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Kronstadt Rebellion
Part of Kronstadt Rebellion
Date March, 1921
Location Kronstadt, Kotlin Island, Russia
Result Rebellion defeated
Bolshevik victory
Belligerents
Soviet Baltic Fleet sailors
Red Army soldiers
Armed citizens of Kronstadt		 Red Army
Commanders
Stepan Petrichenko Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky
Strength
c. Events in March American Red Cross Month Fire Prevention month ( The Philippines) Women's History Month ( United Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar Kronstadt (Кроншта́дт also spelled Kronshtadt, Cronstadt (Krone for Crown and Stadt for City) is a Russian Kotlin (or Kettle Finnish Retusaari) is a Russian Island, located near the head of the Gulf of Finland, 20 miles west of Saint Petersburg Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya Kronstadt (Кроншта́дт also spelled Kronshtadt, Cronstadt (Krone for Crown and Stadt for City) is a Russian The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya Stepan Maximovich Petrichenko (Степан Максимович Петриченко 1892 &ndash June 2, 1947) was a Russian Revolutionary Mikhail Nikolayevich Tukhachevsky (Михаи́л Никола́евич Тухаче́вский Michał Tuchaczewski ( &ndash June 12, 1937) was a first 11,000, second assault: 17,961 c. first assault: 10,073, second assault: 25,000 to 30,000
Casualties and losses
c. 1,000 killed in battle and 1,200 to 2,168 executed second assault 527-1,412, a much higher number if we include the first assault.

The Kronstadt rebellion was an unsuccessful uprising of Soviet sailors, led by Stepan Petrichenko, against the government of the early Russian SFSR. Stepan Maximovich Petrichenko (Степан Максимович Петриченко 1892 &ndash June 2, 1947) was a Russian Revolutionary

The rebellion took place in the first weeks of March, 1921 in Kronstadt, a naval fortress on Kotlin Island in the Gulf of Finland that served as the base of the Russian Baltic Fleet and as a guardpost for the approaches to Petrograd,[1] 35 miles away. Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar Kronstadt (Кроншта́дт also spelled Kronshtadt, Cronstadt (Krone for Crown and Stadt for City) is a Russian Kotlin (or Kettle Finnish Retusaari) is a Russian Island, located near the head of the Gulf of Finland, 20 miles west of Saint Petersburg The Gulf of Finland ( Finnish: Suomenlahti, Russian: Финский залив, Finskiy zaliv, Swedish: Finska viken The Twice Red Banner Baltic Fleet - (Дважды Краснознамённый Балтийский флот was the Imperial later Soviet and is now the Russian Navy's Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River

Contents

Causes of the rebellion

Red Army troops attack Kronstadt
Red Army troops attack Kronstadt

At the end of the Civil War, Bolshevik Russia was exhausted and ruined. The Russian Civil War (1917–1923 was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed Bolshevist Russia or Bolshevik Russia is a common term for the Bolshevik side in the Russian Civil War, or more specifically the Russian The droughts of 1920 and 1921 and the frightful famine during the latter year added the final chapter to the disaster. A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation In the years following the October Revolution, epidemics, starvation, fighting, executions, and the general economic and social breakdown, worsened by the Allied military intervention and the Civil war had taken many lives. The October Revolution (Октябрьская революция Oktyabrskaya revolyutsiya) also known as the Soviet Revolution Another million people had left Russia - with General Wrangel, through the Far East, or in numerous other ways - either to escape the ravages of the war or because they had supported one of the defeated sides. Baron Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel (Пётр Николаевич Врангель (Peter von Wrangel ( August 15, 1878, Zarasai, Lithuania (then Russian Far East (Да́льний Восто́к Росси́и ˈdalʲnʲɪj vʌˈstok rʌˈsʲiɪ is a term that refers to the Russian part of the Far East, i A large proportion of the émigrés were educated and skilled.

