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The Kingdom of Asturias was the first Christian political entity to be established in the Iberian peninsula after the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom. Kingdom of León was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. The flag of Asturias shows the "Cruz de la Victoria" ( Victory Cross) in gold (yellow PMS 109 over blue (PMS 829 The coat of arms of Asturias ( Asturian: Escudu d'Asturies, Escudo de Asturias Escudo de Asturias) is the official Coat of arms of A motto (from the Italian word motto, meaning witticism sentence is a phrase meant to formally describe the general motivation or intention of a social group English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Throughout the world there are many cities that were once national Capitals but no longer have that status because the country ceased to exist the capital was moved or the capital Cangas de Onís ( Asturian: Cangues d'Onís) is a municipality in the eastern part of the province and autonomous community of Asturias in the northwest San Martín del Rey Aurelio (SMRA Asturian: Samartín del Rei Aurelio) is a Municipality ( ''conceyu'') of the autonomous community RIP Pravia is a municipality in the Autonomous Community of the Principality of Asturias. Oviedo ( Asturian: Uviéu is the capital city of the Principality of Asturias in northern Spain. Astur-Leonese is a Dialect continuum included in the West Iberian branch of the Romance languages. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or This is a list of the rulers of the Kingdom of Asturias. While their existence and dates seem plausible further verifiable details about their reigns are often scarce especially Pelagius (Pelayo Pelágio died 737 was the founder of the Kingdom of Asturias, ruling from 718 until his death Fruela II ( Froila II) (c 875–925 was the King of Asturias from the death of his father Alfonso III of Asturias, in 910 to his own death A hereditary monarchy is the most common style of Monarchy and is the form that is used by almost all of the world's existing monarchies Events By Place Europe February 14 - Charles the Bald and Louis the German sign a treaty In Mathematics, especially in elementary Arithmetic, division is an arithmetic operation which is the inverse of Multiplication. Events By Place Africa The caliphate of Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah (of the Fatimid dynasty is established after he enters the Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East This followed the defeat of King Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete and the subsequent Islamic conquest of Hispania. Ruderic, Roderic, Roderik, Roderich, or Roderick ( Spanish and Portuguese: Rodrigo, Ludhriq, The Battle of Guadalete was fought in 711 or 712 at an unidentified location between the Christian Visigoths of Hispania under their king Roderic The Umayyad conquest of Hispania ( 711 – 718) began as an army of the Umayyad Caliphate consisting largely of Berbers inhabitants The kingdom lasted from 718 until 925, when Fruela II became King of León. Fruela II ( Froila II) (c 875–925 was the King of Asturias from the death of his father Alfonso III of Asturias, in 910 to his own death
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Historical evolution
Indigenous background of the Kingdom of Asturias
The birthplace of the Asturian kingdom was the western and central territory of the Cantabrian Mountains, particularly the Picos de Europa and the central area of Asturias. Cantabrian Mountains ( Cordillera Cantábrica in Spanish) are a Mountain range which extends for more than approximately 180 Miles (300 The Picos de Europa (literally "Peaks of Europe" is a range of Mountains some 20 km inland from the northern coast of Spain, located in the Autonomous The main political and military events during the first decades of the kingdom's existence took place in this region. According to the descriptions of Strabo, Dio Cassius and other Graeco-Roman geographers, the lands of Asturias were inhabited in the beginning of the Christian era by several peoples, amongst whom the more important were: the Vadinienses, who inhabited the Picos de Europa region and whose settlement gradually expanded southward during the first centuries of the modern era; the Orgenomesci, who dwelled along the Asturian eastern coast; the Saelini, whose settlement extended through the Sella valley; the Luggones, who had their capital in Lucus Asturum and whose territories stretched between the rivers Sella and Nalón; the Astures (in the strictest sense), who dwelled in inner Asturias, between the current councils of Piloña and Cangas del Narcea; and the Paesici, who had settled along the coast of Western Asturias, between the mouth of the Navia river and the modern city of Gijón. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was Piloña is a municipality in the Province and Autonomous community of Asturias, northwestern Spain. Cangas del Narcea is the oldest Municipality in the Principality of Asturias in Spain. Gijón ( Asturian: Xixón) is a coastal industrial city
Classical geographers give conflicting views of the ethnic description of the above mentioned peoples: Ptolemy says that the Astures extended along the central area of current Asturias, between the Navia and Sella rivers, fixing the latter as the boundary with the Cantabrian territory. The Astures were the original Indo-European inhabitants of the northwest area of Hispania that now comprises almost the entire modern Autonomous community Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca However, other geographers placed the frontier between the Astures and the Cantabri more eastwards: Julius Honorius stated in his Cosmographia that the springs of Ebro river were located in the land of the Astures (sub asturibus). The Cantabri were an ancient confederacy of eleven tribes either Celtic or pre-Indo European, that inhabited the north coast of Hispania in the whole In any case, ethnic borders in the Cantabrian mountains were not so important at that time, as all the peoples of Northern Iberia had similar culture and habits.
