land reform by Mihail Kogălniceanu in the years immediately after Romanian unification in 1863, a major land reform finally occurred in 1921, with a few additional reforms carried out in 1945. Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania Mihail Kogălniceanu ( September 6, 1817 &ndash July 1, 1891) was a Moldavian born Romanian liberal statesman lawyer
• Slovenia and Croatia: With absorption into the kingdom of Yugoslavia land reform was passed in 1919 with subsidiary laws thereafter redistributing nobles estates among peasant smallholders. Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) is a Country in southern Central Europe bordering Italy to the west Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between Additional reform was implemented in 1945 under the communist.
• Soviet Union
  • Imperial Russia: Stolypin reform
  • Bolshevist Russia: Decree on Land
• Scotland the Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 ends the historic legacy of feudal law and creates a framework for rural or croft communities right to buy land in their area. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The Stolypin agrarian reforms were a series of changes to Imperial Russia 's agricultural sector instituted during the tenure of Pyotr Stolypin, Chairman of the Council Bolshevist Russia or Bolshevik Russia is a common term for the Bolshevik side in the Russian Civil War, or more specifically the Russian The Decree on Land, written by Vladimir Lenin, was passed by the Second Congress of Soviets of Workers' Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies on 26 October Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. The Land Reform (Scotland Act 2003 is an Act of the Scottish Parliament. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed A croft is a fenced or enclosed area of land usually small and arable with a crofter's Dwelling thereon
• Sweden: In 1757, the general reparcelling out of land, began. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Year 1757 ( MDCCLVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a In this process, the medieval principle of dividing all the fields in a village into strips, each belonging to a farm, was changed into a principle of each farm consisting of a few relatively large areas of land. The land was redistributed in proportion to earlier possession of land, while uninhabited forests far from villages were socialized. In the 20th century, Sweden, almost non-violently, arrived at regulating the length minimum of tenant farming contracts at 25 years. A tenant farmer is one who resides on and farms land owned by a Landlord.

Africa

• Ethiopia: The Derg carried out one of the most extensive land reforms in Africa in 1975. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page The Derg or Dergue was a communist military junta that came to power in Ethiopia following the ousting of Haile Selassie I.

• Kenya: Kenyatta launched a "willing buyer-willing seller" based land reform program in the 1960s, funded by Britain, the former colonial power. The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south Jomo Kenyatta ( October 20, 1894 &ndash August 22, 1978) served as the first Prime Minister (1963&ndash1964 and President In 2006 president Mwai Kibaki said it will repossess all land owned by "absentee landlords" in the coastal strip and redistribute it to squatters. Mwai Kibaki (born November 15, 1931) is the President of Kenya. ^[13]
• Namibia: A limited land reform has been a hallmark of the regime of Sam Nujoma; legislation passed in September 1994, with a compulsory, compensated approach. Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast Samuel Daniel Shafiishuna Nujoma (born May 12, 1929 in Ongandjera, South West Africa (now Omusati Region) is a former President ^[14]
• South Africa: "Land restitution" was one of the promises made by the African National Congress when it came to power in South Africa in 1994. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa The African National Congress (ANC has been South Africa 's governing party supported by its Tripartite alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions Initially, land was bought from its owners (willing seller) by the government (willing buyer) and redistributed. However, as of early 2006, the ANC government announced that it will start expropriating the land, although according to the country's chief land-claims commissioner, Tozi Gwanya, unlike Zimbabwe there will be compensation to those whose land is expropriated, "but it must be a just amount, not inflated sums. The African National Congress (ANC has been South Africa 's governing party supported by its Tripartite alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions Expropriation refers to Confiscation of Private property with the stated purpose of establishing social equality. "^[15][16]
• Zimbabwe: Efforts at land reform in Zimbabwe under Robert Mugabe moved from a "willing seller, willing buyer" approach to the "fast track" land reform program, sometimes to the benefit of people close to the government, as is the case throughout Africa. See also Great Zimbabwe National Monument. For information about the March and June 2008 presidential elections see Zimbabwean presidential election Land reform in Zimbabwe began after the signing of the Lancaster House Agreement in 1979 in an effort to more equitably distribute land between the historically disenfranchised In addition, Britain, the European Union, the United States, and other Western allies have implemented sanctions on the Zimbabwean government which have caused the collapse of the economy. This was done to pressure President Robert Mugabe to abandon the fast track land reform project. The results have been disastrous and have resulted in widespread food shortages and left the economy on the verge of collapse.

