Statue of King Arthur, designed by Albrecht Dürer and cast by Peter Vischer the Elder, early 16th century^[1]

King Arthur is a fabled British leader who, according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against the Saxon invaders in the early 6th century. Albrecht Dürer (ˈalbʀɛçt ˈdyʀɐ ( May 21, 1471 &ndash April 6, 1528) was a German painter, Printmaker Peter Vischer the Elder (c 1455 &ndash January 7 1529) was a German sculptor the son of Hermann Vischer and the most famous member of the noted Vischer Family As a Literary genre of High culture, romance or chivalric romance refers to a style of heroic Prose and verse Narrative The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. The details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, and his historical existence is debated and disputed by modern historians. History The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of Romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological ^[2] The sparse historical background of Arthur is gleaned from various histories, including those of Gildas, Nennius, and the Annales Cambriae. Saint Gildas (c 494 or 516 – c 570 was one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during the sixth century Nennius, or Nemnivus, is either of two shadowy personages traditionally associated with the history of Wales. Annales Cambriae, or The Annals of Wales, is the name given to a complex of Cambro-Latin Chronicles deriving ultimately from a text compiled Arthur's name also occurs in early poetic sources such as Y Gododdin. Y Gododdin (pronounced /ə gɔ'dɔðɪn/ is a medieval Welsh poem consisting of a series of elegies to the men of the Brythonic kingdom of ^[3]

The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity of Geoffrey of Monmouth's 12th century Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of England). Geoffrey of Monmouth ( Gruffudd ap Arthur or Sieffre o Fynwy) (c The Historia Regum Britanniae ( English: The History of the Kings of Britain) is a pseudohistorical account of British history ^[4] Welsh and Breton tales and poems relating the tales of Arthur date earlier than Geoffrey; These are usually termed "pre-Galfridian" texts (from the Latin form of Geoffrey, Galfridus). In these works, Arthur appears either as a great warrior defending Britain from human and supernatural enemies, or as a magical figure of folklore, sometimes associated with the Welsh Otherworld, Annwn. Annwn or Annwfn ( Middle Welsh Annwvn, sometimes inaccurately written Annwyn Annwyfn or Annwfyn) was the Otherworld

Geoffrey's Historia, completed in 1138, is fanciful and imaginative, though how much he invented and how much was adapted from other sources is unknown. Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established an empire over the British Isles, Iceland, Norway, and Gaul. The British Isles (Irish variously Na hOileáin Bhriotanacha, Oileáin Iarthair Eorpa, Éire agus an Bhreatain Mhór; Ellanyn Goaldagh Eileanan Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Many incidents that are now an integral part of the Arthurian story occur in Geoffrey's Historia, including those involving Arthur's father Uther Pendragon, adviser Merlin, birth at Tintagel, and death at Avalon. The Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network ( MERLIN) is an Interferometer array of Radio telescopes spread across England and the Tintagel (tɪnˈtædʒəl with the stress on the second syllable Cornish: Dintagell) is a village situated on the Atlantic coast of Cornwall Avalon (probably from the Celtic word abal: apple see Etymology below is a legendary island featured in the Arthurian legend, famous for its beautiful Arthurian texts written after Geoffrey often utilise his narrative and characters. The 12th-century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, who added Lancelot and the Holy Grail to the story, began the genre of Arthurian romance that became a significant strand of medieval literature. Chrétien de Troyes was a French poet and Trouvère who flourished in the late 12th century. In the Arthurian legend, Sir Lancelot ( Lancelot du Lac, also Launcelot) is one of the Knights of the Round Table. According to Christian mythology, the Holy Grail was the dish plate or cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper, said to possess miraculous powers Medieval literature is a broad subject encompassing essentially all written works available in Europe beyond and during the Middle Ages (encompassing the one thousand In these French stories, the narrative focus often shifts from King Arthur himself to other characters, such as various Knights of the Round Table. Knights of the Round Table were those men awarded the highest order of Chivalry at the Court of King Arthur in the literary cycle the Matter of Britain Medieval Arthurian romance culminated in Thomas Malory's Morte D'Arthur cycle, published in 1485, which defined the legend's form in English. Sir Thomas Malory (c 1405 – 14 March 1471 was an English writer the author or compiler of Le Morte d'Arthur. Le Morte d'Arthur (spelled Le Morte Darthur in the first printing and also in some modern editions Middle French for la mort d'Arthur In the 19th century, interest in Arthur was revived by Alfred Lord Tennyson with his Idylls of the King, prompting a wave of literary and artistic works inspired by the legend, including paintings by the Pre-Raphaelites. Alfred Tennyson 1st Baron Tennyson (6 August 1809 – 6 October 1892 was Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom and remains one of the most popular English poets Idylls of the King, published between 1856 and 1885 is a cycle of twelve Narrative poems by the English poet Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809–1892 The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (also known as the Pre-Raphaelites) was a group of English painters Poets, and critics founded in 1848 by Later reworkings of the Arthurian legends include Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court, and T. H. White's The Once and Future King. Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30 1835 – April 21 1910 better known by the Pen name Mark Twain, was an American Humorist, satirist A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court is an 1889 Novel by American Humorist and Writer Mark Twain. Terence Hanbury White ( 29 May 1906 &ndash 17 January 1964) was an English Author best known for his sequence of Arthurian The Once and Future King is an Arthurian Fantasy novel written by T