This situation started to change during the Late Roman Empire and the High Middle Ages, when an Asturian identity started to develop gradually: The centuries-old fight against Romans, Visigoths and Vandals forged a common identity among the peoples of the Cantabrian mountains. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Several archaeological digs in the castro of La Carisa (municipality of Lena) have found remnants of a defensive line whose main purpose was to protect the valleys of central Asturias from invaders who came from the Meseta through the Pajares pass: Scholars think that the construction of these fortifications reveals a high degree of organization and cooperation between the several Asturian tribes, in order to defend themselves from the southern invaders. Carbon-14 tests have found that the wall dates from the period 675-725 AD, when two armed expeditions against the Asturians took place: One of them, headed by Visigothic king Wamba; the other by Muslim governor Musa bin Nusair, during the Islamic conquest of Iberia. Carbon-14, 14C, or radiocarbon, is a Radioactive isotope of Carbon discovered on February 27, 1940, by Wamba (died 687 was the king of the Visigoths in Hispania ( Iberian Peninsula) from 672 to 680 Musa bin Nusair also Musa ben Nusair or Musa Ibn Nusayr (موسى بن نصير 640—716 was a Syrian Muslim who served as a governor and general under The Umayyad conquest of Hispania ( 711 – 718) began as an army of the Umayyad Caliphate consisting largely of Berbers inhabitants
The Asturian identity that was gradually forming led to the creation of the Kingdom of Asturias after Pelayo's coronation and the victory over the Berbers in Covadonga. Pelagius (Pelayo Pelágio died 737 was the founder of the Kingdom of Asturias, ruling from 718 until his death The Battle of Covadonga was the first major victory by a Christian military Force in Iberia following the Muslim Moors ' conquest of The Chronica Albeldense, in narrating the happenings of Covadonga, stated that Regnum Asturorum divina providencia exoritur: "Divine providence brings forth the King of Asturias. "
Establishment
The kingdom was established by a nobleman, Pelayo, who had returned to his country after the Battle of Guadalete where he was elected leader of the Astures and founded the Kingdom of Asturias. Covadonga - ( Asturian: Cuadonga) from Latin Cova Dominica, "Cavern of the Lady" Arabic: صخرة بلاي Ṣakhraḧ Bilāy The Battle of Guadalete was fought in 711 or 712 at an unidentified location between the Christian Visigoths of Hispania under their king Roderic The Astures were the original Indo-European inhabitants of the northwest area of Hispania that now comprises almost the entire modern Autonomous community However, Pelayo's kingdom initially was little more than a banner for the existing guerilla forces.
Under his leadership, the attacks on the Berbers increased. Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. In 722 (or possibly in 724 or as early as 718), the Emir sent a force led by Munuza to quell this rebellion and establish Moorish control of the region. Events By Place Americas 3 January — K'inich Ahkal Mo' Naab III takes the throne of the Maya state of Palenque For the area code see Area code 724 Events By Place Asia Emperor Shōmu succeeds Empress Genshō For the area code see Area code 718 Events By Place Europe Tervel 's reign as monarch of Emir ( Arabic: ar أمير;, female أميرة; emira;) ( Farsi and Urdu: امیر) Munuza (8th century was the Moorish governor of northern Iberia (including the region of Asturias in modern Spain) The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent This force was defeated in the valley of Battle of Covadonga. The Battle of Covadonga was the first major victory by a Christian military Force in Iberia following the Muslim Moors ' conquest of The most commonly accepted hypothesis for this battle (epic as described by Christian chronicles, but a mere skirmish in Muslim texts) is that the Moorish column was attacked from the cliffs and then fell back through the valleys towards present day Gijón, but was attacked whilst in retreat by the retinue and nearly destroyed. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Gijón ( Asturian: Xixón) is a coastal industrial city After this first battle, the Astures grew stronger. Once he had expelled the Moors from the eastern valleys of Asturias, Pelayo attacked León, the main city in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula and secured the mountain passes, isolating the region from Moorish attack. History León was founded in the 1st century BC by the Roman legion Legio VI ''Victrix''.