North America

• Canada: A land reform was carried out as part of Prince Edward Island's agreement to join the Canadian Confederation in 1873. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Prince Edward Island (ˌprɪns ˌɛdwɚd ˈaɪlɨnd ( PEI or P Canadian Confederation was the process by which the federal Dominion of Canada was formed beginning 1 July 1867 from the Most of the land was owned by absentee landlords in England, and as part of the deal Canada was to buy all the land and give it to the farmers. Absentee landlord is an economic term for a person who owns and rents out a Profit -earning Property, but does not live within the property's local economic
• United States of America:
  • Following the Civil War, the Radical Republicans attempted to put a land reform through Congress, promising "forty acres and a mule" to newly-freed blacks in the South, which was ultimately rejected by moderate elements as "socialistic". The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South The Radical Republicans is a term applied to a loose faction of American politicians within the Republican party from about 1854 (before the American Civil War 40 acres and a mule is a term for compensation that was promised to be awarded to freed African American slaves after the Civil War — 40 Acres (16 This failure left blacks without an economic base, and was one of the key contributing factors to the development of sharecropping and segregation. Sharecropping is a system of agriculture or agricultural production in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crop produced on the land (e
  • The Dawes Act of 1887 split the Indian tribal lands into allotments held by individual Indians. The Dawes Act was enacted on February 8, 1887 and named after its sponsor U Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States Most tribal land still owned by ethnic Indians was recollectivized in 1934.

Asia

• China has been through a series of land reforms:
  • In the 1940s, the Sino-American Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, funded with American money, with the support of the national government, carried out land reform and community action programs in several provinces. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Sino-American Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction (JCRR Established in 1948
  • The thorough land reform launched by the Communist Party of China in 1946, three years before the foundation of the People's Republic of China (PRC), won the party millions of supporters among the poor and middle peasantry. The Communist Party of China ( CPC) ( also known as the Chinese Communist Party ( CCP) is the founding and ruling political party of the Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES The land and other property of landlords were expropriated and redistributed so that each household in a rural village would have a comparable holding. This agrarian revolution was made famous in the West by William Hinton's book Fanshen.
  • In the mid-1950s, a second land reform during the Great Leap Forward compelled individual farmers to join collectives, which, in turn, were grouped into People's Communes with centrally controlled property rights and an egalitarian principle of distribution. The 1950s Decade refers to the years of 1950 to 1959 inclusive This policy was generally a failure in terms of production. [2] The PRC reverse this policy in 1962 through the proclamation of the Sixty Articles. Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. As a result, the ownership of the basic means of production was divided over three levels with collective land ownership vested in the production team (see also Ho [2001]).
  • A third land reform beginning in the late 1970s re-introduced family-based contract system called the Household Responsibility System, which had enormous initial success, followed by a period of relative stagnation. Responsibility system ( contract responsibility system or household responsibility system) was a practice in the People's Republic of China, first adopted Chen, Wang, and Davis [1998] suggest that the later stagnation was due, in part, to a system of periodic redistribution that encouraged over-exploitation rather than capital investment in future productivity. [3]. However, although land use rights were returned to individual farmers, collective land ownership was left undefined after the disbandment of the People's Communes.
  • Since 1998 China is in the midst of drafting the new Property Law which is the first piece of national legislation that will define the land ownership structure in China for years to come. The Property Law forms the basis for China's future land policy of establishing a system of freehold, rather than of private ownership (see also Ho, [2005]).