The economic policy War communism assisted the Soviet government in achieving victories in the Russian Civil War, but it damaged the nation's economy. Economic policy refers to the actions that Governments take in the economic field. War communism (or military communism) (Военный коммунизм 1918 - 1921 is the term created by western historians referring to the economic and political system The Russian Civil War (1917–1923 was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed With private industry and trade proscribed and the newly-constructed state unable to adequately perform these functions, much of the Russian economy ground to a standstill. It is estimated that the total output of mines and factories fell in 1921 to 20% of the pre-World War I level, with many crucial items experiencing an even more drastic decline. Production of cotton, for example, fell to 5%, and iron to 2%, of the prewar level. The peasants responded to requisitioning by refusing to till their land. By 1921 cultivated land had shrunk to some 62% of the prewar area, and the harvest yield was only 37% of normal. The number of horses declined from 35 million in 1916 to 24 million in 1920, and cattle fell from 58 to 37 million during the same span. The exchange rate of the US dollar, which had been two rubles in 1914, rose to 1,200 in 1920. The ruble or rouble (рубль rublʹ, plural ru рубли́ rubli; see note on English spelling and Russian plurals with numbers

This situation led to uprisings in the countryside, such as the Tambov rebellion, and to strikes and violent unrest in the factories. The Tambov Rebellion of 1919&ndash1921 was one of the largest and best organized peasant rebellions against the Bolshevik regime during the Russian Civil War Strike action, often simply called a strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal by Employees to perform work. In some urban areas, a wave of spontaneous strikes occurred.

Demands are issued

On February 26, delegates from the Kronstadt sailors visited Petrograd to investigate the situation. Events 747 BC - Epoch (origin of Ptolemy 's Nabonassar Era 364 - Valentinian I is proclaimed On February 28, in response to the delegates' report of heavy-handed Bolshevik repression of strikes in Petrograd (claims which might have been inaccurate or exaggerated[2]), the crews of the battleships Petropavlovsk and Sevastopol held an emergency meeting which approved a resolution raising fifteen demands [1]:

“
  1. Immediate new elections to the Soviets. Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule An election is a Decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold formal office The present Soviets no longer express the wishes of the workers and peasants. The new elections should be held by secret ballot, and should be preceded by free electoral propaganda. A political campaign is an organized effort which seeks to influence the decision making process within a specific group
  2. Freedom of speech and of the press for workers and peasants, for the Anarchists, and for the Left Socialist parties. Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without Censorship or Limitation. Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i
  3. The right of assembly, and freedom for trade union and peasant organisations. Freedom of assembly, sometimes used interchangeably with the Freedom of association, is the Individual right to come together with other individuals and collectively A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming
  4. The organisation, at the latest on 10th March 1921, of a Conference of non-Party workers, soldiers and sailors of Petrograd, Kronstadt and the Petrograd District. Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar
  5. The liberation of all political prisoners of the Socialist parties, and of all imprisoned workers and peasants, soldiers and sailors belonging to working class and peasant organisations. A prison, penitentiary, or correctional facility is a place in which individuals are physically confined or interned and usually deprived of a range of
  6. The election of a commission to look into the dossiers of all those detained in prisons and concentration camps. Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people commonly in large groups without trial
  7. The abolition of all political sections in the armed forces. No political party should have privileges for the propagation of its ideas, or receive State subsidies to this end. In the place of the political sections various cultural groups should be set up, deriving resources from the State.
  8. The immediate abolition of the militia detachments set up between towns and countryside.
  9. The equalisation of rations for all workers, except those engaged in dangerous or unhealthy jobs.
  10. The abolition of Party combat detachments in all military groups. The abolition of Party guards in factories and enterprises. If guards are required, they should be nominated, taking into account the views of the workers.
  11. The granting to the peasants of freedom of action on their own soil, and of the right to own cattle, provided they look after them themselves and do not employ hired labour.
  12. We request that all military units and officer trainee groups associate themselves with this resolution.
  13. We demand that the Press give proper publicity to this resolution.
  14. We demand the institution of mobile workers' control groups.
  15. We demand that handicraft production be authorised provided it does not utilise wage labour.
”

Of the fifteen demands, only two were related to what Marxists term the "petty-bourgeoisie," the reasonably wealthy peasantry and artisans. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Petit-bourgeoisie (or petty bourgeois through Folk etymology) is a French term that originally referred to the members of the lower middle social-classes These demanded "full freedom of action" for all peasants and artisans who did not hire labour. Like the Petrograd workers, the Kronstadt sailors demanded the equalisation of wages and the end of roadblock detachments which restricted both travel and the ability of workers to bring food into the city.

