| Korean War | |||||||
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| Part of the Cold War | |||||||
 Clockwise, from top: American trucks crossing the 38th Parallel, F-86 Sabre flying over Korea, the port in Incheon where the Battle of Inchon commenced, Chinese soldiers being welcomed back after the war, and USA 2nd Lieutenant Baldomero Lopez climbing the seawall in Inchon. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The 38th parallel north is a Circle of latitude that is 38 degrees north of the Earth's equatorial plane. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Incheon is a metropolitan city and a major seaport on the west coast of South Korea, near Seoul. The Battle of Incheon (인천 상륙 작전 Incheon Sangryuk Jakjeon; Code name: Operation Chromite) was an amphibious invasion and battle of Lieutenant (abbreviated Lt or Lieut) is a Military, Naval, Paramilitary, Fire service, Emergency medical services Baldomero Lopez (August 23 1925 &ndash September 15 1950 was a first lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps during the Korean War. |
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| Belligerents | |||||||
 United Nations:
Naval Support and Military Servicing/Repairs: |
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| Commanders | |||||||
 Syngman Rhee
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 Kim Il-sung
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| Strength | |||||||
| 590,911
Total: 941,356–1,139,518 |
260,000
Total: 1,066,000 Note: All figures may vary according to source. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. The Ethiopian Empire, also known as Abyssinia, was in what is now Ethiopia and Eritrea. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Kingdom of Greece ( Greek:, Vasíleion tīs Elládos) was a state established in 1832 in the Convention of London by the Great Luxembourg (Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg Grand-Duché de Luxembourg Großherzogtum Luxemburg is a small Landlocked country in Western Europe, bordered by The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP } The Union of South Africa is the historic predecessor to the present-day state of the Republic of South Africa. The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Syngman Rhee or Yi Seungman ( March 26, 1875 – July 19, 1965) was the first president of South Korea. General Chung Il-kwon ( November 21 1917 - January 17 1994) was a South Korean general during the Korean War. General Paik Sun-yup (born November 23, 1920) is a Korean military officer of Manchukuo and the Republic of Korea. General MacArthur redirects here for other meanings see General MacArthur (disambiguation. Matthew Bunker Ridgway ( March 3, 1895 &ndash July 26, 1993) was a United States Army General. Mark Wayne Clark ( May 1, 1896 – April 17, 1984) was an American general during World War II and the Korean War Kim Il-sung ( 15 April 1912 – 8 July 1994) was the leader of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea from its founding in early Choi Yong-Kun (1900 or 1903 - 1972 was the Korean People's Army chief commander from 1948 to 1953 North Korean Defence minister from 1953 to 1957 and the Mao Zedong ( 26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Military and political leader who led Peng Dehuai ( ( October 24, 1898 - November 29 1974) was a prominent military leader of the Communist Party of China, and Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party This measures peak strength as sizes changed during the war. |
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| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| South Korea: 58,127 combat deaths 175,743 wounded 80,000 MIA or POW[6] United States: |
North Korea: 215,000 dead, 303,000 wounded, 120,000 MIA or POW[9] China |
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| Civilians killed/wounded (total Koreans) = Millions | |||||||
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The Korean War was an escalation of border clashes between two rival Korean regimes, each of which was supported by external powers, with each trying to topple the other through political and conventional tactics. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. In a very narrow sense, some may refer to it as a civil war, though many other factors were at play. A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state [17] After failing to strengthen their cause in the free elections held in South Korea during May 1950[18] and the refusal of South Korea to hold new elections per North Korean demands, the communist North Korean Army assaulted the South on June 25, 1950. South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, Events 524 - Battle of Vézeronce, the Franks defeat the Burgundians Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The conflict was then expanded by the United States and the Soviet Union's involvement as part of the larger Cold War. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The main hostilities were during the period from June 25, 1950 until the armistice (ceasefire agreement) was signed on July 27, 1953. Events 524 - Battle of Vézeronce, the Franks defeat the Burgundians Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. An armistice is a situation where the warring parties agree to stop fighting Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
In South Korea, the war is often called 6·25 or 6·25 War (Korean: 6·25 전쟁), from the date of the start of the conflict or, more formally, Hanguk Jeonjaeng (Korean: 한국전쟁; Hanja: 韓國戰爭, literally "Korean War"). This article is mainly about the spoken Korean language See Hangul for details on the native Korean writing system This article is mainly about the spoken Korean language See Hangul for details on the native Korean writing system Hanja is the Korean name for Chinese characters. More specifically it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated In North Korea, while commonly known as the Korean War, it is formally called the Jogug Gaebang Jeonjaeng or Fatherland Liberation War (Korean: 조국해방전쟁; Hanja: 祖國解放戰爭). In the United States, the conflict was officially termed a police action — the Korean Conflict — rather than a war, largely in order to avoid the necessity of a declaration of war by the U.S. Congress. Police action in Military / Security studies and International relations, is a Euphemism for a military action undertaken without a formal A Declaration of war is a formal declaration issued by a national Government indicating that a state of War exists between that nation and another The war is sometimes called The Forgotten War or The Unknown War because it is a major conflict of the 20th century that gets far less attention than World War II, which preceded it, and the Vietnam War, which succeeded it. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia [19] Ironically, the war was a unique combination of the techniques utilized in both World War I and World War II, beginning with swift, fast paced infantry advances following well choreographed bombing raids from the air. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All However, following both sides' failures at holding the land captured, battles quickly evolved into World War I type trench warfare in January 1951, lasting until the essential border stalemate at the end. Trench warfare is a form of warfare where both combatants have fortified positions and fighting lines are static Stalemate is a situation in Chess where the player whose turn it is to move is not in check but has no legal moves In China, the conflict was known as the War to Resist America and Aid Korea (抗美援朝), but is today commonly called the "Korean War" (朝鮮 戰爭 Chaoxian Zhanzheng,[20] 韓國戰爭 Hanguo Zhanzheng, or simply 韓戰 Hanzhan).
Contents |
Last Japanese occupation
Korea had been a unified country since the 7th century. During the 19th century imperialist nations threatened Korea's long standing sovereignty. After defeating China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95, the Japanese forces remained in Korea, occupying strategically important parts of the country. The First Sino-Japanese War ( 日清戦争 Romaji: Nisshin Sensō ( 1 August 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a war fought between The Empire of Japan ( {{unicode|Kyūjitai}}: ja 大日本帝國 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国 pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku Ten years later, they defeated the Russian navy in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), contributing to Japan's emergence as an imperial power. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The Russo-Japanese War (日露戦争 Romaji: Nichi-Ro Sensō Русско-японская война Russko-Yaponskaya Voyna;, 10 February 1904 – 5 September [21] The Japanese continued to occupy the peninsula against the wishes of the Korean government and people, expanded their control over local institutions through force, and finally annexed Korea in August 1910. Korea under Japanese rule refers to the period between 1910 and 1945 when Korea was forcibly annexed by the Japanese Empire. [22]
At the close of World War II, forces of both the Soviet Union and the United States occupied the Korean peninsula in accordance with an agreement put forth by the United States government. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Physical geography See also Geography of North Korea, Geography of South Korea Mountains cover 70 percent of the Korean Peninsula and arable plains are The Soviet forces entered the Korean peninsula on August 10, 1945, followed a few weeks later by the American forces who entered through Inchon. Physical geography See also Geography of North Korea, Geography of South Korea Mountains cover 70 percent of the Korean Peninsula and arable plains are Events 612 BC - Killing of Sinsharishkun, King of Assyrian Empire Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar Incheon is a metropolitan city and a major seaport on the west coast of South Korea, near Seoul. U. S. Army Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge formally accepted the surrender of Japanese forces south of the 38th Parallel on September 9, 1945 at the Government House in Seoul. Events 1000 - Battle of Svolder, Viking Age. 1379 - Treaty of Neuberg, splitting the Austrian Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar [23]
Many Korean people had organized politically prior to the arrival of American troops. [24]
Post-World War II division of Korea
The eventual division of Korea was considered at the Potsdam Conference,[23] boundaries weren't discussed and the wishes of the Korean people to be free of foreign interference were not considered, though Churchill, Chiang and Roosevelt had stated a determination for Korean independence and freedom at the Cairo Conference. The Potsdam Conference was held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm Hohenzollern, in Potsdam, Germany, from July 16, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC, PC (Can ( 30 November 1874 Chiang Kai-shek ( POJ: Chiúⁿ Kài-se̍k Jyutping: zoeng2gaai3sek6 GCB ( October 31, 1887 &ndash The Cairo Conference (codenamed "SEXTANT" of November 22 - 26 November 1943 held in Cairo, Egypt, addressed the Allied During the earlier Yalta Conference in February 1945, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin called for “buffer zones” in both Asia and Europe. The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and Codenamed the Argonaut Conference, was the wartime meeting from 4 February Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party [25] Stalin believed that Russia should have preeminence in China, and in return he would enter into the war against Japan “three months after the surrender of Germany. ”[25] On August 6, 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on the Japanese Empire and, on August 8, began an attack on the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar Events 1220 - Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula. As agreed with the United States, the USSR halted its troops at the 38th parallel on August 26. The 38th parallel north is a Circle of latitude that is 38 degrees north of the Earth's equatorial plane. Events 1071 - Battle of Manzikert: The Seljuk Turks defeat the Byzantine Army at Manzikert. However, on September 3 Lt. Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius Gen. John R. Hodge, commander of XXIV Corps and designated U. S. Commander in Korea, received a radio message from Lt. Gen. Yoshio Kozuki, commander of the Japanese 17th Area Army in Korea, reporting that Soviet forces had advanced south of the 38th Parallel only in the Kaesong area. [23] U. S. troops arrived in the southern part of the peninsula in early September 1945.
On August 10, 1945, with the Japanese surrender imminent, the American government was unsure whether the Soviets would adhere to the proposal arranged by the U. Events 612 BC - Killing of Sinsharishkun, King of Assyrian Empire Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar S. government. A month earlier, Colonels Dean Rusk and Charles Bonesteel, after deciding that at least two major ports should be included in the U. David Dean Rusk ( February 9, 1909 &ndash December 20, 1994) was the United States Secretary of State from 1961 to 1969 under presidents General Charles Hartwell Bonesteel III ( New York City September 26, 1909 - Alexandria Virginia October 13, 1977) was an S. zone, had drawn the dividing line at the 38th parallel in less than one-half an hour using a National Geographic map for reference. Overview The NGS's historical mission is "to increase and diffuse geographic knowledge while promoting the conservation of the world's cultural historical and natural [23][26][27][28] Rusk, later U. S. Secretary of State, commented that the American military was “faced with the scarcity of U. S. forces immediately available and time and space factors which would make it difficult to reach very far north before Soviet troops could enter the area. ”[25]
The USSR agreed to the 38th Parallel being the demarcation between occupation zones in the Korean peninsula, partly to better their position in the negotiations with the Allies over eastern Europe. It was agreed that the USSR would receive surrendering Japanese troops on the northern part of Korea; the U. S. , on the southern side. The Soviet forces entered and liberated the northern part of the peninsula weeks prior to the entry of American forces. In accordance with the arrangements made with the American government, the Soviet forces halted their advance at the 38th parallel.
The American forces arrived in Korea in early September. One of Hodge's first directives was to restore many Japanese colonial administrators and collaborators to their previous positions of power within Korea. This policy was understandably very unpopular among Koreans who had suffered horribly under Japanese colonial rule for 35 years, and would prove to have enormous consequences for the American occupation. [18]
A second policy set forth by Hodge was to refuse to recognize the existing political organizations that had been established by the Korean people. Hodge sought to establish firm U. S. control over events through out the southern half of the peninsula. [21] These policies would help give rise to the later insurrections and guerrilla warfare that preceded the outbreak of the civil war. [21]
In December 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to administer the country under the U. S. -Soviet Joint Commission, as termed by the Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers. The Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers (also know as the Interim Meeting of Foreign Ministers) of the United States ( James F It was agreed that Korea would govern independently after four years of international oversight. However, both the U. S. and the USSR approved Korean-led governments in their respective halves, each of which were favorable to the occupying power's political ideology. Some elements of the population responded with violent insurrections in the North and protests in the South. [21] The USAMGIK tried to contain civil violence by banning strikes on December 8 and outlawing the revolutionary government and the people's committees on December 12. The United States Army Military Government in Korea, also known as USAMGIK, was the official ruling body of the southern half of the Korean Peninsula from Events 1609 - Biblioteca Ambrosiana opens its reading room the second public library of Europe. Events 627 - Battle of Nineveh: A Byzantine army under Emperor Heraclius defeats Emperor Khosrau II 's Persian Things spiraled quickly out of control, however, with a massive strike on September 23 1946 by 8,000 railway workers in Busan which quickly spread to other cities in the South. Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English The Daegu uprising occurred on October 1, where police attempts to control rioters caused the death of three student demonstrators and injuries to many others, sparking a mass counter-attack killing 38 policemen. Events 331 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela. Over in Yeongcheon, a police station came under attack by a 10,000-strong crowd on October 3, killing over 40 policemen and the county chief. Yeongcheon is a city in North Gyeongsang Province South Korea. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Other attacks killed about 20 landlords and pro-Japanese officials. The US administration responded by declaring martial law, firing into crowds of demonstrators and killing an unknown number of people[29].