Pelayo continued attacking those Berbers who remained north of the Asturian Mountains until they withdrew. He then married his son Favila to Duke Peter of Cantabria’s daughter, a descendant of the former Astur dynasty. Fafila, Favila, or Favilac (died 739 was the second King of Asturias from 737 until his death Peter or Pedro (d 730 was the Duke of Cantabria. While various writers have attempted to name his parentage (for example making him son or brother of King
Pelayo founded a dynasty in Asturias that survived for centuries and gradually expanded the kingdom's boundaries until all of northwest Iberia was included by roughly 775. Events By Place Asia Estimation Baghdad, capital of the Abbasid Empire, becomes the largest city of the world taking the lead The reign of Alfonso II from 791-842 saw further expansion of the kingdom to the south, almost as far as Lisbon, Portugal. Alfonso II (759-842 called the Chaste, was the King of Asturias from 791 to his death the son of Fruela I and the Basque Munia Events By Place Europe The Avars invade Europe again but are defeated by Charlemagne. Events By Place Europe February 14 - Charles the Bald and Louis the German sign a treaty Lisbon (Lisboa liʒˈboɐ is the Capital and largest city of Portugal. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula.
Recognition
It was not until King Alfonso II of Asturias (791-842) that the kingdom was firmly established with Alfonso's recognition as king of Asturias by Charlemagne and the Pope. Alfonso II (759-842 called the Chaste, was the King of Asturias from 791 to his death the son of Fruela I and the Basque Munia Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and He conquered Galicia and the Basques. Galicia (occasionally Galiza) is an autonomous community in northwest Spain. During his reign, the holy bones of St. James the Great were declared to be found in Galicia, at Santiago de Compostela (from Latin campus stellae, literally "the field of the star"). For people and places called Saint James, see the Saint James disambiguation page Santiago de Compostela (also Saint James of Compostela is the capital of the autonomous community of Galicia and a UNESCO World Pilgrims from all over Europe opened a way of communication between the isolated Asturias and the Carolingian lands and beyond. The Carolingian dynasty (known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolings, or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family with its origins in the
The first capital city was Cangas de Onís. Cangas de Onís ( Asturian: Cangues d'Onís) is a municipality in the eastern part of the province and autonomous community of Asturias in the northwest Then, in Silo's time, it was moved to Pravia. Silo was the King of Asturias from 774 to 783 Silo was not a relative of either the Peláyez or Pérez families which had produced all previous kings RIP Pravia is a municipality in the Autonomous Community of the Principality of Asturias. Alfonso II chose Oviedo as the definite capital of the Kingdom. Oviedo ( Asturian: Uviéu is the capital city of the Principality of Asturias in northern Spain. The kingdom was known as Asturias until 924, when it became the Kingdom of León. For the automobile see Porsche 924. Events By Place Europe King Athelstan succeeds to the throne of Mercia Kingdom of León was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. It continued under that name until incorporated into the Kingdom of Castile in 1230, after Ferdinand III became joint king of the two kingdoms. Kingdom of Castile was one of the medieval kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. Saint Ferdinand III (July 30 or August 5 1199 &ndash May 30, 1252) was the King of Castile from 1217 and King of León from 1230
Religion
Remnants of Megalithic and Celtic Paganism
Although the earliest evidences of Christian worship in Asturias date from the 5th century, evangelisation did not really make any substantial progress until the middle of the 6th century, when hermits like Santo Toribio de Liébana and monks of the San Fructuoso order settled gradually in the lands of the Cantabrian mountains and started to preach the Christian doctrine to the locals.
According to other scholars, deva is just a common Celtic word which means "goddess," so it is possible that behind this name other divinities, like Briga and Navia, are hidden. In any case, Deva was a highly popular title in pre-Roman Asturias, and still today can be found in placenames like the Isle of Deva and the Güeyu of Deva well.
In the middle of the Sella valley (where Cangas de Onís is located) there was a dolmen area, which dated back to the megalithic era, and was built probably in the period 4,000 - 2,000 BC. Cangas de Onís ( Asturian: Cangues d'Onís) is a municipality in the eastern part of the province and autonomous community of Asturias in the northwest In this place, particularly in Santa Cruz Dolmen, the ritual burials of the surrounding regions' chieftains were performed. Such practices survived the Roman and Visigothic conquests to a point that still in the 8th century king Favila was buried there, in the same place were the corpses of ancient tribal leaders had their final rest. Although the Asturian monarchy fostered the Christianization of this site (ordering the edification of a church), there are still today Pagan traditions linked with the Santa Cruz dolmen: It is said that xanas (Asturian fairies) appear to visitors, and magical properties are ascribed to the soil of the place. The Xanas are Nymphs and fairies that may be found in the Mythology of Asturias.
