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Kwajalein Atoll - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (Visible Color) Satellite Image
Kwajalein Atoll - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (Visible Color) Satellite Image

Kwajalein Atoll (Marshallese: Kuwajleen IPA: [kʷuwːɔ͡ɛt̪ʲl̪ʲɪn̪ʲ]; common English pronunciation IPA: /ˈkwɑːʤəlɨn/, often nicknamed Kwaj, pronounced //ˈkwɑːʤ// by English-speaking residents of the U. The Marshallese language (Marshallese Kajin M̧ajeļ or Kajin Majõl   is a Malayo-Polynesian language of the Marshall Islands. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States S. facilities) is part of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI). The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI is a Micronesian nation of islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean The southernmost and largest island in the atoll is named Kwajalein Island.

The atoll lies in the Ralik Chain, 2,100 nautical miles (3900 km) southwest of Honolulu, Hawaii at 8°43′N, 167°44′E. An atoll (pronounced /ˈætʌl/ is an island of Coral that encircles a Lagoon partially or completely The Ralik Chain is a chain of islands within the island nation of the Marshall Islands. Honolulu is the Capital and most populous Census-designated place (CDP in the U

Contents

Geography

Kwajalein is one of the world's largest coral atolls as measured by area of enclosed water. An atoll (pronounced /ˈætʌl/ is an island of Coral that encircles a Lagoon partially or completely Comprising 97 islets, it has a land area of 16. 4 km², and surrounds one of the largest lagoons in the world, with an area of 2174 km². A lagoon is a body of comparatively shallow salt or Brackish water separated from the deeper Sea by a shallow or exposed sandbank, coral

Kwajalein Island is the southernmost, and the largest, of the islands in the Kwajalein atoll. The northernmost, and second largest, island is Roi-Namur. Roi-Namur is an island in the northern part of the Kwajalein atoll in the Marshall Islands.

The population of Kwajalein island is approximately 2,600, mostly Americans and a small number of Marshall Islanders and other nationals, all of whom have express permission from the U.S. Army to live there. The United States Army is a military organization whose primary mission is to "provide necessary forces and capabilities.

The primary mode of personal transportation is the bicycle and housing is free for most personnel, depending on contract or tour of duty. [1]

Current use by U. S. military

Short-term accommodations at the "Kwaj Lodge" showing typical Kwajalein housing construction.
Short-term accommodations at the "Kwaj Lodge" showing typical Kwajalein housing construction.

These are the two main islands used by the U. S. personnel and their families are accommodated in trailers or hard housing. Most unaccompanied personnel live in apartment style housing.

Since 1944, when American forces captured the atoll from the Japanese in the Battle of Kwajalein, it has been used for military purposes by the U.S., while escaping the fates of the nearby atolls of Bikini, Rongelap and Enewetak as the atoll has never been a site for nuclear detonations or covered with any significant nuclear fallout from the tests conducted during the 1940s and 1950s. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The Battle of Kwajalein was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought from January 31, 1944, to February 3, The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Bikini Atoll (also known as Pikinni Atoll) is an Atoll in one of the Micronesian Islands in the Pacific Ocean, part of Republic of the Marshall Rongelap Atoll is an island- Atoll located in Micronesia. It is a municipality of the Marshall Islands. Enewetak (or Eniwetok) is an Atoll in the Marshall Islands of the central Pacific Ocean. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a Nuclear explosion, so named because it "falls out" of the atmosphere into which it is spread during the explosion It was, however, the main support site for this weapons-testing program, namely Operation Crossroads. Operation Crossroads was a series of Nuclear weapon tests conducted by the United States in the summer of 1946