In South Korea, an anti-trusteeship right wing group known as the Representative Democratic Council emerged, this group came to oppose these U. The Representative Democratic Council was a group that emerged in Korea after World War II. S. sponsored agreements. Because Koreans had suffered under Japanese colonization for 35 years, most Koreans opposed another period of foreign control. This opposition caused the U. S. to abandon the Soviet supported Moscow Accords. The Americans did not want a communist government in South Korea so they called for elections in all of Korea. Since the population of the South was double that of the North, the Soviets knew that Kim Il-sung would lose the election. Kim Il-sung ( 15 April 1912 – 8 July 1994) was the leader of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea from its founding in early
The government that emerged was led by anti-communist U. Anti-communism refers to opposition to Communism. Historically the word "communism" has been used to refer to several types of communal social organization and S. -educated strongman Syngman Rhee, a Korean who had been imprisoned by the Japanese as a young man and later fled to the United States. A strongman is a political leader who rules by force and runs an Authoritarian regime Syngman Rhee or Yi Seungman ( March 26, 1875 – July 19, 1965) was the first president of South Korea. [30] The Soviets, in turn, approved and furthered the rise of a Communist government in the North. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Bolstered by his history as an anti-Japanese fighter, his political skills, and his connections with the Soviet Union, Kim Il-sung rose to become leader of this new government and crushed any opposition to his rule by the summer of 1947. Kim Il-sung ( 15 April 1912 – 8 July 1994) was the leader of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea from its founding in early [17] In the south, those who supported Communism were driven into hiding in the hills, where they prepared for a guerrilla war against the American supported government. [17]
 History of Korea |
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Prehistory |
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By 1949, both the Soviets and Americans had withdrawn all but advisors in Korea. The history of Korea stretches from Lower Paleolithic times to the present Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. This article is about the prehistory of the Korean Peninsula, from circa 500000 BCE through 300 BCE The Jeulmun Pottery Period is an archaeological era in Korean prehistory that dates to approximately 8000-1500 B The Mumun pottery period is an Archaeological era in Korean prehistory that dates to approximately 1500-300 BC Gojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom considered the first proper nation of the Korean people. Jin state was an early Iron Age state which occupied some portion of the southern Korean peninsula during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE bordering the Korean Proto-Three Kingdoms of Korea refers to the period after the fall of Gojoseon and before the maturation of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla into Buyeo, Puyŏ, or Fuyu was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd Okjeo was a small tribal state which arose in the northern Korean peninsula from perhaps 2nd century BCE to 5th century CE Dongye was a state which occupied portions of the northeastern Korean peninsula from roughly 150 BCE to around 400 CE Samhan refers to the ancient confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan in central and southern Korean peninsula Mahan was a loose confederacy of statelets that existed from around the 100BCE-300CE in the southern Korean peninsula in the Chungcheong Byeonhan, also known as Byeonjin, was a loose confederacy of chiefdoms that existed from around the beginning of the Common Era to the 4th century in the Jinhan was a loose confederacy of chiefdoms that existed from around the 1st century BC to the 4th century CE in the southern Korean peninsula, to the east of the Nakdong The Three Kingdoms of Korea ( refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula Goguryeo or Koguryo was an ancient Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean peninsula, southern Manchuria, and Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE or Paekche, was a kingdom located in southwest Korea Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Gaya was a confederacy of territorial polities in the Nakdong River basin of southern Korea, growing out of the Byeonhan confederacy of the Samhan North South States Period ( 698 CE - 936 CE refers to the period in Korean history when Silla and Balhae Unified Silla ( 668 CE - 935 CE or Later Silla is the name often applied to the kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Alternate meaning Bohai Sea Balhae (698 - 926 ( Bohai in Chinese, Пархэ in Russian) was an The Later Three Kingdoms of Korea (892 - 936 consisted of Silla, Hubaekje ("Later Baekje " and Taebong (also known as Hugoguryeo The Goryeo Dynasty ( 918 - 1392) (also spelled Koryŏ was a Sovereign state established in 918 by Taejo Wang Kon. The Mongol invasions of Korea (1231 - 1273 consisted of a series of campaigns by the Mongol Empire against Korea, then known as Goryeo, from 1231 to 1259 Two Japanese invasions of Korea and subsequent battles on the Korean peninsula took place during the years 1592-1598 The First Manchu invasion of Korea occurred in 1627 when Hong Taiji led the Manchu army against Korea 's Joseon dynasty. The Korean Empire was a former small empire of Korea that lasted from the Gwangmu Restoration of 1897 until Japan 's annexation of Korea in 1910 Korea under Japanese rule refers to the period between 1910 and 1945 when Korea was forcibly annexed by the Japanese Empire. The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was a Government in exile based in Shanghai, China and later in Chongqing, during the The division of Korea into North Korea and South Korea stems from the 1945 Allied victory in World War II, ending Japan For the history of Korea before its division, see History of Korea. For the history of the Korea before its division, see History of Korea. The Korean Dynasties are listed in the order of their fall This list includes the monarchs' romanized posthumous or Temple names and reign dates This is a Timeline of the History of Korea. Some dates prior to the 6th century CE are speculative or approximate Korea ' s military history spans back thousands of years beginning with the kingdom of Gojoseon and its repulsions of ancient China The naval history of Korea dates back to the Three Kingdoms of Korea period when simple fishing ships were used Like most other regions in the world science and technology in Korea has experienced periods of intense growth as well as long periods of stagnation
South Korean President Syngman Rhee and North Korean General Secretary Kim Il-Sung were each intent on reuniting the peninsula under his own system. Syngman Rhee or Yi Seungman ( March 26, 1875 – July 19, 1965) was the first president of South Korea. The term General Secretary (alternatively First Secretary) denotes a leader of various unions parties churches or associations Kim Il-sung ( 15 April 1912 – 8 July 1994) was the leader of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea from its founding in early Partly because of numbers of Soviet tanks and heavy arms, the North Koreans were able to escalate ongoing border clashes and go on the offensive, while South Korea, with only limited American backing, had far fewer options. The American government believed at the time that the Communist bloc was a unified monolith, and that North Korea acted within this monolith as a pawn of the Soviet Union. During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991
Prelude to war
Rhee and Kim competed to reunite the peninsula, with each of them using military attacks along the border throughout 1949 and early 1950. [31][32] Although Kim and his close associates believed in unifying Korea by force, Stalin was reluctant to embark on a course that might provoke a war with the United States. [33]
On January 12, 1950, United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson gave a speech declaring that America’s Pacific defense perimeter was made up of the Aleutians, Ryukyu, Japan, and the Philippines, implying that America might not fight over Korea. Events 475 - Basiliscus becomes Byzantine Emperor, with a coronation ceremony in the Hebdomon palace in Constantinople Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The United States Secretary of State (commonly abbreviated as SecState) is the head of the United States Department of State, concerned with Foreign affairs Dean Gooderham Acheson ( April 11, 1893 — October 12, 1971) was an American statesman and lawyer as United States The Aleutian Islands (possibly from Chukchi aliat, " Island " are a chain of more than 300 small volcanic islands forming a Volcanic The Ryukyu Islands, in Japanese called the (literally Southwest Islands are a chain of Japanese islands in the western Pacific Ocean at the eastern limit For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Acheson said Korea’s defense would be the responsibility of the United Nations. [34]
In mid 1949, Kim Il-Sung pressed his case with Joseph Stalin that the time had come for a reunification of the Korean Peninsula. Kim needed Soviet support to successfully execute an offensive far across a rugged, mountainous peninsula. Stalin, however refused support, concerned with the relative lack of preparedness of the North Korean armed forces and with possible U. S. involvement.
Over the next year, the North Korean leadership molded its army into a relatively formidable offensive war machine modeled partly on a Soviet mechanized force but strengthened primarily by an influx of Korean veterans who had served with the Chinese People's Liberation Army since the 1930s. The People's Liberation Army ( PLA) ( is the unified Military organization of all land sea and air forces of the People's Republic of China. By early 1950 the possibility of reunification through insurgency seemed closed, and Rhee's regime was gaining in strength if not popularity. Kim was left with the sole option of conventional invasion if he wished to unify Korea as a communist dictatorship before the Southern government became strong enough to defend itself. [33] By 1950, the North Korean military was equipped with modern Soviet weaponry, and it enjoyed substantial advantages over the Southern forces in virtually every category of equipment. On January 30, 1950, Stalin, via telegram, informed Kim Il Sung that he was willing to help Kim in his plan to unify Korea. Events 1648 - Eighty Years' War: The Treaty of Münster is signed ending the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In the discussions with Kim that followed, Stalin suggested that he wanted lead and said that a yearly minimum of 25,000 tons would help. After another visit by Kim to Moscow in March and April 1950, Stalin approved an attack. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of [30][35] Coincidentally, on March 9, 1950, North Korea had agreed to send to the Soviet Union 9 tons of gold, 40 tons of silver, and 15,000 tons of monazite concentrate as payment for additional Soviet arms, ammunition and military technical equipment. Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia. Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In Geology, the Mineral monazite is a reddish-brown Phosphate -containing rare earth metals and an important source of Thorium [36]
Course
Invasion of South Korea
Under the guise of a counter-attack, the North Korean Army struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, June 25, 1950, crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery. The Korean People's Army (short KPA is the Military of North Korea. Events 524 - Battle of Vézeronce, the Franks defeat the Burgundians Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The North claimed Republic of Korea Army (ROK) troops under the “bandit traitor Syngman Rhee" had crossed the border first, and that Rhee would be arrested and executed. The Republic of Korea Army ( ROK Army, ROKA, Korean: 대한민국 육군 Hanja: 大韓民國 陸軍 is by far the largest of the military branches Syngman Rhee or Yi Seungman ( March 26, 1875 – July 19, 1965) was the first president of South Korea. [23]
At the outbreak of war, the North Korean Army was equipped with 150 Soviet-made tanks, about 40 YAK fighters, 70 attack bombers, 60 YAK trainers and 10 reconnaissance planes. [23] These aircraft were assigned to the invasion while 114 more planes were serving in North Korea. Their navy had several small warships, and launched attacks on the South Korean Navy. North Korea's most serious weakness was its lack of a reliable logistics system for moving supplies south as the army advanced, but the South Korean forces were weak and ill-equipped compared to the North Koreans. Thousands of Korean civilians running south were forced to hand-carry supplies, many of whom later died in North Korean air attacks.
The South Korean Army had 150,000 soldiers armed, trained, and equipped by the U. S. military, and as a force was deficient in armor and artillery. The South Korean military had only 40 tanks, 14 attack planes, and few anti-tank weapons. There were no large foreign combat units in the country when the war began, but there were large American forces stationed in nearby Japan. [23] .
The North's well-planned attack with about 415,000 troops achieved surprise and quick successes. [23] North Korea attacked a number of key places including Kaesŏng, Chuncheon, Uijeongbu and Ongjin. Kaesŏng ( Gaeseong) is a city in North Hwanghae Province southern North Korea (DPRK a former Directly Governed City, and the capital of Chuncheon ( Chuncheon-si) is the capital of Gangwon Province South Korea. Uijeongbu (ɰidʑʌŋbu is a city in Gyeonggi Province South Korea. Ongjin is a county in southern South Hwanghae province North Korea.
Within days, South Korean forces, outnumbered, outgunned, and often of dubious loyalty to the Southern regime, were in full retreat or defecting en masse to the North. As the ground attack continued, the North Korean Air Force conducted bombing of Kimpo Airport near Seoul. Gimpo International Airport (김포국제공항 commonly known as Gimpo Airport (formerly Kimpo International Airport) is located in the far western end of Seoul Seoul ( soʊl is the Capital and largest City of South Korea. North Korean forces occupied Seoul on the afternoon of June 28. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul.
However, North Korea's hope for a quick surrender by the Rhee government and the reunification of the peninsula evaporated when the United States and other foreign powers intervened with UN approval.
U. S. intervention
Despite the post-World War II demobilization of U. S. and allied forces, which caused serious supply problems for American troops in the region, the United States still had substantial forces in Japan to oppose the North Korean military. These American forces were under the command of General Douglas MacArthur. General of the Army (GA is a five-star General officer and is the highest possible rank in the United States Army. General MacArthur redirects here for other meanings see General MacArthur (disambiguation. Apart from British Commonwealth units, no other nation could supply sizable manpower. British Commonwealth Forces Korea (BCFK was the formal name from 1952 of the Commonwealth army naval and air units serving with the United Nations (UN in the
On being told of the outbreak of large-scale hostilities in Korea, Truman ordered MacArthur to transfer munitions to the ROK Army, while using air cover to protect the evacuation of U. S. citizens. Truman did not agree with his advisors, who called for unilateral U. S. airstrikes against the North Korean forces, but did order the Seventh Fleet to protect Chiang Kai-Shek's Taiwan. The Seventh Fleet is the United States Navy's permanent forward projection force based in Yokosuka, Japan, with units positioned near South Korea Chiang Kai-shek ( POJ: Chiúⁿ Kài-se̍k Jyutping: zoeng2gaai3sek6 GCB ( October 31, 1887 &ndash REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES The Nationalist government (confined to Taiwan) asked to participate in the war. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. Their request was denied by the Americans, who felt that it would only encourage PRC intervention.