• India: Due the taxation and regulation under the British Raj, at the time of independence, India inherited a semi-feudal agrarian system, with ownership of land concentrated with a few individual landlords (Zamindars, Zamindari System). India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant Zamindar ( Devanagari: ज़मींदार zamīndār, Urdu: زمیندار zamīndār, Eastern Nagari: জমিদার Since independence, there has been voluntary and state initiated/mediated land reforms in several states. The most notable and successful example of land reforms are in the states of West Bengal and Kerala. West Bengal ( Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchim Bônggo poʃtʃim bɔŋgo is a state in eastern India. Kerala ( Malayalam: {{Kerala in Malayalam}}; After promising land reforms and elected to power in West Bengal, the Communist Party of India (Marxist, CPI-M) kept their word and initiated gradual land reforms. The result was a more equitable distribution of land among the landless farmers. This has ensured an almost life long loyalty from the farmers and the communists have been in power ever since. In Kerala, the only other large state where the CPI(M) came to power, state administrations have actually carried out the most extensive land, tenancy and agrarian labor wage reforms in the non-socialist late-industrializing world. ^[17] Another successful land reform program was launched in Jammu and Kashmir after 1947. ( Dogri: जम्मू और कश्मीर Urdu: جموں و کشمیر is the northernmost state of India. However, this success was not replicated in other areas like the states of Andhra and Madhya Pradesh, where the more radical Communist Party of India (Maoist) or Naxalites resorted to violence as it failed to secure power. Madhya Pradesh (abbreviated as MP) ( Hindī: मध्य प्रदेश pronounced, Translation: Middle Province) often The Communist Party of India (Maoist is an underground Maoist Political party in India. Naxalite or Naxalism is an informal name given to Communist groups that were born out of the Sino-Soviet split in the Indian communist movement Even in West Bengal, the economy suffered for a long time as a result of the communist economic policies that did little to encourage heavy industries. West Bengal ( Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchim Bônggo poʃtʃim bɔŋgo is a state in eastern India. In the state of Bihar, tensions between land owners militia, villagers and Maoists have resulted in numerous massacres. Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. Maoism, variably and officially known as Mao Zedong Thought ( is a variant of Marxism derived from the teachings of the late Chinese leader All in all, land reforms have been successful only in pockets of the country, as people have often found loopholes in the laws setting limits on the maximum area of land held by any one person.

• Japan: The first land reform, called the Land Tax Reform or chisokaisei (地租改正, chisokaisei^?) was passed in 1873 as a part of the Meiji Restoration. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The Japanese Land Tax Reform of 1873 or was started by the Meiji Government in 1873, or the 6th year of the Meiji era. The, also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, or Renewal, was a chain of events that led to enormous changes in Japan 's political and social structure Another land reform of Japan was carried out in 1947 (at the occupied era after World War II) by the instructions of GHQ by the proposal from the Japanese government. At the end of World War II, Japan was occupied by the Allied Powers, led by the United States with contributions also from Australia, British World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including GHQ may refer General headquarters, a generic term for a military command center see Headquarters In Japan, it usually It was prepared before the defeat of the Greater Japanese Empire. The Empire of Japan ( {{unicode|Kyūjitai}}: ja 大日本帝國 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国 pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku It is also called Nōchi-kaihō(農地解放,emancipation of farming land ).

• Taiwan: In the 1950s, after the Nationalist government came to Taiwan, land reform and community development was carried out by the Sino-American Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. Sino-American Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction (JCRR Established in 1948 This course of action was made attractive, in part, by the fact that many of the large landowners were Japanese who had fled, and the other large landowners were compensated with Japanese commercial and industrial properties seized after Taiwan reverted from Japanese rule in 1945. The land program succeeded also because the Kuomintang were mostly from the mainland and had few ties to the remaining indigenous landowners.