Testing sites

Eleven of the 97 islands are leased by the United States and are part of the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site (RTS), formerly known as Kwajalein Missile Range. The Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site, commonly referred to as the Reagan Test Site, is a Missile test range in the Pacific Ocean. RTS includes radar installations, optics, telemetry, and communications equipment which are used for ballistic missile and missile interceptor testing and space operations support. Kwajalein hosts one of five ground stations (others are at Diego Garcia, Ascension Island, Colorado Springs, Colorado, and Hawaii) that assist in the operation of the Global Positioning System (GPS) navigational system. Diego Garcia is the largest Atoll, in terms of land area in Chagos Archipelago, part of the British Indian Ocean Territory. Ascension Island is an island in the South Atlantic Ocean, around from the coast of Africa The City of Colorado Springs is a Home Rule Municipality that is the County seat and most populous city of El Paso County, Colorado, The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the Basic concept of GPS operation A GPS receiver calculates its position by carefully timing the signals sent by the constellation of GPS Satellites high above the Earth

SpaceX

More recently, the extensive infrastructure has attracted SpaceX, which built a commercial launch site on Omelek Island for its Falcon 1 and Falcon 9 rockets. Space Exploration Technologies Corporation ( SpaceX) is an American space-transportation Startup company founded by PayPal co-founder Elon Omelek Island is part of the Kwajalein Atoll in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The Falcon 1 is a partially reusable Launch system designed and manufactured by SpaceX. The Falcon 9 is an EELV class Launch vehicle planned by SpaceX and scheduled to launch in 2009

History prior to 1944

Prior to 1944, Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll had always been an important site of great cultural significance to the Marshallese people of the Ralik chain. In Marshall Islander cosmology, Kwajalein islet was the site of an abundant flowering utilomar tree from which great blessings flowed, and people from all over would come to gather the "fruits" of this tree. This, explain many elders, is a Marshallese metaphor that describes the past century of colonialism and serves to explain why Kwajalein is still so precious to foreign interests. This story was also the origin of the name Kuwajleen, which apparently derives from Ri-ruk-jan-leen, "the people who harvest the flowers. "[2]

Trading hub

However, even immediately prior to militarization, the islands of Kwajalein, and particularly the main island, served as a rural copra trading outpost administered by Japanese civilians under the Japanese Mandated "South Seas" Islands of Micronesia (the Nanyō Guntō) for nearly thirty years. Copra is the dried meat or kernel of the Coconut. The name copra is derived from the Malayalam word kopra for dried coconut The earliest known Japanese record of Kwajalein and the Marshall Islands appears in the writings of Suzuki Keikun, who was dispatched to the Marshall Islands in 1885 to investigate a Japanese shipwreck. And though this visit was followed by two decades of German colonial rule in the Marshalls, in 1914, Japan peacefully took control of the islands from Germany and established administrative control in 1922 under a League of Nations Mandate. The German colonial empire was an overseas area formed in the late 19th century as part of the Hohenzollern dynasty's German Empire. Year 1914 ( MCMXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 [3]

Early Japanese influence

Japanese settlers were few in Kwajalein Atoll, known in Japanese as Kuezerin Kanshō, comprising mostly traders and their families who worked at local branches of shops headquartered at nearby Jaluit Atoll. Jaluit Atoll is an atoll of 91 islands in the Pacific Ocean. It is a legislative district of the Marshall Islands. There were also local administrative staff, and with the establishment of Kwajalein's public school in 1935, schoolteachers were also sent to the island from Japan. Most Marshall Islanders who recall those times describe a peaceful time of cooperation and development between Japanese and Marshallese. [4][5]

Japanese militarism

In the late 1930s, Japan began to centralize military power in Micronesia in line with its expansionism. Japanese civilian engineers and conscripted Korean and Japanese laborers worked together with Marshallese to build fortifications throughout the atoll, although archaeological evidence and testimonies from Japanese and Marshallese sources indicates that this project would not likely have begun until the 1940s and was not even complete at the time of the American invasion in 1944. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. A second wave of Japanese naval and ground forces was dispatched to Kwajalein in early 1943 from the Manchurian front, most of whom were between the ages of 18-21 and had no experience in the tropics. [6]

Forced resettlement

When the first runway was built on Kwajalein islet by mostly Korean laborers, the Japanese public school and all civil administration was shifted to Namu Atoll, and Islanders were forcibly moved to live on some of the smaller islets in the atoll. The trauma of this experience, together with the influx of these young, underprepared troops surprised the local population, and many Islanders make clear distinctions in their recollections of civilian and military Japanese for this reason. [7]