The first significant foreign military intervention was the American Task Force Smith, part of the U.S. Army’s 24th Infantry Division based in Japan. The Battle of Osan was the first engagement between United States and North Korean forces during the Korean War. The United States Army is a military organization whose primary mission is to "provide necessary forces and capabilities. The 24th Infantry Division, nicknamed the Victory Division, is an inactive Infantry division of the United States Army. On July 5, it fought for the first time at Osan and was defeated with heavy losses. Events 1295 - Scotland and France form an alliance the beginnings of the Auld Alliance, against England. Osan is a city in Gyeonggi Province South Korea, approximately 35 km south of Seoul. The victorious North Korean forces advanced southwards, and the half-strength 24th Division was forced to retreat to Taejeon, which also fell to the Northern forces. Daejeon ( is a capital city of Chungcheongnamdo Province and metropolitan city in the center of South Korea. Major General William F. Dean, commander of the division, was taken prisoner. William F Dean (August 1 1899&ndashAugust 24 1981 was a Soldier in the United States Army during World War II and the Korean War.
By August, the South Korean forces and the U.S. Eighth Army under General Walton Walker had been driven back into a small area in the southeast corner of the Korean peninsula around the city of Pusan. Walton Harris Walker ( December 3, 1889 &mdash December 23, 1950) was an American army officer and the first commander of the U As the North Koreans advanced, they rounded up and killed civil servants. On August 20, MacArthur sent a message warning Kim Il Sung that he would be held responsible for further atrocities committed against UN troops. Events 636 - Battle of Yarmouk: Arab forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid take control of Syria and Palestine [30]
By September, only the area around Pusan — about 10 percent of the Korean peninsula — was still in coalition hands. With the aid of massive American supplies, air support, and additional reinforcements, the UN forces managed to stabilize a line along the Nakdong River. The Nakdong River ( Rakdong in North Korean is the longest River in South Korea, and passes through major cities such as Daegu and This desperate holding action became known in the United States as the Pusan Perimeter. The Battle of Pusan Perimeter was fought in August and September 1950 between United Nations Command forces combined with South Korean forces and the forces of
Escalation of the Korean war
In the face of fierce North Korean attacks, the allied defense became a desperate battle called the Battle of Pusan Perimeter by Americans. The Battle of Pusan Perimeter was fought in August and September 1950 between United Nations Command forces combined with South Korean forces and the forces of However, the North Koreans failed to capture Pusan.
American air power arrived in force, flying 40 sorties per day in ground support actions, targeting North Korean forces. Sortie is a term for deployment or dispatch of one military unit be it of Aircraft, Ship or in older times of columns of troops from a fort Strategic bombers (mostly B-29s based in Japan) closed most rail and road traffic by day, and destroyed 32 critical bridges necessary for the conduct of warfare. A strategic bomber is a heavy type Aircraft designed to drop large amounts of ordnance onto a distant target for the purposes of debilitating an enemy's Trains used by military and civilians alike waited out the daylight hours in tunnels.
Throughout all parts of Korea, the American bombers knocked out the main supply dumps and eliminated oil refineries and seaports that handled imports to starve North Korean forces of ammunition and other martial supplies. Naval air power also attacked transportation choke points. The North Korean forces were already strung out over the peninsula, and the destruction caused by American bombers prevented needed supplies from reaching North Korean forces in the south.
Meanwhile, supply bases in Japan were pouring weapons and soldiers into Pusan. American tank battalions were rushed in from San Francisco; by late August, America had over 500 medium tanks in the Pusan perimeter. The City and County of San Francisco is the fourth most populous city By early September, UN-ROK forces were decidedly more powerful and outnumbered the North Koreans by 180,000 to 100,000. At that point, they began a counterattack. [23]
South Korean and allied forces move north
In the face of these overwhelming reinforcements, the North Korean forces found themselves undermanned and with weak logistical support. The Battle of Incheon (인천 상륙 작전 Incheon Sangryuk Jakjeon; Code name: Operation Chromite) was an amphibious invasion and battle of They also lacked the substantial naval and air support of the Americans. In order to alleviate pressure on the Pusan Perimeter, General MacArthur, as UN commander-in-chief for Korea, argued for an amphibious landing far behind the North Korean lines at Inchon (인천; 仁川). A commander-in-chief is the Commander of a nation's Military forces or significant element of those forces
The violent tides and strong enemy presence made this an extremely risky operation. MacArthur had started planning a few days after the war began, but he had been strongly opposed by the Pentagon. When he finally received permission, MacArthur activated the X Corps under General Edward Almond (comprising 70,000 troops of the 1st Marine Division and the Army’s 7th Infantry Division and augmented by 8,600 Korean troops) and ordered them to land at Inchon in Operation Chromite. X Corps was a Corps of the United States Army in World War II and the Korean War. Edward Mallory Almond ( December 12, 1892 &ndash June 11, 1979) was a controversial United States Army general best known as the commander The 1st Marine Division is the oldest largest (active duty and most decorated division in the United States Marine Corps representing a combat-ready force The 7th Infantry Division, nicknamed Lightfighters or Bayonet was an infantry division of the United States Army. The Battle of Incheon (인천 상륙 작전 Incheon Sangryuk Jakjeon; Code name: Operation Chromite) was an amphibious invasion and battle of By the time of the attack on September 15, thanks to reconnaissance by guerrillas, misinformation and extensive shelling prior to the invasion, the North Korean military had few soldiers stationed in Inchon, so the U. Events 668 - Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II is assassinated in his bath at Syracuse Italy. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc S. forces met only light resistance when they landed.
The landing was a decisive victory, as X Corps rolled over the few defenders and threatened to trap the main North Korean army. MacArthur quickly recaptured Seoul. The North Koreans, almost cut off, rapidly retreated northwards; about 25,000 to 30,000 made it back. [37][38]
Invasion of North Korea
The United Nations troops drove the North Koreans back past the 38th parallel. The first United Nations (UN offensive during the Korean War began on September 15, 1950, with the U
The UN forces crossed into North Korea in early October 1950. The U. S. X Corps made amphibious landings at Wonsan and Iwon, which had already been captured by South Korean forces advancing by land. IWoncom is a free Casual game site and web portal that offers the chance to win cash and prizes through activities such as clicking through The Eighth U. S. Army, along with the South Koreans, drove up the western side of Korea and captured Pyongyang on October 19. Pyongyang (pʰjʌŋjaŋ is the Capital and largest City of North Korea, located on the Taedong River, at. Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal. By the end of October, the North Korean Army was rapidly disintegrating, and the UN took 135,000 prisoners.
The UN offensive greatly concerned the Chinese, who worried that the UN forces would not stop at the Yalu River, the border between North Korea and China, and might extend their rollback policy into China. The Yalu River ( Chinese) or the Amnok River ( Korean) is a River on the border between China and North Korea. Many in the West, including General MacArthur, thought that spreading the war to China would be necessary and that since North Korean troops were being supplied by bases in China, those supply depots should be bombed. However, Truman and the other leaders disagreed, and MacArthur was ordered to be very cautious when approaching the Chinese border.
Chinese intervention
China warned American leaders through neutral diplomats that it would intervene to protect its national security. National security is the entire scope of measures undertaken by the Governments of Nation-states in providing assurance of national Sovereignty Truman regarded the warnings as “a bald attempt to blackmail the U. N. ” and did not take it seriously. [39] The Chinese Government argued that in making Japan its main war base in the Far East, launching an invasion against Korea and the Chinese province of Taiwan, and carrying out active intervention in other countries in Asia, the United States was building up a military encirclement of China. [40]
On October 15, 1950, Truman went to Wake Island for a short, highly publicized meeting with MacArthur. Events 533 - Byzantine General Belisarius makes his formal entry into Carthage, having conquered it from the Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Wake Island (also known as Wake Atoll) is a Coral atoll having a Coastline of 12 miles (19 kilometers in the North Pacific Ocean The CIA had previously told Truman that Chinese involvement was unlikely. near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all MacArthur, saying he was speculating, saw little risk. MacArthur explained that the Chinese had lost their window of opportunity to help North Korea’s invasion. He estimated the Chinese had 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria, with between 100,000-125,000 men along the Yalu; half could be brought across the Yalu. But the Chinese had no air force; hence, “if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter. ”[37][41] MacArthur assumed that Chinese wished to avoid heavy casualties.
On October 8, 1950, the day after American troops crossed the 38th parallel, Chairman Mao Zedong issued the order to assemble the Chinese People’s Volunteer Army. Events 314 - Roman Emperor Licinius is defeated by his colleague Constantine I at the Battle of Cibalae, and loses Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Mao Zedong ( 26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Military and political leader who led The Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA ( was the Army deployed by the Chinese government during the Korean War. Seventy percent of the members of the PVA were Chinese regulars from the Chinese People’s Liberation Army. The People's Liberation Army ( PLA) ( is the unified Military organization of all land sea and air forces of the People's Republic of China. Mao ordered the army to move to the Yalu River, ready to cross. Mao sought Soviet aid and saw intervention as essentially defensive: “If we allow the U. S. to occupy all of Korea… we must be prepared for the U. S. to declare… war with China,” he told Stalin. Premier Zhou Enlai was sent to Moscow to add force to Mao’s cabled arguments. Zhou Enlai ( (5 March 1898 – 8 January 1976 was the first Premier of the People's Republic of China, serving from 1949 until his death in January 1976 Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Mao delayed while waiting for substantial Soviet help, postponing the planned attack from October 13 to October 19. Events 54 - Nero ascends to the Roman throne 409 - Vandals and Alans crossed the Pyrenees Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal. However, Soviet assistance was limited to providing air support no nearer than sixty miles (100 km) from the battlefront. The Soviet MiG-15s in PRC colors did pose a serious challenge to UN pilots. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout In one area nicknamed “MiG Alley” by UN forces, they held local air superiority against the American-made Lockheed F-80 Shooting Stars until the newer North American F-86 Sabres were deployed. "MiG Alley" is the name given by US Air Force pilots to the northwestern portion of North Korea, where the Yalu River empties into the Yellow WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The Chinese were angry at the limited extent of Soviet involvement, having assumed that they had been promised full scale air support.