Adoptionism
The foundations of Asturian culture and that of Christian Spain in the High Middle Ages were laid during the reigns of Silo and Mauregato, when the Asturian kings submitted to the authority of the Umayyad emirs of the Caliphate of Córdoba. Silo was the King of Asturias from 774 to 783 Silo was not a relative of either the Peláyez or Pérez families which had produced all previous kings Mauregatus the Usurper (Mauregato was the King of Asturias from 783 to 788 or 789 The Caliphate of Córdoba (Arabic خلافة قرطبة ruled the Iberian peninsula ( Al-Andalus) and North Africa from the city of The most prominent Christian scholar in the Kingdom of Asturias of this period was Beatus of Liébana, whose works left an indelible mark in the Christian culture of the Reconquista. Saint Beatus of Liébana (c 730 - c 800 was a Monk, Theologian and Geographer from the Kingdom of Asturias, in northern Spain who worked
Beatus was directly involved in the debate surrounding adoptionism, which argued that Jesus was born a man, and was adopted by God and acquired a divine dimension only after his passion and resurrection. Adoptionism, also called dynamic Monarchianism, was a minority Christian belief that Jesus was born merely human and that he became divine later in his life Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) This article describes the Christian Passion For other meanings see Passion. This article concerns itself with Jesus Christ Christian, Islamic and other religious interpretations of resurrection in general Beatus refuted this theological position, championed by such figures as Elipandus, bishop of Toledo. Elipando (named in some sources as Elipandus) (717 - 808? was a Spanish Archbishop and theologian. Toledo Spain locationpng|thumb|right|200px|Location of Toledo in Spain
The adoptionist theology had its roots in Gothic arianism, which denied the divinity of Jesus, and in Greco-Roman paganism, with examples of heroes like Herakles who, after their death attained the apotheosis. Arianism is the theological teaching of Arius (c AD 250-336 who was ruled a heretic by the Christian church at the Council of Nicea. In modern Olympic and amateur Wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling is a particular style and variation Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles ("glory of Hera " or Likewise, as Elipandus's bishopric of Toledo was at the time within the Muslim Caliphate of Cordoba, Islamic beliefs which acknowledged Jesus as a Prophet, but not as the Son of God, influenced the formation of adoptionism. However, the adoptionist theology opposed strongly by Beatus from his abbey in Santo Toribio de Liébana. At the same time, Beatus strengthened the links between Asturias, Rome, and the Carolingian Empire, and was supported in his theological struggle by the Pope and by his friend Alcuin of York, an Anglo-Saxon scholar who had settled among the Carolingian court in Aachen. The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, commonly known as the Pope, and is the preeminent Episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Carolingian Empire is a historiographical term sometimes used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty. History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and Alcuin of York (Alcuinus or Ealhwine, nicknamed Albinus or Flaccus (c ( Ripuarian: Oche, Dutch: Aken, Spanish: Aquisgrán, Italian: Aquisgrana, French,
The most trascendental works of Beatus were his Commentaries to Apocalypse, which were copied in later centuries in manuscripts called beati, about which the Italian writer Umberto Eco said: "Their splendid images gave birth to the most relevant iconographic happening in the History of Mankind"[1]. Umberto Eco (born 5 January 1932 is an Italian Medievalist, semiotician, Philosopher, literary critic and Novelist, best Beatus develops in them a personal interpretation of the book of Revelation, accompanied by quotes from the Old Testament, the Church Fathers and fascinating illustrations. The Book of Revelation, also called Revelation to John, Apocalypse of John ( pronounced, from the Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church
In these Commentaries a new interpretation of the apocalyptical accounts is given: Babylon no longer represents the city of Rome, but Córdoba, seat of the Ummayad emirs of Al-Andalus; the Beast, once a symbol of the Roman Empire, now stands for the Islamic invaders who in this time threatened to destroy Western Christianity and who made raids on the territories of the Asturian Kingdom. Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial
In the prologue to the second book of the Commentaries is found one of the best examples of a Mappae Mundi of the high medieval culture. The Beatus Map or Beatine Map is one of the most relevant cartographic works of the European High Middle Ages It was originally drawn by the Spanish monk Beatus of Liébana The aim of this map was not to represent the world cartographically, but to serve as an illustration of the Apostles Diaspora in the first decades of Christianity. Beatus took data from the works of Saint Isidore of Seville, Ptolemy and the Holy Scripture. Saint Isidore of Seville ( Spanish: es ''San Isidro'' or es ''San Isidoro de Sevilla'' Latin: latin ''Isidorus Hispalensis'' (c Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin The world was represented as a land disc surrounded by the Ocean and divided in three parts: Asia (upper semicircle), Europe (lower left quadrant) and Africa (lower right quadrant). The Mediterranean Sea (Europe-Africa), the Nile River (Africa-Asia) and the Aegean Sea and the Bosphorus (Europa-Asia) were set as boundaries between the different continental masses.