During and after World War Two

Main article: Battle of Kwajalein
US Infantry inspect a hole after capturing the Kwajalein Atoll from Japan during World War II
US Infantry inspect a hole after capturing the Kwajalein Atoll from Japan during World War II

On February 1, 1944, Kwajalein was the target of the most concentrated bombardment of the Pacific War. The Battle of Kwajalein was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought from January 31, 1944, to February 3, The Pacific War was the part of World War II —and preceding conflicts—that took place in the Pacific Ocean, its islands and in East Asia, between Thirty-six thousand shells from naval ships and ground artillery on a nearby islet struck Kwajalein. [8] American B-24 Liberator bombers aerially bombarded the island, adding to the destruction.

Of the 8,782 Japanese personnel[9] deployed to the atoll (including Korean laborers), it has been argued that only 2,200 were combat trained. Despite this likelihood, Japanese resistance was strong and resilient, even given the fact that Japanese troops were outnumbered by tens of thousands of American troops. By the end of the battle 373 Americans were killed, 7,870 Japanese and Koreans were killed,[10] and an estimated 200 Marshallese were killed.

Kwajalein was one of the few locations in the Pacific war where Islanders were killed while actually fighting for the Japanese. [11] On February 6, 1944, Kwajalein was claimed by the United States and liberated from Japanese rule. [12] While some Americans mistakenly claim that Kwajalein was "taken back" by the United States, the Marshall Islands had never been a United States territory prior to the initiation of the U. S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands that followed World War II.

Wartime memorials

Site of the so-called "Japanese Cemetery" on Kwajalein built as a memorial to war dead on the Atoll.
Site of the so-called "Japanese Cemetery" on Kwajalein built as a memorial to war dead on the Atoll.

Very few Japanese or Korean remains were ever repatriated from the atoll; thus both Kwajalein and Roi-Namur have ceremonial "cemetery" sites to honor this memory. The memorial on Kwajalein was constructed by the Japan Marshall Islands War-Bereaved Families Association (Māsharu Hōmen Izokukai) in the 1960s, and the memorial on Roi-Namur was constructed by American personnel. Both memorial sites are dedicated not only to Japanese souls but to the sacrifices of Koreans, Marshallese, and Americans. There are similar (but poorly maintained) memorial sites at various atolls throughout the Marshall Islands, with a large Japanese Peace Park on Majuro and a smaller Korean memorial nearby. US Marine Corps intelligence records and photographs at the US National Archives, together with the testimony of US veterans indicate that there was a mass-burial site consolidated into one place on Kwajalein islet, at or near the current cemetery. However, remains are also scattered throughout the islet, at Roi-Namur, and in various places throughout the atoll. Bereaved Japanese and Korean families have mixed sentiments about whether or not to return these remains to their home countries, as none of them are identifiable, and various "bone-collecting" missions are sometimes perceived by bereaved Japanese families as an insult to the dead or a political stunt by the Japanese government. Japanese bereaved family members also consider the sites of sunken Japanese shipwrecks in Kwajalein lagoon to be sacred gravesites, and they are often discouraged by the activities of American divers who attempt to disturb these wrecks. [13]

A ceremony is held at Japan's Yasukuni Shrine annually in April (originally held in February to coincide with the anniversary of the battle) where the memories of the Japanese soldiers are honored and surviving families make prayers to their spirits. is a Shinto shrine located in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. It is dedicated to the Kami (spirits of Soldiers Small groups of bereaved Japanese families also have made pilgrimages to Kwajalein on a semi-annual basis since the 1990s, the first of these groups being the Japan Marshall Islands War-Bereaved Families Association, which negotiated its visit with the US Army as far back as 1964 and made its first visit in 1975 at the invitation of the Kwajalein Missile Range. The bereaved families of conscripted Korean laborers have also recently traveled in groups to the Marshall Islands, although they have not yet paid a visit to Kwajalein. [14]

Kwajalein today

The Adult Pool on Kwajalein is drained and re-filled once a week.
The Adult Pool on Kwajalein is drained and re-filled once a week.