The Chinese made contact with American troops on November 1, 1950. Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Thousands of Chinese had attacked from the north, northwest, and west against scattered U. S. and South Korean (Republic of Korea or ROK) units moving deep into North Korea. The Chinese seemed to come out of nowhere as they swarmed around the flanks and over the defensive positions of the surprised United Nations (UN) troops. [42]
U. S. intelligence, sketchy during this phase for various reasons, did not work as well in North Korea as it had in South Korea during the days of the Pusan Perimeter. The Chinese march and bivouac discipline also minimized any possible detection. A bivouac (pronounced /ˈbɪvuˌæk/ biv-oo-ak traditionally refers to a military encampment made with Tents or improvised shelters usually without shelter or protection from In a well-documented instance, a Chinese army of three divisions marched on foot from An-tung in Manchuria, on the north side of the Yalu River, 286 miles (460 km) to its assembly area in North Korea, in the combat zone, in a period ranging from 16 to 19 days. A division is a large Military unit or formation usually consisting of around ten to thirty thousand soldiers One division of this army, marching at night over circuitous mountain roads, averaged 18 miles (29 km) per day for 18 days. The day's march began after dark at 19:00 and ended at 03:00 the next morning. Defense measures against aircraft were to be completed before 05:30. Every man, animal, and piece of equipment were to be concealed and camouflaged. During daylight, bivouac scouting parties moved ahead to select the next day's bivouac area. When Chinese units were compelled for any reason to march by day, they were under standing orders for every man to stop in his tracks and remain motionless if aircraft appeared overhead. Officers were empowered to shoot any man who violated this order. [23]
In late November, the Chinese struck in the west, along the Chongchon River, and completely overran several South Korean divisions and successfully landed a heavy blow to the flank of the remaining UN forces. The ensuing defeat of the U. S. Eighth Army resulted in the longest retreat of any American military unit in history. [43] In the east, at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, a 30,000 man unit from the U.S. 7th Infantry Division and U.S. Marine Corps was also unprepared for the Chinese tactics and was soon surrounded, though they eventually managed to escape the encirclement, albeit with over 15,000 casualties, after inflicting heavy casualties on six Chinese divisions. The Battle of Chosin Reservoir was a battle in the Korean War, in which 30000 United Nations (UN troops (nicknamed the "Frozen Chosin" or "The The 7th Infantry Division, nicknamed Lightfighters or Bayonet was an infantry division of the United States Army. Encirclement is a military term for the situation when a force or target is isolated and surrounded by enemy forces [44]
While the Chinese soldiers initially lacked heavy fire support and light infantry weapons, their tactics quickly adapted to this disadvantage, as explained by Bevin Alexander in his book How Wars Are Won:
- "The usual method was to infiltrate small units, from a platoon of fifty men to a company of 200, split into separate detachments. Bevin Alexander is a military historian and author He served as an officer during the Korean War as part of the 5th Historical Detachment A platoon is a military unit typically composed of two to four sections or Squads and containing about 30 to 50 soldiers A company is a Military unit, typically consisting of 75-200 Soldiers Most companies are formed of three to five Platoons although the exact number may vary While one team cut off the escape route of the Americans, the others struck both the front and the flanks in concerted assaults. The attacks continued on all sides until the defenders were destroyed or forced to withdraw. The Chinese then crept forward to the open flank of the next platoon position, and repeated the tactics. "
Roy Appleman further clarified the initial Chinese tactics as:
- "In the First Phase Offensive, highly skilled enemy light infantry troops had carried out the Chinese attacks, generally unaided by any weapons larger than mortars. Their attacks had demonstrated that the Chinese were well-trained disciplined fire fighters, and particularly adept at night fighting. They were masters of the art of camouflage. Their patrols were remarkably successful in locating the positions of the UN forces. They planned their attacks to get in the rear of these forces, cut them off from their escape and supply roads, and then send in frontal and flanking attacks to precipitate the battle. They also employed a tactic which they termed Hachi Shiki, which was a V-formation into which they allowed enemy forces to move; the sides of the V then closed around their enemy while another force moved below the mouth of the V to engage any forces attempting to relieve the trapped unit. Such were the tactics the Chinese used with great success at Onjong, Unsan, and Ch'osan but with only partial success at Pakch'on and the Ch'ongch'on bridgehead. "[23]
The U. S. forces in northeast Korea, who had rushed forward with great speed only a few months earlier, were forced to race southwards with even greater speed and form a defensive perimeter around the port city of Hungnam, where a major evacuation was carried out in late December 1950. Hŭngnam was a port city on the eastern coast of South Hamgyong Province North Korea, on the Sea of Japan (East Sea of Korea Facing complete defeat and surrender, 193 shiploads of American men and material were evacuated from Hungnam Harbor, and about 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies were shipped to Pusan in orderly fashion. As they left, the American forces blew up large portions of the city to deny its use to the communists, depriving many Korean civilians of shelter during the winter. [37][45]
Fighting across the 38th Parallel (early 1951)
In January 1951, the Chinese and North Korean forces struck again in their 3rd Phase Offensive (also known as the Chinese Winter Offensive). The Chinese repeated their previous tactics of mostly night attacks, with a stealthy approach from positions some distance from the front, followed by a rush with overwhelming numbers, and using trumpets or gongs both for communication and to disorient their foes. Against this the UN forces had no remedy, and their resistance crumbled; they retreated rapidly to the south (referred to by UN forces as the “bug-out”). Seoul was abandoned and was captured by communist forces on January 4, 1951. Events 46 BC - Titus Labienus defeats Julius Caesar in the Battle of Ruspina. Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January
To add to the Eighth Army’s difficulties, General Walker was killed in an accident. He was replaced by a World War II airborne veteran, Lieutenant-General Matthew Ridgway, who took immediate steps to raise the morale and fighting spirit of the battered Eighth Army, which had fallen to low levels during its retreat. Matthew Bunker Ridgway ( March 3, 1895 &ndash July 26, 1993) was a United States Army General. Nevertheless, the situation was so grim that MacArthur mentioned the use of atomic weapons against China, much to the alarm of America’s allies. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion.
UN forces continued to retreat until they had reached a line south of Suwon in the west and Wonju in the center, and north of Samchok in the east, where the front stabilized. Suwon ( Suwon-si) is the provincial capital of Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. Samcheok is a city in Gangwon-do, South Korea. History Ancient age & Three Kingdom It was called "Siljikguk The People's Volunteer Army had outrun its supply line and was forced to recoil. The Chinese could not go beyond Seoul because they were at the end of their logistics supply line — all food and ammunition had to be carried at night on foot or bicycle from the Yalu River.
In late January, finding the lines in front of his forces deserted, Ridgway ordered reconnaissance in force, which developed into a full-scale offensive, Operation Roundup. Military history records two operations called Operation Roundup: 1 The operation was planned to proceed gradually, to make full use of the UN's superiority in firepower on the ground and in the air; by the time Roundup was completed in early February, UN forces had reached the Han River and re-captured Wonju.
The Chinese struck back in mid-February with their Fourth Phase Offensive, from Hoengsong in the center against IX Corps positions around Chipyong-ni. The IX Corps was a Corps of the United States Army which served in World War II and throughout the Cold War. Jipyeong-ri is a village in Jije-myeon, Yangpyeong County, Gyeonggi-do Province South Korea. A short but desperate siege there fought by units of the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division, including the French Battalion, broke up the offensive; in this action, the UN learned how to deal with Chinese offensive tactics and be able to stand their ground. The 2nd Infantry Division is a formation of the United States Army. The French Battalion in the Korean War (Bataillon français de l'ONU BF-ONU was a Battalion of volunteers made up of active and reserve French military personnel
Roundup was followed in the last two weeks of February 1951, with Operation Killer, by a revitalized Eighth Army, restored by Ridgway to fighting trim. Operation Killer was a major offense launched by United Nations forces against the People's Volunteer Army during the Korean War. This was a full-scale offensive across the front, again staged to maximize firepower and with the aim of destroying as much of the Chinese and North Korean armies as possible. By the end of Killer, I Corps had re-occupied all territory south of the Han, while IX Corps had captured Hoengsong. The I Corps ( First Corps) aka ("eye core" nicknamed America's Corps, is a Corps of the United States Army with headquarters
On March 7, 1951, the Eighth Army pushed forward again, in Operation Ripper, and on March 14 they expelled the North Korean and Chinese troops from Seoul, the fourth time in a year the city had changed hands. Events 161 - Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius dies and is succeeded by co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January Operation Ripper was a Military operation conceived by General Ridgway during the Korean War, intended to destroy as much of the People's Volunteer Events 1489 - The Queen of Cyprus, Catherine Cornaro, sells her kingdom to Venice. Seoul was in utter ruins; its prewar population of 1. 5 million had dropped to 200,000, with severe food shortages. [38]
MacArthur was removed from command by President Truman on April 11, 1951 for insubordination, setting off a firestorm of protest back in the U. Events 491 - Flavius Anastasius becomes Byzantine Emperor, with the name of Anastasius I. Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January Insubordination is the act of a subordinate deliberately disobeying a lawful order S. The new supreme commander was Ridgway, who had managed to regroup UN forces for the series of effective counter-offensives. Command of Eighth Army passed to General James Van Fleet. James Alward Van Fleet ( March 19, 1892 - September 23, 1992) was a U
A further series of attacks slowly drove back the communist forces, such as Operations Courageous and Tomahawk, a combined ground- and air-assault to trap communist forces between Kaesong and Seoul. Operation Courageous was a military operation performed by the United States Army during the Korean War designed to trap large numbers of Chinese and Operation Tomahawk was an airborne Military operation by the 187th Regimental Combat Team (RCT on 23 March 1951 at Munsan-ni Kaesŏng ( Gaeseong) is a city in North Hwanghae Province southern North Korea (DPRK a former Directly Governed City, and the capital of Seoul ( soʊl is the Capital and largest City of South Korea. UN forces continued to advance until they reached Line Kansas, some miles north of the 38th parallel.
The Chinese were far from beaten, however; In April 1951 they launched their Fifth Phase Offensive, (also called the Chinese Spring Offensive) This was a major effort, involving three field armies (up to 700,000 men). The main blow fell on I Corps, but fierce resistance in battles at the Imjin River and Kapyong, blunted its impetus, and the Chinese were halted at a defensive line north of Seoul (referred to as the No-Name Line). For the similarly named battle during the Seven-Year War, see Battle of Imjin River (1592. The Battle of Kapyong (also called Kap'yong was waged during the Korean War.
A further Communist offensive in the east against ROK and X Corps on May 15 also made initial gains, but by May 20 the attack had ground to a halt. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held Eighth Army counterattacked and by the end of May had regained Line Kansas.
The decision by UN forces to halt at Line Kansas, just north of the 38th Parallel, and not to persist in offensive action into North Korea, ushered in the period of stalemate which typified the remainder of the conflict.
Stalemate (July 1951 - July 1953)
The rest of the war involved little territory change, large-scale bombing of the north, and lengthy peace negotiations, which began on July 10, 1951, at Kaesong. Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia. Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January Kaesŏng ( Gaeseong) is a city in North Hwanghae Province southern North Korea (DPRK a former Directly Governed City, and the capital of Even during the peace negotiations, combat continued. For the South Korean and allied forces, the goal was to recapture all of South Korea before an agreement was reached in order to avoid loss of any territory. The Chinese and North Koreans attempted similar operations, and later in the war they undertook operations designed to test the resolve of the UN to continue the conflict. Principal military engagements in this period were the actions around the Punchbowl, in the east, such as Bloody Ridge and Heartbreak Ridge in 1951, the battles for Old Baldy, in the center, and the Hook, in the west, during 1952–53, Battle of Hill Eerie in 1952, and the battle for Pork Chop Hill in 1953. The Battle of Bloody Ridge was a ground combat battle that took place during the Korean War from August 18 to September 5, 1951. The Battle of Heartbreak Ridge was a month-long battle in the Korean War fought between September 13 and October 15, 1951. The Battle of Old Baldy refers to a series of five engagements over a period of 10 months for Hill 266 in west-central Korea, though there was also vicious fighting both before The third Battle of the Hook was a battle of the Korean War that took place between a United Nations force consisting mostly of British troops supported The Battle of Hill Eerie refers to several Korean War engagements between the United Nations forces and the Chinese Communist Forces (CCF in 1952 at the The Battle of Pork Chop Hill comprises a pair of related Korean War infantry fights during the spring and summer of 1953
The peace negotiations went on for two years, first at Kaesong, and later at Panmunjon. A major issue of the negotiations was repatriation of POWs. The Communists agreed to voluntary repatriation but only if the majority would return to China or North Korea, something that did not occur. Since many refused to be repatriated to the communist North Korea and China, the war continued until the Communists eventually dropped this issue.
In October 1951, U. S. forces performed Operation Hudson Harbor intending to establish the capability to use nuclear weapons. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Several B-29s conducted individual simulated bomb runs from Okinawa to North Korea, delivering “dummy” nuclear bombs or heavy conventional bombs; the operation was coordinated from Yokota Air Base in Japan. is one of Japan 's southern prefectures, and consists of hundreds of the Ryukyu Islands in a chain over 1000 km long which extends southwest from Kyūshū is a United States Air Force base located in the city of Fussa and surrounding communities in Tokyo, Japan. The battle exercise was intended to test “actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, ground control of bomb aiming,” and so on. The results indicated that nuclear bombs would be less effective than anticipated, because “timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare. ”[46][47][48][49][50]
On November 29, 1952, U. Events 1777 - San Jose California, is founded as el Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe Year 1952 ( MCMLII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. S. President-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower fulfilled a campaign promise by going to Korea to find out what could be done to end the conflict. Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (October 14 1890 – March 28 1969 was President of the United States from 1953 until 1961 and a five-star general With the UN's acceptance of India’s proposal for a Korean armistice, a cease-fire was established on July 27, 1953, by which time the front line was back around the proximity of the 38th parallel, and so a demilitarized zone (DMZ) was established around it, presently defended by North Korean troops on one side and by South Korean, American and UN troops on the other. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country An armistice is a situation where the warring parties agree to stop fighting A ceasefire (or truce) is a temporary stoppage of a War or any Armed conflict, where each side of the conflict agrees Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Korean Demilitarized Zone ( Korean: 한반도의 군사 분계선 is a strip of land running across the Korean Peninsula that serves as a Buffer The DMZ runs north of the parallel towards the east, and to the south as it travels west. The site of the peace talks, Kaesong, the old capital of Korea, was part of the South before hostilities broke out but is currently a special city of the North. Kaesŏng ( Gaeseong) is a city in North Hwanghae Province southern North Korea (DPRK a former Directly Governed City, and the capital of North Korea and the United States signed the Armistice Agreement, with Syngman Rhee refusing to sign. [51]
Casualties
The total numbers of casualties suffered by all parties involved may never be known. In Western countries, the numbers have been subjected to numerous scholarly reviews, and in the case of one U. S. estimate, the number was revised after a clerical error was discovered. Each country's self-reported casualties were largely based upon troop movements, unit rosters, battle casualty reports, and medical records.
The Western numbers of Chinese and/or North Korean casulties are based primarily on battle reports of estimated casualties, interrogation of POWs and captured documents.
The Chinese estimation of UN casualties states that the joint declaration of the Chinese People's Volunteers and the Korean People's Army said their forces "eliminated 1. 09 million enemy forces, including 390,000 from the United States, 660,000 from South Korean, and 29,000 from other countries. " The vague "eliminated" number gave no details to that of dead, wounded and captured. Regarding their own casualties, the same source said that "the Chinese People's Volunteers suffered 148,000 deaths altogether (among which 114,000 died in combat, incidents, and winterkill, 21,000 died after being hospitalized and 13,000 died from diseases); 380,000 were wounded and 29,000 missing, including 21,400 POWs (of whom 14,000 were sent to Taiwan, 7,110 were repatriated). " This same source concluded with these numbers for North Korean casualties, "the Korean People's Army had 290,000 casualties and 90,000 POWs; there was a large number of civilian deaths in the northern part of Korea, but no accurate figures were available. "[52]
The casulties of the various UN forces are listed in the infobox, along with their estimates of Chinese and North Korean forces.