Millennialism
Beatus was persuaded that the Apocalypse described in the book of Revelation was imminent, which would be followed by 1,290 years of domination by the Antichrist. For other uses see Antichrist (disambiguation In Christian eschatology, the Antichrist or anti-Christ means a person office Beatus followed the views of Saint Augustine who's work, the City of God influenced the Commentaries which followed the premise that the History of the World was structured in six ages: The first five ones extended between the creation of Adam, and the Passion of Jesus, while the sixth, subsequent to Christ and contemporary to us, had to end with the unleashing of the happenings prophetized by the book of Revelation. See also Adam and Eve Adam ( Hebrew: אָדָם was according to a literal interpretation of Genesis, the first man created by
Millennialist movements were very common in Europe at that time: Between 760-780 a series of cosmics phenomenons caused panic among the population of Gaul; John, a visionary monk, predicted the coming of the Last Judgement during the reign of Charlemagne. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western In Christian eschatology, the Last Judgment or Day of the Lord is the judgment by God of every human who ever lived Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his In this time appeared the Apocalypse of Daniel, a Syriac text redacted during the rule of the empress Irene of Byzantium wherein wars between the Arabs, the Byzantines and the Northern peoples were prophesized. See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding These wars would end with the coming of the Antichrist.
Events taking place in Hispania (Islamic rule, the adoptionist heresy, the gradual asimilation of the Mozarabic people. Mozarabic was a continuum of closely related Romance dialects spoken in Muslim dominated areas of the Iberian Peninsula during the early stages of the . . ) were, for Beatus, signals of the imminent apocalyptic aeon. The word aeon, also spelled eon or æon, means "age" "forever" or "for Eternity " As Elipandus describes in his Letter from the bishops of Spania to their brothers in Gaul, the abbot of Santo Toribio went so far as to announce to his countrymen the coming of the End of Time in the Easter of the year 800. On the dawn of that day, hundreds of peasants met around the abbey of Santo Toribio, waiting terrified for the fulfilling of the prophecy. They remained in that place, without having had a bite to eat, during a day and half, until one of them, named Ordonius, exclaimed: "Let us eat and drink, so that if the End of the World comes we are full!".
The prophetic and millennialist visions of Beatus produced an enduring mark in the development of the Kingdom of Asturias: The Chronica Prophetica, which was composed circa 880 AD, predicted the final fall of the Emirate of Córdoba, and the conquest and redemption of the entire Iberian peninsula by king Alfonso III. The Caliphate of Córdoba (Arabic خلافة قرطبة ruled the Iberian peninsula ( Al-Andalus) and North Africa from the city of The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra Alfonso III may refer to Alfonso III of Leon -- (866-914 surnamed "the Great" Afonso III of Portugal -- (1210-1279 Millennialist imagery is also reflected throughout the kingdom in the Cruz de la Victoria icon -the major emblem of the Asturian kingdom- has its origins in a passage of the Revelation book in which Saint John relates the following vision of the Parusia: He sees Jesus Christ seated in his Majesty, surrounded by clouds and affirming: "I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, which is, and which was, and which is to come, the Almighty"[2]. It is true that usage of the labarum was not restricted to Asturias, and, moreover, dates back to the time of Constantine the Great (who used this symbol during the battle of Battle of the Milvian Bridge). The Labarum (☧ was a military standard that displayed the first two Greek letters of the word " Christ " ( Greek: ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ or Χριστός Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine The Battle of the Milvian Bridge took place on October 28, 312, between the Roman Emperors Constantine I and Maxentius But it was in Asturias where the Cruz de la Victoria attained a general use: In nearly every Pre-romanesque church this icon is engraved[3][4], often accompanied with the expression "Hoc signo tuetur pius, in hoc signo vincitur inimicus"[5], that became the royal motto of the Asturian monarchs. Pre-Romanesque art and architecture is the period in Western European art from either the emergence of the Merovingian kingdom in about 500 or from the Carolingian
El Camino de Santiago
Another of the major spiritual legacies of the Asturian Kingdom is the creation of one of the most important ways of cultural transmission in European history: The Way of St. James. The Way of St James or St James' Way ( Galician O camiño de Santiago, Spanish name El Camino de Santiago) The first text which mentions St. James' preaching in Spain is the Breviarius de Hyerosolima, a 6th-century document which stated that the Apostle was buried in an enigmatical place called Aca Marmarica. Saint Isidore of Seville supported this theory in his work De ortu et obitu patrium. Saint Isidore of Seville ( Spanish: es ''San Isidro'' or es ''San Isidoro de Sevilla'' Latin: latin ''Isidorus Hispalensis'' (c One hundred fifty years later, in times of Mauregato, the hymn O Dei Verbum rendered St. James as "the golden head of Spain, our protector and national patron" and a mention is made of his preaching in the Iberian Peninsula during the first decades of Christianity. Some attribute this hymn to Beatus, although this is still discussed by historians.