Although the Marshall Islands was officially granted independence from the United States, and became an independent republic in 1986, Kwajalein atoll is still used by the United States for missile testing and various other operations. While this military history has deeply influenced the lives of the Marshall Islanders who have lived in the atoll through the war to the present, the military history of Kwajalein has made tourism almost non-existent and has kept the environment in relatively pristine condition. American civilians and their families who reside at the military installations in Kwajalein are able to enjoy this environment with few restrictions. Kwajalein lagoon offers excellent wreck diving of mostly Japanese ships, a few planes and the German heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen. Spear fishing and deep sea fishing are also exceptional. 80 degree water temperature and 100 foot visibility are common when scuba diving on the ocean side of the atoll.

The Ocean View Club, an open-air lounge on the ocean side of Kwajalein.
The Ocean View Club, an open-air lounge on the ocean side of Kwajalein.

A neighboring island Ebeye has the largest population in the atoll, with approximately 13,000 residents (mostly Marshall Islanders and a small population of migrants and volunteers from other island groups and nations) living on 80 acres (320,000 m²) of land. Ebeye is the most populous island of Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands, as well as the center for Marshallese culture in the Ralik Chain Ebeye is one of the most densely populated places in the world. [15] Roi-Namur used to be 3 separate islands: Roi, Namur and Enidrikdrik. After WWII, while the US had control of the atoll, they mostly paved over Enidrikdrik and renamed the resulting island Roi-Namur.

Since 1961 several tests of anti-ballistic missiles were performed on Kwajalein. Therefore there are launchpads on Illeginni Island ( 9.0000° N 167.7000° E), Roi-Namur Island ( 9.4012° N 167.4663° E) and Kwajalein Drop Zone, Pacific Ocean ( 7.6500° N 167.7000° E).

Land lease disputes

Under the constitution of the Republic of the Marshall Islands the government can own land under limited circumstances. The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI is a Micronesian nation of islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean [16] Practically, all land is private and inherited through one's matriline and clan. Since the United States began leasing land, the issue of proper land payments has been a major issue of contention for landowners which continues today. "Landowners" here refers to the consortium of representatives comprised of irooj (chiefs), alaps (clan heads) and senior rijerbal (workers) who have land rights to the places used for military purposes by the US. Unclear and insufficient in the opinion of these landowners, the original lease arrangements with the US were finally renegotiated only after the landowners and their supporters demonstrated in the early 1980s with a peaceful protest called "Operation Homecoming," in which Islanders re-inhabited their land at Kwajalein, Roi-Namur, and other restricted sites in the atoll. [17][18] This resulted in the first official Military Use and Operating Rights Agreement (MUORA) between the United States Army and Government of the RMI, which was linked to the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) that was written into the larger Compact of Free Association with the United States. A Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA is an agreement between a country and a foreign nation stationing Military forces in that country The Compact of Free Association ( COFA) defines the relationship that three sovereign states—the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM the Republic of the Marshall [19] Article 3 of the MUORA obligated the RMI to lease specific sites from their owners through a Land Use Agreement (LUA) and then sub-lease them to the United States. The first MUORA guaranteed total payments of roughly US $11 million to the landowners through the year 2016, the majority of which went to the irooj (chiefs), who had the largest stake in the land. Some American observers claimed that these land payments were "misused. " These funds were rental payments that landowners could use at their own discretion, separate from whatever funds the US earmarked to help develop or improve Kwajalein Atoll, which were funneled into the now-defunct Kwajalein Atoll Development Authority (KADA. )