Characteristics
Armored warfare
In the initial invasion stage of the war, North Korean armor was able to establish dominance using their Soviet-supplied T-34-85 medium tanks. The T-34 was a Soviet medium tank produced from 1941 to 1958 It is widely regarded as having been the world's best Tank when the Soviet Union The WW2-vintage North Korean tanks were facing a South Korean force with no tanks of their own and few modern anti-tank weapons.
The South Korean army had anti-tank rockets but these were World War II vintage 2. 36 inch (60 mm) M9 bazookas. The bazooka is a man-portable Anti-armor rocket launcher made famous during World War II. The bazooka rocket could easily penetrate the 45mm side armor of the T-34-85s at any range, but the bazooka was nonetheless found to be ineffective.
As U. S. forces arrived in Korea, they were accompanied only by light M24 Chaffee tanks which had been left in Japan for post-WWII occupation duties (heavier tanks would have torn up Japanese roads). The Light Tank M24 was an American light tank used during World War II and in postwar conflicts including the Korean War. These light tanks were ineffective against the larger North Korean T-34-85 tanks. U. S. 105 mm howitzers were used on at least one occasion to fire HEAT ammunition over open sights.
As the U. S. buildup continued, shipments of heavier American tanks such as the M4 Sherman, the M26 Pershing, the M46 Patton, and the British Centurion as well as American and Allied ground attack aircraft were able to reverse the Communists' tank advantage. World War II foreign variants and use Lend-Lease Sherman tanks. The Heavy Tank M26 Pershing was an American heavy tank used during World War II and the Korean War. The M46 was an improved M26 Pershing (sometimes named Pershing II tank and one of the U The Centurion was the primary British Main Battle Tank of the immediate post-war era and has proven itself be a successful tank design mainly due to its thick
However, in contrast to World War II's heavy emphasis on armor, few open tank battles actually occurred over the course of the Korean War. The country's heavily forested and mountainous terrain, as well as the poor road network, meant that tanks were able to operate only in small groups.
Air warfare
- Further information: MiG Alley and United States Air Force Aircraft of the Korean War
The Korean War was the last major war where propeller-powered fighters such as the F-51 Mustang, F4U Corsair and aircraft carrier-based Hawker Sea Fury and Supermarine Seafire were used. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout An aircraft carrier is a Warship designed with WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Turbojet fighter aircraft such as F-80s and F9F Panthers came to dominate the skies, overwhelming North Korea’s propeller-driven Yakovlev Yak-9s and Lavochkin La-9s. TurboJET (噴射飛航 is the brand name for the operations of the Hong Kong -based Shun Tak-China Travel Ship Management Limited (信德中旅船務管理有限公司 WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout
From 1950, North Koreans began flying the Soviet-made MiG-15 jet fighters, some of which were piloted by experienced Soviet Air Force pilots, a casus belli deliberately overlooked by the UN allied forces who were reluctant to engage in open war with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The Soviet Air Force, also known under the abbreviation VVS, transliterated from Russian: ВВС, Военно-воздушные силы ( Voenno-Vozdushnye Casus belli is a Latin language expression meaning the justification for acts of war At first, UN jet fighters, which also included Royal Australian Air Force Gloster Meteors, had some success, but the superior quality of the MiGs soon held sway over the first-generation jets used by the UN early in the war. The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF) is the Air Force branch of the Australian Defence Force. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout [53]
In December 1950, the U.S. Air Force began using the F-86 Sabre. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The MiG could fly higher, 50,000 vs. 42,000 feet (12,800 m), offering a distinct advantage at the start of combat. In level flight, their maximum speeds were comparable — about 660 mph (1,060 km/h). The MiG could climb better, while the Sabre could turn and dive better. For weapons, the MiG carried two 23 mm and one 37 mm cannon, compared to the Sabre’s six . 50 (12. 7 mm) caliber machine guns. The American . 50 caliber machine guns, while not packing the same punch, carried many more rounds and were aimed with a superior radar-ranging gunsight. The U. S. pilots also had the advantage of G-suits, which were used for the first time in this war. A g -suit is worn by Aviators and Astronauts who are subject to high levels of acceleration (' ''g'' ' However, maintenance was an issue with the Sabre, and a large proportion of the UN air strength was grounded because of repairs during the war.
Even after the United States Air Force introduced the advanced F-86, its pilots often struggled against the jets piloted by elite Soviet pilots. The UN gradually gained air superiority over most of Korea that lasted until the end of the war — a decisive factor in helping the UN first advance into the north, and then resist the Chinese invasion of South Korea. Air superiority is the dominance in the Air power of one side's air forces over the other side's during a Military campaign. The Chinese and North Koreans also had jet power, but their training and experience were limited. With the introduction of the F-86F in late 1952, the Soviet and American aircraft had virtually identical performance characteristics.
After the war, the USAF claimed 792 MiG-15s and 108 additional aircraft shot down by Sabres for the loss of 78 Sabres, a ratio in excess of 10:1. Some post-war research has been able to confirm only 379 victories, although the USAF continues to maintain its official credits and the debate is possibly irreconcilable.
The Soviets claimed about 1,100 air-to-air victories and 335 combat MiG losses at that time. China’s official losses were 231 planes shot down in air-to-air combat (mostly MiG-15) and 168 other losses. The number of losses of the North Korean Air Force was not revealed. It is estimated that it lost about 200 aircraft in the first stage of the war, and another 70 aircraft after Chinese intervention. Soviet claims of 650 victories over the Sabres, and China’s claims of another 211 F-86s, are considered to be exaggerated by the USAF. According to a recent U. S. publication, the number of F-86s ever present in the Korean peninsula during the war totaled only 674 and the total F-86 losses from all causes were about 230. [54]
Direct comparison of Sabre and MiG losses seem irrelevant, since primary targets for MiGs were heavy B-29 Superfortress bombers and ground-attack aircraft, while the primary targets for Sabres were MiG-15s.
By early 1951, the battle lines hardened and did not change much for the rest of the conflict. Throughout the summer and early fall of 1951, the outnumbered Sabres (as few as 44 at one point) of the 4th FIW continued to seek battle in MiG Alley near the Yalu against an enemy fielding as many as 500 planes, although only a fraction of these were operational and active. The 4th Fighter Wing is a United States Air Force F-15E Strike Eagle wing based at Seymour Johnson Air Force Base, North Carolina. "MiG Alley" is the name given by US Air Force pilots to the northwestern portion of North Korea, where the Yalu River empties into the Yellow Following Colonel Harrison Thyng’s famous message to the Pentagon, the 51st FIW reinforced the beleaguered 4th in December 1951. Colonel ( RP ˈkɜnəl GA ˈkɜrnəl is a Military rank of a Commissioned officer, with corresponding ranks existing in almost every country Brigadier General Harrison Reed Thyng ( April 12, 1918 – September 24, 1983) was a Fighter pilot and an officer in the [55] For the next year and a half, the combat continued in generally the same fashion.
Naval warfare
As North Korea had no significant naval presence, naval battles were infrequent. The only significant "battle" took place on July 2, 1950, between the U. Events 310 - Pope Miltiades is elected 626 - In fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushes and kills his rival Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. S. cruiser Juneau, the British cruiser Jamaica, and the British frigate Black Swan, against four North Korean torpedo boats and two North Korean mortar gunboats. The Arctic Convoys Battle of the Barents Sea In September 1942 Jamaica was employed as a close support for convoys in the Arctic The torpedo boats attempted to attack but they were quickly destroyed by the Anglo-American fleet. [56] Numerous other communist ships were sunk during the war. Supply and ammunition ships were sunk by U. N. forces, denying use of the sea to the North Koreans. Juneau sunk several ammunition ships that had been present in her previous battle. The last instance of ship-to-ship battle in the war occurred at Inchon a few days before the battle, when the ROK ship PC 703 sank an enemy mine laying craft and three other vessels in waters off the Yellow Sea port. For the remainder of the war, the role of the navies was to provide shore bombardment. [57]
Proposed use of nuclear weapons
Historian Bruce Cumings believes that Truman's allusions to the possibility of nuclear weapons use at a press conference on November 30, 1950 "was a threat based on contingency planning to use the bomb, rather than the faux pas so many assumed it to be. Bruce Cumings is the Gustavus F and Ann M Swift Distinguished Service Professor in History at the University of Chicago and specializes in modern Korean history "[58] Cumings argues that Truman sought MacArthur's removal primarily because he felt that MacArthur would not be reliable enough in a situation where Washington had decided to use atomic weapons. Cumings notes that the same day as the press conference, orders were sent between top Air Forces generals for the Strategic Air Command to "augment its capacities and that this should include “atomic capabilities. The Strategic Air Command (SAC was both a major command and a "specified command" in the U "[58] According to Cumings, the U. S. reached its closest point of using nuclear weapons during the war in April 1951. At the end of March, after the Chinese had moved large amounts of new forces near the Korean border, U. S. bomb loading pits at Kadena air base in Okinawa were made operational, and bombs were assembled there "lacking only the essential nuclear cores. is one of Japan 's southern prefectures, and consists of hundreds of the Ryukyu Islands in a chain over 1000 km long which extends southwest from Kyūshū " On April 5, the Joint Chiefs of Staff released orders for immediate retaliatory attacks using atomic weapons against Manchurian bases in the event that large numbers of new Chinese troops entered into the fights or bombing attacks originated from those bases. The same day Truman gave his approval for transfer of nine Mark IV nuclear capsules "to the air force's Ninth Bomb Group, the designated carrier of the weapons" and "the president signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets. " Remarking that the signed order was never sent, Cumings offers two reasons why this was the case. Firstly, Truman had used the crisis to convince the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the necessity of MacArthur's removal (announced April 10) and secondly, since the war was not thereafter escalated by the Chinese and Soviets, no necessity of using them presented itself. [58]
This viewpoint is contradicted however by the facts, as on November 30, 1950, President Truman at a press conference, remarked, no doubt extemporaneously, that the use of the atomic bomb was under active consideration, unintentionally implying to some observers that its use would be left to the discretion of General MacArthur. Events 1700 - Battle of Narva — A Swedish army of 8500 men under Charles XII defeats Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Even though subsequently he attempted to subdue the storm of protest and consternation which followed by pointing out that only he could authorize use of the atomic bomb and that he had not given such authorization, he could not avoid the real issue that any decision to use the bomb would be a United States, not a United Nations, decision. This led to a meeting December 4 with Clement Attlee, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (who also represented the leaders of the other Commonwealth nations and with the French Premier and Foreign Minister, to discuss their concerns over the possible use of the atomic bomb. "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song. Clement Richard Attlee 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, PC ( 3 January 1883 &ndash 8 October 1967 Indian Ambassador Pannikkar recalls, "that Truman announced that he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. Kavalam Madhava Panikkar (1895-1963 was a scholar journalist historian administrator and diplomat But the Chinese seemed totally unmoved by this threat. . . . The propaganda against American aggression was stepped up. The 'Aid Korea to resist America' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman's threat came in very useful to the leaders of the revolution to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities. "[37][59][60]
Six days later, on December 6, 1950, after the Chinese intervention had forced the UN forces into a retreat from northern North Korea, General J. Lawton Collins (Army Chief of Staff), General MacArthur, Admiral C. Turner Joy, and General Stratemeyer, and with key staff officers, Hickey, Willoughby, and Wright, met in Tokyo for a full discussion of what moves to take against the Chinese. Events 1060 - Béla I of Hungary is crowned king of Hungary 1240 - Mongol invasion of Rus: Kiev Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Joseph "Lightning Joe" Lawton Collins ( 1 May 1896 &ndash 12 September 1987) was a General in the United Vice Admiral Charles Turner Joy ( 17 February 1895 &ndash 6 June 1956) was an admiral of the United States Navy during They projected three hypothetical scenarios covering the next few weeks or months. [37]
In the first, they theorized that if the Chinese continued their all-out attack but with the UN Command forbidden to mount air attacks against China, no blockade of China set up, no reinforcements sent to Korea by Chiang Kai-shek, and that there would be no substantial increase in MacArthur's U. Chiang Kai-shek ( POJ: Chiúⁿ Kài-se̍k Jyutping: zoeng2gaai3sek6 GCB ( October 31, 1887 &ndash S. forces until April 1951 when four National Guard divisions might be sent, then the atomic bomb might be used in North Korea. For the National Guard of a State and other countries' National Guard see National Guard. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. [37]
Under the second scenario, the conferees assumed a situation in which the Chinese attack would continue but with an effective naval blockade of China put in effect, air reconnaissance and bombing of the Chinese mainland allowed, Chinese Nationalist forces exploited to the maximum, and the atomic bomb to be used if tactically appropriate. Given these conditions, General MacArthur said he should be directed to hold positions in Korea as far north as possible. [37]
Under the third scenario, in which the Chinese would agree not to cross south of the 38th Parallel, MacArthur felt the United Nations should accept an armistice. The conditions of the armistice should preclude movement of North Korean and Chinese forces below the parallel. North Korean guerrillas should withdraw into their own territory with the Eighth Army remaining in positions covering the Seoul-Inch'on area, while X Corps pulled back to Pusan. An United Nations commission should supervise the implementation of armistice terms. [37]
So, while the U. S. had contemplated using the atomic bomb in Korea, Truman did not publicly threaten to use the bomb immediately after the Chinese intervention, but instead remarked about the consideration of using the bomb around 45 days later and only after UN forces were in retreat and had suffered some serious losses. MacArthur and other military leaders did not work on scenarios for using the bomb until after Truman's inadvertent remark during a press conference 6 days earlier. The decision not to use the atomic bomb also was not due to "a disinclination by the USSR and PRC to escalate" but rather due to pressure from UN allies, notably Britain, the British Commonwealth, and France, who were concerned that if the United States became involved in a war with Communist China, American commitments to NATO would, through sheer necessity, go by the board. China then might have little difficulty in persuading Russia to move into western Europe and without U. S. resistance to this aggression, Russia could take all of Europe at little cost. [37][61]
War crimes
Crimes against civilians
“It is reported that large groups of civilians, either composed of or controlled by North Korean soldiers, are infiltrating U. S. positions. The army has requested we strafe all civilian refugee parties approaching our positions. To date, we have complied with the army request in this respect. ”
The document goes on to recommend establishing a policy revising the practice.