The legend of St. James gained support during the reign of Alfonso II when the Galician herit Pelayo claimed to observe mysterious brightness during several nights over the wood of Libredón, in Iria Flavia diocese. Alfonso II (759-842 called the Chaste, was the King of Asturias from 791 to his death the son of Fruela I and the Basque Munia Angelic songs accompanied the lights. Impressed by this phenomenon, Pelayo appeared before the bishop of Iria Flavia, Teodomirus, who -after having heard the hermit- visited the location with his retinue. In the depths of the forest, it was found a stone sepulcre with three corpses, which were identified which those of St. James, son of Zebedee, and his two disciples, Theodorus and Atanasius. For people and places called Saint James, see the Saint James disambiguation page According to the legend, king Alfonso was the first pilgrim in coming to see the Apostle: During the travel he was guided at night by the Milky Way, which from then on acquired in Spanish the name Camino de Santiago. The Milky Way (a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn derived from the Greek Γαλαξίας (Galaxias sometimes referred to simply
The founding of St. James tomb was a formidable political success for the Kingdom of Asturias: Now Asturias could claim the honour of having a corpse of one of the apostles of Jesus, a privilege shared only with Asia (Ephesus) where Saint John was buried, and Rome, where the corpses of Saint Peter and Saint Paul rested. Ephesus ( Hittite Apasa; Ancient Greek; Turkish Efes) was a city of ancient Anatolia. Paul the apostle (שאול התרסי Šaʾul HaTarsi, meaning " Saul of Tarsus " Σαούλ Saul and Σαῦλος Saulos and From this moment on, Santiago de Compostela became one of the three sacred cities of Christianity, together with Rome and Jerusalem. Santiago de Compostela (also Saint James of Compostela is the capital of the autonomous community of Galicia and a UNESCO World Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the In later centuries, many Central European cultural influences travelled to Iberia through the Way of St. James, from the Gothic and Romanesque styles, to the Occitan lyric poetry.
However, the story of the discovery of the remains of the Apostle shows some enigmatic features. The tomb was found in a place used as a necropolis since the Late Roman Empire, so it is possible that the corpse belonged to a prominent person of the area: British historian Henry Chadwick hypothesized the tomb of Compostela actually hold the remains of Priscillian. A necropolis (plural necropoleis or necropoles) is a large Cemetery or burial place (from Greek nekropolis "city of the dead" The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Henry Chadwick may refer to Henry Chadwick (writer (1824-1908 early baseball writer Henry Chadwick (theologian (1920-2008 Priscillian, Bishop of Ávila (died 385 a theologian from Roman Gallaecia (in the Iberian Peninsula) was the first person in the Other scholars, like Constantino Cabal, highlighted the fact that several Galician places, such as Pico Sacro, Pedra da Barca (Muxía) or San Andrés de Teixido, were already in Pre-Roman times draws for Pagan pilgrimage. Pagan beliefs held these places as the End of the World, and as entrances to the Celtic Otherworld. The Otherworld ( orbis alia) in Celtic mythology is the realm of the dead, the home of the deities, or the stronghold of other spirits and beings After the discovery of Saint James' tomb, the gradual Christianization of those routes of pilgrimage began.
Mythology
Since the Chronicles of the Asturian kingdom were written a century and a half after the battle of Covadonga, there are many aspects of the first Asturian kings that remain shrouded in myth and legend.
Although the historicity of Pelayo is beyond doubt, the historical narrative describing him includes many folktales and legends. One of them asserts that prior to the Muslim invasion, Pelayo went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the sacred city of Christianity. However, no evidence exists that confirms this.
Likewise, it is also said that the Cruz de la Victoria was at first carved in an oak's log by a lightning strike[6]. Two elements of major importance in the Asturian folklore stand at the core of this story: On one hand, lightning was the ancient symbol of the Astur (and Celtic) god Taranis and in Asturian mythology was thought to be forged by the Nuberu, lord of clouds, rain and wind. The Astures were the original Indo-European inhabitants of the northwest area of Hispania that now comprises almost the entire modern Autonomous community Celtic polytheism refers to the religious beliefs and practices of ancient Celts, prior to the Christianization of the Celtic-speaking lands In Celtic mythology Taranis was the god of Thunder worshipped in Gaul, Britain and Hispania and mentioned along with Esus According to Asturian Mythology, the Nuberu - literally " The Cloud Master " (also known in Western Asturias as' Reñubeiru' or Xuan On the other hand, the oak tree is the symbol of the Asturian royalty and in reliefs of the Abamia Church (where Pelayo was buried) leaves of that tree are shown.