In advance of its expiration in 2016, this MUORA was renegotiated in 2003 as part of the Compact of Free Association, with the US agreeing to pay the landowners (via the Republic of the Marshall Islands) $15 million a year, adjusted for inflation, with the option to use Kwajalein through 2066, renewable through 2086. The Compact of Free Association ( COFA) defines the relationship that three sovereign states—the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM the Republic of the Marshall The landowners, affiliated under the Kwajalein Negotiations Committee (KNC), strongly resisted this negotiation, stating that they had not been consulted about this agreement. [20] By their independent land appraisals and calculations, the KNC had already determined that the minimum acceptable compensation they should receive for Kwajalein lands was at least $19. 1 million annually, adjusted for inflation. The landowners also claimed that there were many other terms by which they wished the US would abide should the lease be extended, including providing better support and infrastructure to Ebeye, improving healthcare and education, guaranteeing that the missile testing was not creating environmental hazards, and providing a comprehensive life and property insurance policy. [21] The landowners thus refused to sign the newly proposed LUA with the RMI government; so although the new Compact and its component MUORA was ratified in 2003, they have since held out, insisting, through Kwajalein Atoll elected representatives, that either a new LUA should be drafted that considers their needs or the US will have to leave Kwajalein when the active LUA expires in 2016.

Currently the US pays an annual $15 million to the landowners, as agreed provisionally in 2003; however, as the LUA has not been signed, the difference of roughly $4 million goes into an escrow account. If the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the landowners do not reach an agreement about land payments by the end of 2008, the Compact states that these funds in escrow will be returned to the US Treasury. The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI is a Micronesian nation of islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean Landowners have vowed not to give in to this pressure from the US or from their own government, stating that it would be "insane" for Marshallese people to put up with another 70 years of the kind of circumstances that exist today in Kwajalein Atoll at Ebeye and other islands. [22] In 2008, a new government was voted into power in the Republic of the Marshall Islands, with Litokwa Tomeing as President and Tony deBrum as foreign minister. Litokwa Tomeing (born October 14, 1939 at Wotje Atoll) has been the President of the Marshall Islands since January 2008 This new government is very sympathetic to the needs of the Ebeye community and the Kwajalein landowners, partly because it is a coalition government formed in part from the Aelon Kein Ad Party (formerly known as the Kabua Party), which represents Kwajalein landowners and is led by Paramount Chief (Iroijlaplap) Imata Kabua. Aelon Kein Ad ("Our Islands" also called the Kabua Party, is a Political party in the Marshall Islands, headed by Imata Kabua Iroijlaplap is the Title given to the Paramount chiefs in the Marshall Islands. Imata Kabua (born 20 May 1943) was President of the Marshall Islands from 14 January 1997 to 10 January This new government is actively pursuing a more productive and mutually beneficial agreement regarding the Kwajalein Atoll Land Use Agreement with the United States.

Amidst this tense stalemate between Marshall Islands central government leaders and Kwajalein landowners, the U. S. Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) installation has also been downsizing. However, recent statements by Army leadership[23] indicate that the United States is deeply committed to remaining in the Marshall Islands at Kwajalein Atoll for the foreseeable future.

Other islands in the Kwajalein atoll

Kwajalein Atoll (Jacob, Arnold, etc. are World War II code names for islands)
Kwajalein Atoll (Jacob, Arnold, etc. are World War II code names for islands)

Other islands in the atoll:[24]

Passes near Kwajalein Island

See also

Ballistic missile testing occurs at Kwajalein.
Ballistic missile testing occurs at Kwajalein.