When parts of South Korea were under North Korean control, political killings, reportedly into the tens of thousands, took place in the cities and villages. The communists systematically killed former South Korean government officials and others deemed hostile to the communists, and such killing was intensified as North Koreans retreated from the South. [62]
South Korean military, police and paramilitary forces, often with U. A paramilitary is a force whose function and organization are similar to those of a professional military force but which are not regarded as having the same status S. military knowledge and without trial, executed in turn tens of thousands of leftist inmates and alleged communist sympathizers in the incidents such as the massacre of the political prisoners from the Daejeon Prison and the bloody crackdown on the Cheju Uprising. The Jeju Uprising ( Korean: 제주 4·3 민중항쟁 Hanja: 濟州 4·3 民衆抗爭 refers to the rebellion on Jeju island, South Korea, beginning [63] Gregory Henderson, a U. S. diplomat in Korea at the time, put the total figure at 100,000, and the bodies of those killed were often dumped into mass graves. A mass grave is a grave containing multiple usually unidentified human corpses Recently, the South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission has received reports of more than 7,800 cases of civilian killings in 150 locations across the country where mass killings of civilians took place before and during the war. South Korea's Truth and Reconciliation Commission (진실·화해를 위한 과거사 정리 위원회 is a commission established on December 1 2005 to investigate historical incidents
Korean forces on both sides routinely rounded up and forcibly conscripted both males and females in their area of operations; thousands of them never returned home. Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority According to the estimate by R. J. Rummel, a professor at the University of Hawaii, some 400,000 South Korean citizens were conscripted into the North Korean Army. Rudolph Joseph Rummel (born October 21, 1932) is Professor emeritus of Political science at the University of Hawaii. The University of Hawaii, formally the University of Hawaii System and popularly known as UH, is a public co-educational college and university system that confers [62] Before the September 1950 liberation of Seoul by the U. S. forces, an estimated 83,000 citizens of the city were taken away by retreating North Korean forces and disappeared, according to the South Korean government; their fate remains unknown. [64] North Korea insists the South Koreans defected voluntarily and were not held against their will. In Politics, a defector is a person who gives up allegiance to one state or political entity in exchange for allegiance to another [65]
For a time, American troops were under orders to consider any Korean civilians on the battlefield approaching their position as hostile, and were instructed to "neutralize" them because of fears of infiltration. This led to the indiscriminate killings of hundreds of South Korean civilians by the U. S. military at places such as No Gun Ri, where many defenseless refugees — most of whom were women, children and old men — were shot at by the U.S. Army and may have been strafed by the U. No Gun Ri (Korean 노근리 pron Noh gool li) is a village in South Korea. The United States Army is a military organization whose primary mission is to "provide necessary forces and capabilities. Strafing is the practice of attacking ground targets from low-flying aircraft S. Air Force. Recently, the U. S. admitted having a policy of strafing civilians in other places and times. [66][67]
Crimes against POWs
The North Koreans severely mistreated prisoners of war. [68] Historical accounts report frequent communist-imposed beatings, starvation, forced labor, summary executions, and death marches on UN prisoners. Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations especially in modern or early modern history in which people are employed against their will A summary execution is a type of Extrajudicial punishment in which a person is killed on the spot without Trial. This term is also occasionally used as a popular (albeit technically incorrect title for the Funeral March movement of the Chopin Piano Sonata No [69] North Korean and Chinese forces committed several massacres of captured U. S. troops at places such as Hill 312 and Hill 303[70] on the Pusan Perimeter, and in and around Daejeon; this occurred during early "mopping-up" actions. According to the U.S. Congressional report, "More than 5,000 American prisoners of war died because of Communist war atrocities and more than a thousand who survived were victims of war crime (. The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses . . ) Approximately two-thirds of all American prisoners of war in Korea died due to war crimes. "[71][72] The Chinese also used brainwashing "re-education" techniques on their prisoners. Brainwashing (also known as Thought reform or as Re-education) consists of any effort aimed at instilling certain attitudes and Beliefs
The communists claimed having captured more than 70,000 South Korean soldiers, but they repatriated only 8,000. (In contrast, South Korea repatriated 76,000 North Korean POWs. )[73] In addition to some 12,000 deaths in captivity, some 50,000 South Korean POWs might have been press-ganged into the North Korean military. [62] According to the South Korean Ministry of Defense, by 2003 there were at least 300 POWs were still alive being held captive in North Korea. More than 30 South Korean prisoners managed to escape the North between 1994 and 2003, including a soldier captured in the war who escaped in 2003. [74] Pyongyang denied holding any POWs.
Legacy
The Korean War was the first armed confrontation of the Cold War and set the standard for many later conflicts. The legacy of the Korean War was such that many countries were largely impacted especially because of the large number of countries that participated in the war Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the It created the idea of a limited war, where the two superpowers would fight in another country, forcing the people in that nation to suffer the bulk of the destruction and death involved in a war between such large nations. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units A superpower is a State with a leading position in the international system and the ability to Influence events and project power on a worldwide scale The superpowers avoided descending into an all-out war with one another, as well as the mutual use of nuclear weapons. It also expanded the Cold War, which to that point had mostly been concerned with Europe.
The Korean War damaged both Koreas heavily. Although South Korea stagnated economically in the decade following the war, it was later able to modernize and industrialize. In contrast, the North Korean economy recovered quickly after the war and until around 1975 surpassed that of South Korea. However, North Korea's economy eventually slowed. Today, the North Korean economy is virtually nonexistent while the South Korean economy is expanding. The CIA World Factbook estimates North Korea's GDP (PPP) to be $40 billion, which is a mere 3. The World Factbook ( ISSN; also known as the CIA World Factbook) is an annual publication of the Central Intelligence Agency of the The purchasing power parity ( PPP) theory uses the long-term equilibrium Exchange rate of two currencies to equalize their Purchasing power. 34% of South Korea's $1. 196 trillion GDP (PPP). The North's per capita income is $1,800, which is 7. 35% of South Korea's $24,500 per capita income.
A heavily guarded demilitarized zone (DMZ) on the 38th Parallel continues to divide the peninsula today. The Korean Demilitarized Zone ( Korean: 한반도의 군사 분계선 is a strip of land running across the Korean Peninsula that serves as a Buffer Anti-Communist and anti-North Korea sentiment still remain in South Korea today, and most South Koreans are against the North Korean government. However, a "Sunshine Policy" is used by the controlling party, the Uri Party. The Sunshine Policy was the South Korean doctrine towards North Korea until Lee Myung-bak 's election to presidency in 2008 The Yeollin Uri Party ( ko: 열린우리당 en: "Our Open Party" generally abbreviated to Uri Party (ko 우리당 The Uri Party and President Roh, the South Korean president, have often disagreed with the United States in talks about North Korea. The Grand National Party (GNP), the Uri Party's main opposing party, maintains an anti-North Korea policy today. The Grand National Party is a conservative-leaning political party in South Korea.
The war affected other nations as well. Turkey's participation in the war helped it become a NATO member. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The North Atlantic Treaty
According to a September 7, 2007 NPR report, President Bush stated that it is his administration's position that a formal peace treaty with North Korea was possible only when the north abandoned its nuclear weapons programs. Events 1251 BC - A Solar eclipse on this date might mark the birth of legendary Heracles at Thebes Greece. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. [75] According to Bush, "We look forward to the day when we can end the Korean War. That will end — will happen when Kim verifiably gets rid of his weapons programs and his weapons. "[76] Some have characterized this as a reversal of Mr. Bush's stated policy of regime change with respect to North Korea. [77]
At the second Inter-Korean Summit in October 2007, South Korean President Lee Myung Bak and North Korean leader Kim Jong-Il signed a joint declaration calling for international talks towards a peace treaty formally ending the war. Inter-Korean Summits are meetings between the leaders of North Korea and South Korea. The President of the Republic of Korea is according to the Constitution head of state chief executive of the government and commander-in-chief of the armed forces Kim Jong-il (also written as Kim Jong Il) (born 16 February 1941 Vyatskoye, Soviet Union; official biographies state 16 February 1942 Baekdu [78]
Depictions
Art
- Artist Pablo Picasso’s painting Massacre in Korea (1951) depicted violence against civilians during the Korean War. Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Cipriano de la Santísima Trinidad Martyr Patricio Clito Ruíz y Picasso (October 25 1881 &ndash April 8 1973 Massacre in Korea was painted by the Spanish master Pablo Picasso in 1951 By some accounts, killing of civilians by U. S. forces in Shinchun, Hwanghae Province was the motive of the painting. Haixi redirects here For the automobile manufacturer see Huanghai Bus Factory.
- Ha Jin's War Trash contains a vivid description of the beginning of the war from the point of view of a Chinese soldier and of the fear of retribution Chinese POWs felt from other Chinese prisoners if they were suspected of being unsympathetic to communism or to the war. Jīn Xuěfēi ( Simplified Chinese: 金雪飞 Traditional Chinese: 金雪飛 born February 21, 1956) is a contemporary Chinese-American
Film
Unlike World War II, there are relatively few Western feature films depicting the Korean War. In the Film industry, a feature film is a Film made for initial distribution in theaters and being the "main attraction" of the screening
- Battle Hymn (1957) stars Rock Hudson as Colonel Dean Hess who became a preacher after bombing a German orphanage during World War II. Battle Hymn ( 1957) is a Universal Studios Feature film starring Rock Hudson as Colonel Dean E Rock Hudson (November 17 1925 &ndash October 2 1985 was an American Film and Television Actor, recognised as a romantic leading man during Dean E Hess (1917 -) was an American minister and United States Air Force Colonel who was involved in the so called "Kiddy Car Airlift" He later volunteered as a USAF fighter pilot instructor in Korea.
- The Bridges at Toko-Ri (1955) stars William Holden as a USAF pilot assigned to destroy the bridges at Toko Ri, while battling doubts; it is based on an eponymous James Michener novel. The Bridges at Toko-Ri is a 1954 film based on a novel by James Michener about a Naval aviator assigned to bomb a group of heavily defended bridges William Holden ( April 17, 1918 &ndash November 12, 1981) was an Academy Award -winning American film Actor James Albert Michener ( February 3, 1907 – October 16, 1997) was an American author of more than 40 titles the majority of which
- The Hunters (1958) adapted from the novel The Hunters by James Salter stars Robert Mitchum and Robert Wagner as two very different United States Air Force fighter pilots in the midst of the Korean War. The Hunters is a 1958 feature film adapted from the novel The Hunters by James Salter. The Hunters is James Salter 's debut Novel about USAF Fighter pilots during the Korean War, first published in James Salter (born June 10, 1925, New York City) is an American Writer. Robert Charles Durman Mitchum ( August 6, 1917 &ndash July 1, 1997) was an Academy Award nominated American film Robert John Wagner (born February 10, 1930) is a Golden Globe - nominated prolific American Film and Television
- Inchon (1982) portrays the Battle of Inchon, a turning point in the war. Inchon (originally called Oh Inchon) is a 1982 film directed by Terence Young about the Battle of Incheon during the Korean Controversially, the film was partially financed by Sun Myung Moon’s Unification Movement. Sun Myung Moon (born January 6 1920) is the Korean founder and leader of the world-wide Unification Church and of the larger Unification It became a notorious financial and critical failure, losing an estimated $40 million of its $46 million budget, and remains the last mainstream Hollywood film to use the war as its backdrop. The film was directed by Terence Young, and starred an elderly Laurence Olivier as General Douglas MacArthur. Stewart Terence Herbert Young ( June 20, 1915 &ndash September 7, 1994) was a British Film director, born in Laurence Kerr Olivier Baron According to press materials from the film, psychics hired by Moon's church contacted MacArthur in heaven and secured his posthumous approval of the casting.