The Covadonga area is also rich with astonishing stories, like the one which is said to have happened in a shepherd village where today Enol and Ercina lakes are situated. The Virgin Mary, disguised as a pilgrim, is said to have visited that village and asked for food and shelter from every house of that village. She was rudely rejected by every person, except for a shepherd who gave her refuge and warmly shared everything he had. On the following day, as punishment for their inhospitality, a flood of divine origin devastated the village, which completely covered everything except the cottage of the good shepherd. In front of him, the mysterious guest started to cry, and her tears became flowers when they reached the floor. Then the shepherd realized that the pilgrim was actually the Virgin.
This is a Pan-celtic myth which is also found in other countries of the Atlantic Arch. In Galicia it is said that in the bottom of the Antela lake there are remnants of the ancient population of Antiochia, which vanished off the face of earth by a night deluge, in punishment for the sins of its inhabitants. On the other coast of the Biscay Bay, in Brittany, there are traditions related with the city of Ker-Ys, situated in the Douarnenez gulf, in lands claimed from the sea and protected by a dam. Ys, also spelled Is or Ker-Is in Breton, and Ker-Ys in French ( ker means city in Breton is a Mythical A dam is a barrier that divides waters. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water while other structures such as Floodgates, Levees The daughter of the king, Dahud, gave the keys of the city to Satan, who had disguised himself as a beautiful prince: This resulted in the flooding of Ys by the waters of the Ocean. Satan, ( Standard Hebrew Satan'el, English accuser) is a term that originates from the Abrahamic faiths, being traditionally Ys, also spelled Is or Ker-Is in Breton, and Ker-Ys in French ( ker means city in Breton is a Mythical
There are also myths about the Asturian Monarchy that are rooted in Jewish and Christian traditions rather than Pagan ones: the Chronica ad Sebastianum tells of an extraordinary event that happened when king Alfonso I died. Alfonso I (more rarely Alonso) called the Catholic ( el Católico) was the King of Asturias from 739 to his death in 757 While the noblemen were holding a wake for him, there could be heard celestial canticles sung by angels. They recited the following text of the Book of Isaiah (which happens to be the same that was read by the Mozarabic priests during the Vigil of the Holy Saturday):
| “ | "I said in the cutting off of my days, I shall go to the gates of the grave: I am deprived of the residue of my years. Mozarabic was a continuum of closely related Romance dialects spoken in Muslim dominated areas of the Iberian Peninsula during the early stages of the Pettie The Vigiljpg|right|thumb|200px|"A Knight's Vigil" by John Pettie]] A vigil (from the Latin vigilia, meaning wakefulness) is Holy Saturday ( Latin: Sabbatum Sanctum) is the day after Good Friday. I said, I shall not see the LORD, even the LORD, in the land of the living: I shall behold man no more with the inhabitants of the world. Mine age is departed, and is removed from me as a shepherd's tent: I have cut off like a weaver my life: he will cut me off with pining sickness: from day even to night wilt thou make an end of me. I reckoned till morning, that, as a lion, so will he break all my bones: from day even to night wilt thou make an end of me. Like a crane or a swallow, so did I chatter: I did mourn as a dove: mine eyes fail with looking upward: O LORD, I am oppressed; undertake for me. |
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— Is. 38,10-14
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This canticle was recited by Hezekiah, king of Judah, after his recovery from a serious illness. Hezekiah (or Ezekias) ( Hebrew: Ḥizqiyyāhu Khizkiyahu or Yəḥizqiyyāhu Y'khizkiyahu " the {{LORD}} has strengthened" compare In these verses, the King regretted with distress his departure to sheol, the Jewish Underworld, a shady place where he would not see God nor men any more. Sheol (pronounced "Sheh-ole" in Hebrew שאול (Sh'ol is the "abode of the dead" the " Underworld " "the common
Asturias also has examples of the Sleeping Hero myth. A king in the mountain, king under the mountain or sleeping hero is a prominent motif in Folklore and Mythology, that is found in many Folktales According to the tradition, it is still today possible to see king Fruela walking around the Jardín de los Reyes Caudillos[7] (a part of the Oviedo Cathedral), and it is said that his grandson, the famous cavalier Bernardo del Carpio, sleeps in a cave in the Asturian mountains. Fruela I (or Froila I) (died 768 called the Cruel, was the King of Asturias from 757 until his death when he was killed by a bear while hunting Bernardo del Carpio is a legendary hero of Medieval Iberian legend (namely Spanish) comparable to El Cid, though with less historical evidence The story tells that one day a peasant went into a certain cave to retrieve his lost cow, and heard a strong voice who declared to be Bernardo del Carpio, winner over the Franks in Roncevaux[8]. The Battle of Roncevaux Pass ( French and English spelling Roncesvalles in Spanish, Orreaga in Basque) was a After saying he had lived alone for centuries in that cave, he told the peasant: "Give me your hand, so that I can see how strong are men today". The shepherd, scared, gave him the horn of the cow, which, when seized by the giant man, was immediately broken. The poor villager ran away terrified, but not without hearing Bernardo say: "Current men are not like those who helped me to kill Frenchmen in Roncevaux"[9][10].