On March 1, a general meeting of the Garrison was held, attended also by Mikhail Kalinin and Commissar of the Baltic Fleet Kuzmin who made speeches for the Government. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin (Михаи́л Ива́нович Кали́нин ( – June 3, 1946) was a Bolshevik revolutionary and the titular Head The general meeting passed a resolution including the 15 demands given above. On March 2 a conference of sailor, soldier and worker organization delegates, after hearing speeches by Kuzmin and Vasiliev, President of the Kronstadt Executive Committee, arrested these two and amid incorrect rumors of immediate attack approved formation of a Provisional Revolutionary Committee [2]. Events 986 - Louis V becomes King of the Franks. 1127 - Assassination of Charles the Good The Government responded with an ultimatum the same day. This asserted that the revolt had "undoubtedly been prepared by French counterintelligence" and that the Petropavlovsk resolution was a "SR-Black Hundred" resolution (SR stood for "Social Revolutionaries", a democratic socialist party that had been dominant in the soviets before the return of Lenin, and whose right-wing had refused to support the Bolsheviks; the "Black Hundreds" were a reactionary, indeed proto-fascist, force dating back to before the revolution which attacked Jews, labour militants and radicals, among others). The Socialist-Revolutionary Party (the PSR the SRs, or Esers; Партия социалистов-революционеров (ПСР эсеры was a Russian The Black Hundreds (sometimes The Black Hundreds) also known as the black-hundredists (Чёрная сотня черносотенцы in Russian Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology PLEASE TAKE NOTE************

Lenin's suspicion of an international conspiracy linked up with the Kronstadt events has been supported by the discovery of a handwritten memorandum preserved in the Columbia University Russian Archive, dated 1921 and marked 'Top Secret. ' The document includes remarkably detailed information about the resources, personnel, arms and plans of the Kronstadt rebellion. It also details plans regarding White army and French government support for the Kronstadt sailors' March rebellion. Its title is 'Memorandum on the Question of Organising an Uprising in Kronstadt. '

The memorandum was part of a collection of documents written by an organisation called the National Centre, which originated at the beginning in 1918 as a self identified 'underground organisation formed in Russia for the struggle against the Bolsheviks. ' After suffering military defeat and the arrest of many of its central members, the group reconstituted itself in exile by late 1920. General Wrangel, with a trained army of tens of thousands ready and waiting, was their principal military base of support. This memorandum was written between January and early February of 1921 by an agent of the National Centre in Finland. [3]

Others however dispute these allegations included noted historian Paul Averich. This includes evidence that the memorandum was unsigned.

“ However, reading the document quickly shows that Kronstadt was not a product of a White conspiracy but rather that the White "National Centre" aimed to try and use a spontaneous "uprising" it thought was likely to "erupt there in the coming spring" for its own ends. The report notes that "among the sailors, numerous and unmistakable signs of mass dissatisfaction with the existing order can be noticed. " Indeed, the "Memorandum" states that "one must not forget that even of the French Command and the Russian anti-Bolshevik organisations do not take part in the preparation and direction of the uprising, a revolt in Kronstadt will take place all the same during the coming spring, but after a brief period of success it will be doomed to failure. " [quoted by Avrich, Kronstadt 1921, p. 235 and p. 240]

. . .

Avrich rejects the idea that the "Memorandum" explains the revolt:

Nothing has come to light to show that the Secret Memorandum was ever put into practice or that any links had existed between the emigres and the sailors before the revolt. On the contrary, the rising bore the earmarks of spontaneity. . . there was little in the behaviour of the rebels to suggest any careful advance preparation. Had there been a prearranged plan, surely the sailors would have waited a few weeks longer for the ice to melt. . . The rebels, moreover, allowed Kalinin [a leading Communist] to return to Petrograd, though he would have made a valuable hostage. Further, no attempt was made to take the offensive. . . Significant too, is the large number of Communists who took part in the movement. . .
The Sailors needed no outside encouragement to raise the banner of insurrection. . . Kronstadt was clearly ripe for a rebellion. What set it off were not the machinations of emigre conspirators and foreign intelligence agents but the wave of peasant risings throughout the country and the labour disturbances in neighbouring Petorgrad. And as the revolt unfolded, it followed the pattern of earlier outbursts against the central government from 1905 through the Civil War. " [Op. Cit. , pp. 111-2]

. . .