- The Manchurian Candidate, a 1959 thriller novel, was cinematically adapted to The Manchurian Candidate (1962), directed by John Frankenheimer, and featuring Frank Sinatra and Angela Lansbury. The Manchurian Candidate is a 1959 thriller Novel written by Richard Condon, adapted into films in 1962 and 2004. For the novel by Richard Condon, see The Manchurian Candidate. Francis Albert "Frank" Sinatra (December 12 1915 &ndash May 14 1998 was an American singer and actor Angela Brigid Lansbury, CBE (born October 16, 1925) is an English Golden Globe Award and Tony Award winning Actress It is about brainwashed POWs of the U. S. Army, and an officer's investigation to learn what happened to him and his platoon in the war.
- M*A*S*H: A Novel About Three Army Doctors, by Richard Hooker (pseudonym for H. MASH A Novel About Three Army Doctors, the original Novel that inspired the film MASH and TV series M*A*S*H, was written H Richard Hornberger ( February 1, 1924 &ndash November 4, 1997) was an American writer and surgeon born in Trenton Richard Hornberger) that later was a successful film and a television series; the TV series had a total of 251 episodes, lasted 11 years, won awards, and its concluding episode was a most-watched program. See also M*A*S*H (TV series, M*A*S*H MASH is a American satirical Dark comedy Film directed by Robert Altman M*A*S*H was a Medical drama / Black comedy produced by 20th Television Fox for CBS. [79] Yet, the sensibilities they presented were more of the Seventies than of the Fifties; the Korean War setting was an oblique and uncontroversial treatment of the then-current American war against Vietnam.
- Pork Chop Hill (1959) is a Lewis Milestone-directed film with Gregory Peck as an infantry lieutenant fighting the bitterly fierce first Battle of Pork Chop Hill, between the U. For the Korean War battles see Battle of Pork Chop Hill. Pork Chop Hill ( 1959) directed by Lewis Milestone (born Lev Milstein) ( September 30 1895 - September 25 1980) was an Academy Award -winning motion picture Gregory Peck (April 5 1916 &ndash June 12 2003 was an Academy Award -winning and four-time Golden Globe Award-winning American Film The Battle of Pork Chop Hill comprises a pair of related Korean War infantry fights during the spring and summer of 1953 S. Army's 7th Infantry Division, and Chicom (Chinese Communist) forces at war's end in April of 1953. The 7th Infantry Division, nicknamed Lightfighters or Bayonet was an infantry division of the United States Army. The movie is lampooned by the Firesign Theatre album Don't Crush That Dwarf, Hand Me the Pliers in the story of Lieutenant Tirebiter. The Firesign Theatre is a Comedy troupe consisting of Phil Austin, Peter Bergman, David Ossman, and Philip Proctor. Don't Crush That Dwarf Hand Me the Pliers is The Firesign Theatre's third Comedy recording for Columbia Records, released in 1970
There were several South Korean films, including:
- Tae Guk Gi: The Brotherhood of War (2004), directed by Kang Je-gyu, became extremely popular in South Korea and at the 50th Asia Pacific Film Festival, Taegukgi won the "Best Film", while Kang Je-gyu was awarded the "Best Director". Taegukgi Hwinallimyo ( is a 2004 South Korean War film directed by Kang Je-gyu. Kang Je-gyu (born December 23 1962) is a South Korean Film director. The Asia Pacific Film Festival, first held in 1954 is Film festival held annually in an Asian country designated by the Board of Directors of the Federation of Motion Taegukgi saw a limited released in the United States.
- Welcome to Dongmakgol (2005) shows the effect of the warring sides on a remote village. Welcome to Dongmakgol (웰컴투 동막골 is a 2005 South Korean film set during the Korean War. The movie is about an American aviator, rescued and healed by the village, which soon becomes the home to surviving North Korean and South Korean soldiers. In time, the soldiers lose their suspicion and hated for their enemies and work together to help save the village after the Americans mistakenly identify it as an enemy camp.
North Korea has made many films about the war, mostly by the government supporting forceful, armed reunification of the North and South of Korea. These have been highly propagandized to portray potential war crimes by American or South Korean soldiers while glorifying members of the North Korean military as well as North Korean ideals. [80][81]
Shangganling Battle (Shanggan Ling, Chinese: 上甘岭) is a depiction of the Korean War from the Chinese point of view, made in 1956. Battle on Shangganling Mountain is a 1956 Chinese movie set during the Korean War in October of 1952 The movie is about a group of Chinese soldiers blocked in Shangganling mountain area for several days and survive until they are relieved.
Games
- Sabre Ace, Conflict Over Korea: 25 June 1950-27 July 1953 London: Eagle Interactive/Virgin Interactive, 1997. Players use a U. S. F-86 Sabre in the Korean War.
- MiG Alley (1999-Empire Interactive, Rowan Software) MiG Alley is a combat flight simulator of Korean War.
- Korea: Forgotten Conflict (2003-Plastic Reality) A squad based strategy game. Players take command of a UN unit consisting of several specialists such as a Ranger, Medic, Demolitions Expert, Sniper, or Korean to fight against the Communist forces.
- Rise of Nations: Thrones and Patriots (2004-Big Huge Games) The player fights the Korean War in the Cold War campaign, in which he or she is also given the choice to extend the war after 1953. Rise of Nations Thrones and Patriots is the official Expansion pack to the Real-time strategy computer game Rise of Nations
- The Korean War (1986-Victory Games): An operational board wargame by Joseph Balkoski, covering the first year of the conflict.
Notes
- ^ On This Day 29 August 1950. BBC. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed
- ^ Veterans Affairs Canada — The Korean War. Veterans Affairs Canada. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed
- ^ Filipino Soldiers in the Korean War (video documentary). Retrieved on 2008-03-24. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland
- ^ Walker, Jack D. A brief account of the Korean War. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed
- ^ French Participation in the Korean War. Embassy of France. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed
- ^ South Korean POWs. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed
- ^ All POW-MIA Korean War Casualties. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed
- ^ The UK & Korea, Defence Relations. Office of the Defence Attache, British Embassy, Seoul. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed
- ^ a b c Hickey, Michael. The Korean War: An Overview. Retrieved on 2007-08-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting
- ^ The Turks in the Korean War. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed
- ^ Canadians in Korea: Epilogue. Veterans Affairs Canada (1998-10-6). Retrieved on 2007-10-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 312 - Constantine the Great is said to have received his famous Vision of the Cross.
- ^ Korean War 1950–53: Epilogue. Australian War Memorial (2007-10-16). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 456 - Magister militum Ricimer defeats the Emperor Avitus at Piacenza and becomes master of the western Retrieved on 2007-11-12. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 764 - Tibetan troops occupy Chang'an, the capital of the Chinese Tang Dynasty, for fifteen days
- ^ Departure of the French batallion. French newsreels archives (Les Actualités Françaises) (2003-11-05). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany) Retrieved on 2007-08-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting
- ^ Filipino Soldiers in the Korean War (video documentary). Retrieved on 2008-03-24. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland
- ^ South Africa in the Korean War. korean-war. com (November 20, 2006).
- ^ Xu, Yan. Korean War: In the View of Cost-effectiveness. Consulate-General of the People's Republic of China in New York. Retrieved on 2007-08-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting
- ^ a b c The Korean War, 1950-1953, (an extract from American Military History, Volume 2 - revised 2005). Retrieved on 2007-08-20. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 636 - Battle of Yarmouk: Arab forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid take control of Syria and Palestine
- ^ a b Hermes, Jr. , Walter (1966). Truce Tent and Fighting Front. Center of Military History, 2,6,9.
- ^ Remembering the Forgotten War: Korea, 1950-1953. Naval Historical Center. Retrieved on 2007-08-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting
- ^ War to Resist US Aggression And Aid Korea Marked in DPRK. (China's) Peoples Daily (English version). Retrieved on 2007-08-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting
- ^ a b c d James F, Schnabel. United by jarrid States Army in the Korean War, Policy and Direction: The First Year p. 3, 18. Retrieved on 2007-08-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul.
- ^ Treaty of Annexation (Annexation of Korea by Japan). USC-UCLA Joint East Asian Studies Center. Retrieved on 2007-08-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Appleman, Roy E (1998). South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu. Dept. of the Army, p. 3, p. 15, pp 381, 545, 771, 719. ISBN 0160019184.
- ^ Rustow, Dankwart A. The Changing Global Order and Its Implications for Korea's Reunification, Sino-Soviet Affairs, Vol. XVII, No. 4, Winter 1994/5]. The Institute for Sino-Soviet Studies, Hanyang University. Retrieved on 2007-08-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul.
- ^ a b c Goulden, Joseph C (1983). Korea: The Untold Story of the War. McGraw-Hill, p. 17. ISBN 0070235805.
- ^ McCune, Shannon C (1946-05), “Physical Basis for Korean Boundaries”, Far Eastern Quarterly May 1946 (No. 5): 286-287
- ^ Grajdanzev, Andrew (1945-10), “Korean Divided”, Far Eastern Survey XIV: 282
- ^ Grajdanzev, Andrew, History of Occupation of Korea, vol. I, pp. 16
- ^ Green Left - Features: HISTORICAL FEATURE: The Korean War - a war of counter-revolution
- ^ a b c The Korean War, The U.S. and Soviet Union in Korea. MacroHistory. Retrieved on 2007-08-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul.
- ^ Henderson, Gregory (1968). Korea: The Politics of the Vortex. Harvard University Press.
- ^ Lee Chong-sik (1978). Korean Workers' Party. Hoover Institute Press.
- ^ a b Concharov, Sergei N; Lewis, John W. and Xue Litai (1995). Uncertain Partners: Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804725217.
- ^ Acheson, Dean (1969). Dean Gooderham Acheson ( April 11, 1893 — October 12, 1971) was an American statesman and lawyer as United States Present at the Creation: My Years at the State Department. W. W. Norton, Inc. , 355-358.
- ^ Message from Stalin to Kim Il Sung, via Shtykov, Affirmative response to Kim Il Sung’s previous requests of lead and ammunitions from the Soviet Union. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Cold War International History Project (1950-03-18). Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor Retrieved on 2008-02-15. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 590 - Khosrau II is crowned as king of Persia 1637 - Ferdinand III becomes Holy Roman Emperor
- ^ Telegram from Shtykov to Vyshinsky, Receipt of goods and payments expected of North Korea from the Soviet Union. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Cold War International History Project (1950-03-09). Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia. Retrieved on 2008-02-15. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 590 - Khosrau II is crowned as king of Persia 1637 - Ferdinand III becomes Holy Roman Emperor
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Schnabel, James F (1992). United States Army In The Korean War: Policy And Direction: The First Year. Center of Military History, pp. 155-192, p. 212, pp. 283-284, pp. 288-289, p. 304. ISBN 0-16-035955-4.
- ^ a b Korea Institute of Military History. The Korean War: Korea Institute of Military History 3 Volume Set. Bison Books, University of Nebraska Press, vol. 1, p. 730, vol. 2, pp. 512-529. ISBN 0803277946.
- ^ Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945-1953, Page 390, Published 2002 Stanford University Press, ISBN 0804747741
- ^ Yearbook of the United Nations, 1950
- ^ Donovan, Robert J (1996). Tumultuous Years: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman 1949-1953. University of Missouri Press, p 285. ISBN 0826210856.
- ^ The Korean War: The Chinese Intervention
- ^ Cohen, Eliot A; Gooch, John (2005). Military Misfortunes: The Anatomy of Failure in War. Free Press, pp 165-195. ISBN 0743280822.
- ^ Hopkins, William (1986). One Bugle No Drums: The Marines at Chosin Reservoir. Algonquin.
- ^ Rear Admiral Doyle, James H & Mayer, Arthur J (April 1979), “December 1950 at Hungnam”, U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings vol. 105 (no. 4): pp. 44-65
- ^ Hasbrouck, S. V (1951), memo to file (November 7, 1951), G-3 Operations file, box 38-A, Library of Congress
- ^ Army Chief of Staff (1951), memo to file (November 20, 1951), G-3 Operations file, box 38-A, Library of Congress
- ^ Watson, Robert J; Schnabel, James F. (1998). The Joint Chiefs of Staff and National Policy, 1950-1951, The Korean War and 1951-1953, The Korean War (History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Volume III, Parts I and II). Office of Joint History, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, part 1, p. v; part 2, p. 614.
- ^ Commanding General, Far East Air Force (1951), Memo to 98th Bomb Wing Commander, Okinawa
- ^ Far East Command G-2 Theater Intelligence (1951), Resumé of Operation, Record Group 349, box 752
- ^ Syngman Rhee Biography: Rhee Attacks Peace Proceedings. Korean War Commemoration Biographies. Retrieved on 2007-08-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
- ^ Xu, Yan (2003-07-29). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1014 - Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars: Battle of Kleidion: Byzantine emperor Basil II inflicts a decisive defeat Korean War: In the View of Cost-effectiveness. Consulate General of the People's Republic of China in New York. Retrieved on 2007-08-12. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon - Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid
- ^ CW2 Sewell, Stephen L. FEAF/U.N. Aircraft Used in Korea and Losses by Type. Korean-War. com. Retrieved on 2007-08-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
- ^ Korean War Aces, USAF F-86 Sabre jet pilots. AcePilots. com. Retrieved on 2007-08-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
- ^ Harrison R. Thyng. Sabre Jet Classics. Retrieved on 24 Dec 2006. Events 563 - The Byzantine church Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is dedicated for the second time after being destroyed by Earthquakes Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ http://www.defencetalk.com/forums/ext.php?ref=http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/korea/navalbattles.htm
- ^ http://www.defencetalk.com/forums/ext.php?ref=http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/korea/navalbattles.htm
- ^ a b c Cumings, Bruce (1997). Bruce Cumings is the Gustavus F and Ann M Swift Distinguished Service Professor in History at the University of Chicago and specializes in modern Korean history Korea's Place in the Sun: A History. WW Norton & Company, pp 289-92. ISBN 0393316815.