The are evident parallels between these stories and those which surround another medieval characters like Barbarossa or King Arthur. King Arthur is a legendary British leader who according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against the Saxon invaders It is said that Barbarossa did not die, but retired to a cave in the Kyffhäuser mountain, and that one day, when the ravens no long fly around the mountain, he will awake and restore Germany to its ancient greatness. The Kyffhäuser (ˈkʰɪfˌhɔɪ̯zɐ is a Mountain range located on the border of the German state of Thuringia with Saxony-Anhalt. King Arthur, according to many traditions, lives in many hills and caves of the island of Great Britain. His most famous dwelling is the Eildon Hill in Scotland, where he took refuge after the battle of Camlann. The Battle of Camlann ( Cad Camlan) is best known as the final battle of King Arthur, where he either died in battle or was fatally wounded fighting his enemy and
Legacy
The Kingdom of Asturias was, in its infancy, an indigenous reaction of Astures and Cantabri peoples to a foreign invasion. The Astures were the original Indo-European inhabitants of the northwest area of Hispania that now comprises almost the entire modern Autonomous community The Cantabri were an ancient confederacy of eleven tribes either Celtic or pre-Indo European, that inhabited the north coast of Hispania in the whole These people had fought the Romans in the Astur-Cantabrian Wars, and initially resisted Romanisation. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The Cantabrian Wars or Astur-Cantabrian Wars ( 29 BC - 19 BC) occurred during the Roman conquest of the ancient provinces of Cantabria In Linguistics, romanization (or latinization, also spelled romanisation or latinisation) is the representation of a Word or Although they preserved many characteristics of their pre-Roman culture, their Celtic languages were later lost in favor of Latin. The Celtic languages are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic" a branch of the greater Indo-European Language family. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.
This kingdom is the birthplace of an influential European medieval architectural style: Asturian Preromanesque. Medieval architecture is a term used to represent various forms of Architecture popular in Medieval Europe. Pre-Romanesque art and architecture is the period in Western European art from either the emergence of the Merovingian kingdom in about 500 or from the Carolingian This style of architecture was founded during the reign of Ramiro I. Ramiro I (c790–850 became King of Asturias in 842 and reigned until his death
This small kingdom was a milestone in the fight against Adoptionist heresy, with Beatus of Liébana as a major figure. Adoptionism, also called dynamic Monarchianism, was a minority Christian belief that Jesus was born merely human and that he became divine later in his life Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief Saint Beatus of Liébana (c 730 - c 800 was a Monk, Theologian and Geographer from the Kingdom of Asturias, in northern Spain who worked In the time of Alfonso II, the shrine of Santiago was "found. Alfonso II (759-842 called the Chaste, was the King of Asturias from 791 to his death the son of Fruela I and the Basque Munia Santiago de Compostela (also Saint James of Compostela is the capital of the autonomous community of Galicia and a UNESCO World " The pilgrimage to Santiago, Camino de Santiago, was a major nexus within Europe, and many pilgrims (and their money) passed through Asturias on their way to Santiago de Compostela. The Way of St James or St James' Way ( Galician O camiño de Santiago, Spanish name El Camino de Santiago)
References
- ^ Umberto Eco wrote an essay about them, Beato di Liebana (1976)
- ^ Revelation, 1. 8.
- ^ The Cruz de la Victoria engraved in stone
- ^ Pre-romanesque Museum of San Martín (Salas)
- ^ "With this sign thou shalt defend the pious, with this sign thou shalt defeat the enemy"
- ^ "Simbología mágico-tradicional", Alberto Álvarez Peña, page 147.
- ^ Relatos legendarios sobre los orígenes políticos de Asturias y Vizcaya en la Edad Media, Arsenio F. Dacosta, Actas del VII Congreso Internacional de la Asociación Española de Semiótica (Volumen II).
- ^ In Medieval Spain it was commonly thought that it was the Asturians or the Moors (and not the Basques), the ones who beat the Franks in this battle
- ^ Bernardo del Carpiu y otros guerreros durmientes Alberto Álvarez Peña
- ^ "Los maestros asturianos" (Juan Lobo, 1931)
See also
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External links
- [http://www.mirabiliaovetensia.com Information and virtual reconstructions of early monuments of Oviedo
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