Moreover, whether the Memorandum played a part in the revolt can be seen from the reactions of the White "National Centre" to the uprising. Firstly, they failed to deliver aid to the rebels nor get French aid to them. Secondly, Professor Grimm, the chief agent of the National Centre in Helsingfors and General Wrangel's official representative in Finland, stated to a colleague after the revolt had been crushed that if a new outbreak should occur then their group must not be caught unawares again. Avrich also notes that the revolt "caught the emigres off balance" and that "[n]othing . . . had been done to implement the Secret Memorandum, and the warnings of the author were fully borne out. " [Paul Avrich, Op. Cit. , p. 212 and p. 123][3]

 ”

Suppression of the Revolt

The Petrograd workers were under martial law and could offer little support to Kronstadt. Martial law is the system of rules that takes effect when the military takes control of the normal administration of justice [4] The Bolshevik government began its attack on Kronstadt on March 7. Events 161 - Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius dies and is succeeded by co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus [5] Some 60,000 troops under command of Mikhail Tukhachevsky took part in the attack. Mikhail Nikolayevich Tukhachevsky (Михаи́л Никола́евич Тухаче́вский Michał Tuchaczewski ( &ndash June 12, 1937) was a [6] There was a hurry to gain control of the fortress before the melting of the bay as it would have made it impregnable for the land army. Many Red Army units were forced onto the ice at gunpoint and some actually joined the rebellion. The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya [7] On March 17, the Bolshevik forces finally entered the city of Kronstadt after having suffered over 10,000 fatalities. Events 45 BC - In his last victory Julius Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Pompey the Younger The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction [8] Although there are no reliable figures for the rebels' battle losses, historians estimate that thousands were executed in the days following the revolt, and a like number were jailed, many in the Solovki labor camp. A labor camp is a simplified detention facility where inmates are engaged in Penal labor. [9] A large number of more fortunate rebels managed to escape to Finland. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. (These people caused the first major refugee problem for the newly-independent state of Finland. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. [10]) Official Soviet figures claim approximately 1000 rebels were killed, 2000 wounded, 2500 captured, and 8000 defected to Finland, while the Red Army lost 527 killed and 3285 wounded. [11]

On March 19, the Bolshevik forces took full control of the city of Kronstadt after having suffered fatalities ranging from 527 to 1,412 or higher if the toll from the first assault is included. Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China. The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction Official Soviet figures estimate 1,000 rebels killed in battle. 6,000 to 8,000 rebels fled to Finland. Prisoners range from 2,300 to 6,528. 1,050 to 1,272 were freed. 750 to 1,486 sentenced to a five year forced labor. 1,200 to 2,168 executed. Refugees in Finland were pardoned through an amnesty too. Among the refugees was Petrichenko himself, who lived in Finland as a refugee until the year 1945. [12] After the World War II, he was returned to Soviet Union after being enlisted in the GPU. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Later in the same year, he died on a prison camp in Soviet Union over charges of espionage. [13]

The day after the surrender of Kronstadt, the Bolsheviks celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of the Paris Commune. The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May

Although Red Army units suppressed the uprising, the general dissatisfaction with the state of affairs could not have been more forcefully expressed. Against this background of discontent, Lenin, who also concluded that world revolution was not imminent, proceeded in the spring of 1921 to replace the War Communism economic policy with his New Economic Policy. This is about the concept of world revolution in Marxist theory For the Malaysian New Economic Policy see Malaysian New Economic Policy.

The Anarchist Emma Goldman, who was in Petrograd at the time of the rebellion, criticised Leon Trotsky for his role in the suppression of the rebellion, arguing that this made his later criticism of Stalin's regime hypocritical. Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i Emma Goldman (June 27 1869 – May 14 1940 was an anarchist known for her political activism writing and speeches Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij Hypocrisy (or the state of being a hypocrite) is the act of preaching a certain belief religion or way of life but not in fact holding these same virtues oneself [14] Trotsky, however, responded that Goldman's criticisms were mainly perfunctory, and ignored the differing social composition between the pro-Bolshevik Kronstadt Uprising of 1917 and the mainly "petty bourgeois" Kronstadt Uprising of 1921. [15]

Composition of the garrison

Defenders of the Bolshevik policy, such as Abbie Bakan, have claimed that the Kronstadt rebels were not the same sailors as those who had been revolutionary heroes in 1917. [3]

However, Israel Getzler presents detailed evidence that the vast majority of the sailors had been in the Navy since 1917:[16]