• Vietnam: In the years after World War II, even before the formal division of Vietnam, land reform was initiated in North Vietnam. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN or less commonly Vietnamese Democratic Republic (Việt Nam Dân Chủ Cộng Hòa was a Country on the northern half of Vietnam This land reform (1953-1956) redistributed land to more than 2 million poor peasants, but at a cost of from tens^[18] to hundreds of thousands of lives^[19] and was one of the main reason for the mass exodus of 1 million people from the North to the South in 1954. The probable democide for this four year period then totals 283,000 North Vietnamese. ^[20] South Vietnam made several further attempts in the post-Diem years, the most ambitious being the Land to the Tiller program instituted in 1970 by President Nguyen Van Thieu. Land to the Tiller was a Land reform program attempted in South Vietnam in 1970 at the height of the Vietnam War. Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, ( April 5, 1923 &ndash September 29, 2001) was a former General and President of South Vietnam. This limited individuals to 15 hectares, compensated the owners of expropriated tracts, and extended legal title to peasants who in areas under control of the South Vietnamese government to whom had land had previously been distributed by the Viet Cong. Mark Moyar [1996] asserts that while it was effectively implemented only in some parts of the country, "In the Mekong Delta and the provinces around Saigon, the program worked extremely well. . . It reduced the percentage of total cropland cultivated by tenants from sixty percent to ten percent in three years. " [4]

• South Korea: In 1945–1950, United States and South Korean authorities carried out a land reform that retained the institution of private property. South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː They confiscated and redistributed all land held by the Japanese colonial government, Japanese companies, and individual Japanese colonists. The Korean government carried out a reform whereby Koreans with large landholdings were obliged to divest most of their land. A new class of independent, family proprietors was created. [5]

Oceania

• Fiji: In a reverse that proves the rule of land reform to benefit the native and indigenous people, the land in Fiji has always been owned by native Fijians, but much of it has been leased long-term to immigrant Indians. Fiji (Matanitu ko Viti फ़िजी officially the Republic of the Fiji Islands (Matanitu Tu-Vaka-i-koya ko Viti फ़िजी द्वीप समूह गणराज्य India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country As these leases have reached their end-of-term native Fijians increasingly have refused to renew leases and have expelled the Indians.

See also

• Agrarian reform
• Anti-globalization movement
• Communism
• Eminent domain
• Homestead principle
• Georgism
• Land rights
• Restitution
• Squatter
• Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
• Land Banking
• Theft

Contrast:

• Inclosure
• Land reform in Zimbabwe
• Land reform in Vietnam

References

External links

• Land Research Action Network:News, Analysis, and Research on Land Reform
• Land Reform in Scotland
• Fast Track Land Reform in Zimbabwe
• The Land Reform of 1919–1940: Lithuania and the Countries of East and Central Europe
• FAO Multilingual Thesaurus on Land Tenure
• FAO International Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (ICARRD), March 2006
• Civil Society conference "Land, Territory and Dignity", March 2006
• William Rees-Mogg, South Africa's bitter harvest, The Times, 11 September 2006

• World Bank archived online discussion: "Can Formal Property Titling Programs Ensure Increased Business Investments and Growth?"

References

• P. P. S. Ho, Who Owns China’s Land? Policies, Property Rights and Deliberate Institutional Ambiguity, The China Quarterly, Vol. 166, June 2001, pp. 387-414
• R. H. Tawney, Land and Labour in China New York, Harcourt Brace & Company (1932).
• Fu Chen, Liming Wang and John Davis, "Land reform in rural China since the mid-1980s", Land Reform 1998/2, a publication of the Sustainable Development Department of the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security
• William H. Hinton. William Howard Hinton ( February 2, 1919 &ndash May 15, 2004) was an American Marxist best known for Fanshen Fanshen: A documentary of revolution in a Chinese village. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1966. ISBN 0-520-21040-9.
• P. P. S. Ho, Institutions in Transition: Land Ownership, Property Rights and Social Conflict in China, (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2005)
• Mark Moyar, "Villager attitudes during the final decade of the Vietnam War". Presented at 1996 Vietnam Symposium "After the Cold War: Reassessing Vietnam".
• Summary of "Efficiency and wellbeing for 80 years" by Tarmo Luoma on site of TEHO magazine.

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