- ^ Knightley, Phillip (1982). The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist and Myth-maker. Quartet, p 334. ISBN 080186951X.
- ^ Panikkar, Kavalam Madhava (1981). Kavalam Madhava Panikkar (1895-1963 was a scholar journalist historian administrator and diplomat In Two Chinas: Memoirs of a Diplomat. Hyperion Press. ISBN 0830500138.
- ^ Truman, Harry S (1955-1956). Memoirs (2 volumes). Doubleday, vol. II, p. 394-395. ISBN 156852062X.
- ^ a b c Rummel, R. J. Statistics of Democide, Chapter 10, Statistics Of North Korean Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources.
- ^ AP IMPACT: Thousands killed in 1950 by US's Korean ally - Yahoo! News
- ^ {{cite news | last =Choe | first =Sang-Hun | title =A half-century wait for a husband abducted by North Korea | publisher =International Herald Tribune:Asia Pacific | date =2007-06-25 | url =http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/06/25/news/missing.php | accessdate =2007-08-22 l}
- ^ "S Korea 'regrets' refugee mix-up", British Broadcasting Corp. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 524 - Battle of Vézeronce, the Franks defeat the Burgundians (BBC), 2007-01-18. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor Retrieved on 2008-08-22. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
- ^ Hanley, Charles J. ; Martha Mendoza. "U.S. Policy Was to Shoot Korean Refugees", The Washington Post, Associated Press, 2006-05-29. The Washington Post is the largest and most circulated Newspaper in Washington D The Associated Press ( AP) is an American News agency. The AP is a Cooperative owned by its contributing Newspapers radio Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the Retrieved on 2007-04-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1450 - Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English
- ^ Hanley, Charles J. ; Martha Mendoza. "Letter reveals U.S. intent at No Gun Ri", New Orleans Times-Picayune, Associated Press, 2007-04-13. The Times-Picayune is a daily Newspaper published in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. The Associated Press ( AP) is an American News agency. The AP is a Cooperative owned by its contributing Newspapers radio Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1111 - Henry V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. 1204 - The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople Retrieved on 2007-04-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 43 BC - Battle of Forum Gallorum: Mark Antony, besieging Julius Caesar 's assassin Decimus Junius Brutus in
- ^ Potter, Charles. Charles Edward Potter ( October 30, 1916 – November 23, 1979) was a U "Korean War Atrocities" (PDF, online), United States Senate Subcommittee on Korean War Atrocities of the Permanent Subcommittee of the Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations. , US GPO, December 3, 1953. Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor "We marched 2 days. The first night we got some hay and we slept in the hay cuddling together to keep warm. The second night we slept in pigpens, about six inches space between the logs. That night I froze my feet. Starting out again the next morning, after bypassing the convoy, I picked up two rubber boots, what we call "snow packs". They was both for the left foot; I put those on. After starting out the second morning, I didn't have time to massage my feet to get them thawed out. I got marching the next sixteen days after that. During that march all the meat had worn off my feet, all the skin had dropped off, nothing but the bones showing. After arriving in Kanggye they put us up, there, in mud huts, Korean mud huts. We stayed there — all sick and wounded, most of us was — stayed there, in the first part of January 1951. Then the Chinese come around in the night, about twelve o'clock, and told us those who was sick and wounded they was going to move us out to the hospital, which we knew better. There could have been such a thing, but we didn't think so. —— Sgt. Wendell Treffery, RA- 115660. "
- ^ Carlson, Lewis H (2003). Remembered Prisoners of a Forgotten War: An Oral History of Korean War POWs. St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0312310072.
- ^ Lakshmanan, Indira A. R (1999). Hill 303 Massacre. Boston Globe. Retrieved on 2007-08-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
- ^ Van Zandt, James E (February 2003). `You are about to die a horrible death' - Korean War — the atrocities committed by the North Koreans during the Korean War. VFW Magazine. Retrieved on 2007-08-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
- ^ American Ex-Prisoners of War. Department of Veterans Affairs.
- ^ Lee, Sookyung (2007). Hardly Known, Not Yet Forgotten, South Korean POWs Tell Their Story. AII POW-MIA InterNetwork. Retrieved on 2007-08-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
- ^ "S Korea POW celebrates escape", British Broadcasting Corp. (BBC), 2004-01-19. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England completing his reconquest of Normandy. Retrieved on 2007-08-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
- ^ Gonyea, Don. "U.S., South Korea Differ over North Korea", National Public Radio (NPR), 2007-08-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 322 BC - Battle of Crannon between Athens and Macedon following the death of Alexander the Great. Retrieved on 2007-08-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
- ^ "N. Korea Agrees to Allow Nuclear Inspectors", National Public Radio (NPR), 2007-08-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 322 BC - Battle of Crannon between Athens and Macedon following the death of Alexander the Great. Retrieved on 2007-08-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
- ^ Goldenberg, Suzanne. "Policy Shift Offers US Hope of N Korea Success", Sydney Morning Herald, 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia. Retrieved on 2007-08-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
- ^ "Korean leaders issue peace call", BBC News, 2007-10-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 610 - Heraclius arrives by ship from Africa at Constantinople, overthrows Byzantine Emperor Phocas Retrieved on 2007-10-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 610 - Heraclius arrives by ship from Africa at Constantinople, overthrows Byzantine Emperor Phocas
- ^ What is M*A*S*H. Retrieved on 2007-08-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
- ^ pgs 63, 146, 173 Delisle, Guy Pyongyang: A Journey Into North Korea Drawn & Quarterly Books
- ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/2982213.stm South Korea's tunnel hunters
References
- Brune, Lester and Robin Higham, eds. , The Korean War: Handbook of the Literature and Research (Greenwood Press, 1994)
- Edwards, Paul M. Korean War Almanac (2006)
- Foot, Rosemary, "Making Known the Unknown War: Policy Analysis of the Korean Conflict in the Last Decade," Diplomatic History 15 (Summer 1991): 411-31, in JSTOR
- Goulden, Joseph C. , Korea: The Untold Story of the War, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1982.
- Hickey, Michael, The Korean War: The West Confronts Communism, 1950-1953 (London: John Murray, 1999) ISBN 0719555590 9780719555596
- Ho, Kang, Pak. "The US Imperialists Started the Korean War", Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang 1993.
- Kaufman, Burton I. The Korean Conflict (Greenwood Press, 1999).
- Knightley, P. The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist and Myth-maker (Quartet, 1982)
- Korea Institute of Military History, The Korean War (1998) (English edition 2001), 3 vol, 2600 pp; highly detailed history from South Korean perspective, U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-7802-0
- Leitich, Keith. Shapers of the Great Debate on the Korean War: A Biographical Dictionary (2006) covers Americans only
- James I. Matray, ed. , Historical Dictionary of the Korean War (Greenwood Press, 1991)
- Millett, Allan R, “A Reader's Guide To The Korean War” Journal of Military History (1997) Vol. 61 No. 3; p. 583+ full text in JSTOR; free online revised version
- Millett, Allan R. "The Korean War: A 50 Year Critical Historiography," Journal of Strategic Studies 24 (March 2001), pp. 188-224. full text in Ingenta and Ebsco; discusses major works by British, American, Korean, Chinese, and Russian authors
- Summers, Harry G. Korean War Almanac (1990)
- Sandler, Stanley ed. , The Korean War: An Encyclopedia (Garland, 1995)
- Masatake, Terauchi. "Treaty of Annexation", USC-UCLA Joint East Asian Studies Center, 1910-08-27. Retrieved on 2007-01-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate.
Further reading
Combat studies, soldiers
- Appleman, Roy E. South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu (1961), Official U. S. Army history covers the Eighth Army and X Corps from June to November 1950
- Appleman, Roy E. . East of Chosin: Entrapment and Breakout in Korea (1987); Escaping the Trap: The U. S. Army in Northeast Korea, 1950 (1987); Disaster in Korea: The Chinese Confront MacArthur (1989); Ridgway Duels for Korea (1990).
- Blair, Clay. The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950-1953 (1987), revisionist study that attacks senior American officials
- Field Jr. , James A. History of United States Naval Operations: Korea, University Press of the Pacific, 2001, ISBN 0-89875-675-8. official U. S. Navy history
- Farrar-Hockley, General Sir Anthony. The British Part in the Korean War, HMSO, 1995, hardcover 528 pages, ISBN 0-11-630962-8
- Futrell, Robert F. The United States Air Force in Korea, 1950–1953, rev. ed. (Office of the Chief of Air Force History, 1983), official U. S. Air Force history
- Hallion, Richard P. The Naval Air War in Korea (1986).
- Hamburger, Kenneth E. Leadership in the Crucible: The Korean War Battles of Twin Tunnels and Chipyong-Ni. Texas A. & M. U. Press, 2003. 257 pp.
- Hastings, Max. The Korean War (1987). British perspective
- James, D. Clayton The Years of MacArthur: Triumph and Disaster, 1945-1964 (1985)
- James, D. Clayton with Anne Sharp Wells, Refighting the Last War: Command and Crises in Korea, 1950-1953 (1993)
- Johnston, William. A War of Patrols: Canadian Army Operations in Korea. U. of British Columbia Press, 2003. 426 pp.
- Kindsvatter, Peter S. American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam. U. Press of Kansas, 2003. 472 pp.
- Millett, Allan R. Their War for Korea: American, Asian, and European Combatants and Civilians, 1945–1953. Brassey's, 2003. 310 pp.
- Montross, Lynn et al. , History of U. S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950–1953, 5 vols. (Washington: Historical Branch, G-3, Headquarters, Marine Corps, 1954–72),
- Mossman, Billy. Ebb and Flow (1990), Official U. S. Army history covers November 1950 to July 1951.
- Russ, Martin. Breakout: The Chosin Reservoir Campaign, Korea 1950, , Penguin, 2000, 464 pages, ISBN 0-14-029259-4
- Toland, John. In Mortal Combat: Korea, 1950-1953 (1991)
- Varhola, Michael J. Fire and Ice: The Korean War, 1950-1953 (2000)
- Watson, Brent Byron. Far Eastern Tour: The Canadian Infantry in Korea, 1950–1953. 2002. 256 pp.
Origins, politics, diplomacy
- Chen Jian, China's Road to the Korean War: The Making of the Sino-American Confrontation (Columbia University Press, 1994),
- Goncharov, Sergei N. , John W. Lewis; and Xue Litai, Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War, Stanford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-8047-2521-7, diplomatic
- Kaufman, Burton I. The Korean War: Challenges in Crisis, Credibility, and Command. Temple University Press, 1986), focus is on Washington
- Matray, James. "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea," Journal of American History 66 (September, 1979), 314-33. Online at JSTOR
- Millett, Allan R. The War for Korea, 1945–1950: A House Burning vol 1 (2005)ISBN 0-7006-1393-5, origins
- Schnabel, James F. United States Army in the Korean War: Policy and Direction: The First Year (Washington: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1972). Official U.S. Army history; full text online
- Spanier, John W. The Truman-MacArthur Controversy and the Korean War (1959).
- Stueck, William. Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History. Princeton U. Press, 2002. 285 pp.
- Stueck, Jr. , William J. The Korean War: An International History (Princeton University Press, 1995), diplomatic
- Zhang Shu-gang, Mao's Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 1950-1953 (University Press of Kansas, 1995)
Primary sources
- Bassett, Richard M. And the Wind Blew Cold: The Story of an American POW in North Korea. Kent State U. Press, 2002. 117 pp.
- Bin Yu and Xiaobing Li, eds Mao's Generals Remember Korea, University Press of Kansas, 2001, hardcover 328 pages, ISBN 0-7006-1095-2
- S. L. A. Marshall, The River and the Gauntlet (1953) on combat
- Matthew B. Ridgway, The Korean War (1967).
External links
- Korea Defense Veterans of America
- Korean War Ex-POW Association
- Korean War Veterans Associtaion
- The Center for the Study of the Korean War
- Korean War Documentary
- Korean Children's War Memorial
- Calvin College on the Impact of the War on the Korean People
- Facts and texts on the War
- BBC: American Military Conduct in the Korean War
- Atrocities against Americans in the Korean War
- Atrocities by Americans in the Korean War
- Quicktime sequence of 27 maps adapted from the West Point Atlas of American Wars showing the dynamics of the front.
- Animation for operations in 1950
- Animation for operations in 1951
- POW films, brainwashing and the Korean War
- CBC Digital Archives - Forgotten Heroes: Canada and the Korean War
- Chinese 50th Anniversary Korean War Memorial
- North Korea International Documentation Project
- Collection of videos on Korean War