Footnotes

  1. ^ Dvorak, Gregory. National missile defense (NMD as a generic term is a type of Missile defense: a military strategy and associated systems to shield an entire country against incoming Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD is a component of the National missile defense strategy of the United States administered by the U The Missile Defense Agency ( MDA) is the section of the United States government's Department of Defense responsible for developing a layered defense The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI is a Micronesian nation of islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean The Battle of Kwajalein was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought from January 31, 1944, to February 3, Publications Newspapers - Marshall Islands Journal Weekly national newspaper Tabloid The Marshall Islands Journal is a dual language Little is clearly understood about the early history of the Marshall Islands Remapping Home: Touring the Betweenness of Kwajalein. M. A. , Pacific Islands Studies, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu, 2004.
  2. ^ In Anxious Anticipation of Kuwajleen's Uneven Fruits : A Cultural History of the Significant Locations and Important Resources of Kuwajleen Atoll. Huntsville, Ala. : United States Army Space and Strategic Defense Command, 1997.
  3. ^ Peattie, Mark R. Nan'yō : The Rise and Fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 1885-1945, Pacific Islands Monograph Series ; No. 4. Honolulu: Center for Pacific Islands Studies School of Hawaiian Asian and Pacific Studies University of Hawaii : University of Hawaii Press, 1988.
  4. ^ Dvorak, Gregory. "The 'Martial Islands': Making Marshallese Masculinities between American and Japanese Militarism. " The Contemporary Pacific Journal, 18(1) January 2008.
  5. ^ Poyer, Lin, Suzanne Falgout, and Laurence Marshall Carucci. The Typhoon of War : Micronesian Experiences of the Pacific War. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2001.
  6. ^ Higuchi, Wakako. Micronesia under the Japanese Administration : Interviews with Former South Sea Bureau and Military Officials. Guam: University of Guam, 1987.
  7. ^ Dvorak, Gregory. Man/Making Home : Breaking through the Concrete of Kwajalein Atoll. Canberra: Gender Relations Centre Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies Australian National University, 2005.
  8. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945, Random House, 1970, p. 470
  9. ^ Japanese Government, "Senshi Sosho" (War Chronicles, Marshall Islands Section), p. 216
  10. ^ Richard, Dorothy, United States Naval Administration of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Vol. 1 Washington, D. C. : Office of Chief of Naval Operations. 1957, 124
  11. ^ Poyer, Lin, Suzanne Falgout, and Laurence M. Carucci, "The Typhoon of War: Micronesian Experiences of the Pacific War. " Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001, 121
  12. ^ Hezel, Francis X. Strangers in Their Own Land : A Century of Colonial Rule in the Caroline and Marshall Islands. Honolulu:University of Hawai'i Press, 1995.
  13. ^ Dvorak, Gregory. Seeds from Afar, Flowers from the Reef: Re-membering the Coral and Concrete of Kwajalein. PhD diss. , Australian National University, Canberra, 2007.
  14. ^ Dvorak, Gregory. Seeds from Afar, Flowers from the Reef: Re-membering the Coral and Concrete of Kwajalein. PhD diss. , Australian National University, Canberra, 2007.
  15. ^ Alexander, William John. Wage Labor, Urbanization and Culture Change in the Marshall Islands: The Ebeye Case, New School for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1978.
  16. ^ RMI Constitution, Art II Sec. 5
  17. ^ "Home on the Range," a film by Adam Horowitz, 1983.
  18. ^ Hanlon, David. Remaking Micronesia University of Hawai'i Press: 1998.
  19. ^ Agreement Regarding the Military Use and operating rights of the Grovernment of the United States in the Marshall Islands Concluded Pursuant to Sections 321 and 323 of the Compact of Free Association, P. L. 99-239-Jan. 14, 1986
  20. ^ Johnson, Giff, "Kwajalein Leader Says 'No' to Extending US Agreement," "Marianas Variety, 25 June 2007.
  21. ^ Kwajalein Negotiations Committee, "The Position of Kwajalein Landowners Under the Renewed Compact of Free Association," KNC 2003.
  22. ^ Johnson, Giff, "Kwajalein Leader Says 'No' to Extending US Agreement," "Marianas Variety, 25 June 2007.
  23. ^ from Rowa, Aenet, "Yokwe Online," http://www.yokwe.net/index.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1817, accessed 1 July 2007
  24. ^ based partly on testimony of Islanders and on Carucci, Laurence M. In Anxious Anticipation of Kuwajleen's Uneven Fruits : A Cultural History of the Significant Locations and Important Resources of Kuwajleen Atoll. Huntsville, Ala. : United States Army Space and Strategic Defense Command, 1997.

External links

About the Marshall Islands and current events

Transportation

History

Work on Kwajalein

Kwajalein community

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