“ . . . that the veteran politicized Red sailor still predominated at Kronstadt at the end of 1920 is borne out by the hard statistical data available regarding the crews of the two major battleships, the Petropavlovsk and the Sevastopol, both renowned since 1917 for their revolutionary zeal and Bolshevik allegiance. Of 2,028 sailors whose years of enlistment are known, no less than 1,904 or 93. 9% were recruited into the navy before and during the 1917 revolution, the largest group, 1,195, having joined in the years 1914-16. Only some 137 sailors or 6. 8% were recruited in the years 1918-21, including three who were conscripted in 1921, and they were the only ones who had not been there during the 1917 revolution. As for the sailors of the Baltic Fleet in general (and that included the Petropavlovsk and Sevastopol), of those serving on 1 January 1921 at least 75. 5% are likely to have been drafted into the fleet before 1918. Over 80% were drawn from Great Russian areas (mainly central Russia and the Volga area), some 10% from the Ukraine, and 9% from Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Poland. Great Russia (Великороссия Velikorossiya) is an obsolete name formerly applied to the territories of "Russia proper" the land that formed the core Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland
. . .

Nor, as has so often been claimed, did new recruits, some 400 of whom Yasinsky had interviewed, arrive in numbers large enough to dilute or even 'demoralize' Kronstadt's Red sailors. As Evan Mawdsley has found, 'only 1,313 of a planned total of 10,384 recruits had arrived' by 1 December 1920 and even they seem to have been stationed in the barracks of the Second Baltic Crew in Petrograd.

”

Tony Cliff, defending Bolshevik policy, states that "the number of industrial workers in Russia, always a minority, fell from 3 million in 1917 to 1,240,000, a decline of 58. 7%, in 1921-22. So was there a decline in the agricultural proletariat, from 2,100,000 in 1917, to 34,000 only two years later (a decline of 98. 5%). But the number of peasant households (not individuals which is many times greater) had risen with the parcelization of land from 16. 5 million in early 1918 to over 25 million households by 1920, an increase of some 50%. "[17]

Supporters of this view claim that the majority of the sailors in the Baltic Fleet stationed at Kronstadt were recent recruits of peasant origin. Stepan Petrichenko, a leader of the Kronstadt uprising of March 1921, was himself a Ukrainian peasant. Stepan Maximovich Petrichenko (Степан Максимович Петриченко 1892 &ndash June 2, 1947) was a Russian Revolutionary [18] He later acknowledged that many of his fellow mutineers were peasants from the south who were in sympathy with the peasant opposition movement against the Bolsheviks. In the words of Petrichenko: "When we returned home our parents asked us why we fought for the oppressors. That set us thinking. "[19]

Notes

  1. ^ Now Saint Petersburg. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River
  2. ^ Kronstadt, 1921, Paul Avrich ISBN 0-691-08721-0, Princeton University Press
  3. ^ a b "Kronstadt - A Tragic Necessity" - by Abbie Bakan
  4. ^ Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891-1924 (New York: Viking Press 1997), 760.
  5. ^ Figes, 763.
  6. ^ Figes, 767.
  7. ^ Figes, 763.
  8. ^ Figes, 767.
  9. ^ Figes, 767.
  10. ^ Kronstadtin kapina 1921 ja sen perilliset Suomessa (Kronstadt Rebellion 1921 and Its Descendants in Finland) by Erkki Wessmann.
  11. ^ Pukhov, A. S. Kronshtadtskii miatezh v 1921 g. Leningrad, OGIZ-Molodaia Gvardiia.
  12. ^ Kronstadtin kapina 1921 ja sen perilliset Suomessa (Kronstadt Rebellion 1921 and Its Descendants in Finland) by Erkki Wessmann.
  13. ^ "Kapinallisen salaisuus" ("The Secret of a Rebel"), Suomen Kuvalehti (a Finnish magazine, http://www.suomenkuvalehti.fi/), page 39, issue SK24 / 2007, 15. 6. 2007
  14. ^ "Trotsky Protests Too Much" by Emma Goldman
  15. ^ "Hue and Cry Over Kronstadt by Leon Trotsky.
  16. ^ Getzler (2002), pp. 207-208. Mawdsley and Saul present similar evidence.
  17. ^ Cliff, vol. 3, p. 143.
  18. ^ Lincoln, p. 498.
  19. ^ Lincoln, p. 495.

References

Additional external links

See also

Russian anarchism is Anarchism in Russia or among Russians. Bakunin and the anarchists' exile See also Exile In 1848
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