The themes and events of the Arthurian story vary from text to text. They include the recognition of Arthur as king through the Sword in the Stone episode and his defence of Britain against the Saxons. The Sword in the Stone is a novel by T H White, published in 1938, initially a stand-alone work but now the first part of a tetralogy The Once Based at the castle of Camelot, Arthur receives the advice of the wizard Merlin, and founds the chivalrous fellowship of knights known as the Round Table. Camelot is the most famous Castle and court associated with the legendary King Arthur. The Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network ( MERLIN) is an Interferometer array of Radio telescopes spread across England and the Chivalric order Chivalry is a term related to the Medieval institution of Knighthood. He wields the sword Excalibur, triumphs in battle, and perishes in a final confrontation with Mordred. Excalibur is the legendary Sword of King Arthur sometimes attributed with magical powers or associated with the rightful Sovereignty of Great Mordred or Modred ( Welsh: Medraut, Medrod, etc is a character in the Arthurian legend, known as a notorious traitor who fought Recurring plot elements include the adultery of Lancelot and Queen Guinevere, the quest for the Holy Grail, and the promise of King Arthur's messianic return. Guinevere was the legendary Queen consort of King Arthur. She was most famous for her love affair with Arthur's chief knight Sir Lancelot, which first According to Christian mythology, the Holy Grail was the dish plate or cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper, said to possess miraculous powers King Arthur's messianic return is an aspect of the legend of King Arthur, the mythical 6th-century British king Medieval texts also recount the adventures of Arthur's knights, among them Kay, Gawain, Lancelot, Percival and Galahad. Gawain (ˈgɔːwɪn or /gəˈweɪn/ also called Gwalchmei Gawan Gauvain Walewein etc In the Arthurian legend, Sir Lancelot ( Lancelot du Lac, also Launcelot) is one of the Knights of the Round Table. Percival or Perceval is one of King Arthur 's legendary Knights of the Round Table. Sir Galahad is a knight of King Arthur 's Round Table and one of the three achievers of the Holy Grail in Arthurian legend.

Historical truth

Main article: Historical basis for King Arthur

Sigurd, a legendary Norse figure some scholars have connected with Arthur

The historical basis for the King Arthur legend has long been debated by scholars. The historical basis of King Arthur is a source of considerable debate among Historians. Sigurd ( Old Norse: Sigurðr) is a legendary hero of Norse mythology, as well as the central character in the Völsunga saga. One school of thought, citing entries in the Historia Brittonum and Annales Cambriae, sees Arthur as a genuine historical figure, a Romano-British leader who fought against the invading Anglo-Saxons sometime in the late 5th to early 6th century. The Historia Brittonum, or The History of the Britons, is a historical work that was first written sometime shortly after AD 833 and exists in several Annales Cambriae, or The Annals of Wales, is the name given to a complex of Cambro-Latin Chronicles deriving ultimately from a text compiled Romano-British culture is that of the Romanized Britons under the Roman Empire and later the Western Roman Empire, and of those exposed to Roman culture in the years For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south The Historia Brittonum ("History of the Britons"), a 9th century Latin historical compilation attributed in some late manuscripts to a Welsh cleric called Nennius, lists twelve battles that Arthur fought. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Nennius, or Nemnivus, is either of two shadowy personages traditionally associated with the history of Wales. These culminate in the Battle of Mons Badonicus, or Mount Badon, where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men. In the Battle of Mons Badonicus ( English Mount Badon, Welsh Mynydd Baddon) Romano-British Celts defeated Recent studies, however, question the reliability of the Historia Brittonum as a source for the history of this period. ^[5]

The other text that seems to support the case for Arthur's historical existence is the 10th century Annales Cambriae ("Welsh Annals"), which also links Arthur with the Battle of Mount Badon. The Annales dates this battle to 516–518, and also mentions the Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut were both killed, dated to 537–539. The Battle of Camlann ( Cad Camlan) is best known as the final battle of King Arthur, where he either died in battle or was fatally wounded fighting his enemy and Mordred or Modred ( Welsh: Medraut, Medrod, etc is a character in the Arthurian legend, known as a notorious traitor who fought These details have often been used to bolster confidence in the Historia's account and to confirm that Arthur really did fight at Mount Badon. Problems have been identified, however, with using this source to support the Historia Brittonum's account. The latest research shows that the Annales Cambriae was based on a chronicle begun in the late 8th century in Wales. Additionally, the complex textual history of the Annales Cambriae precludes any certainty that the Arthurian annals were added to it even that early. They were more likely added at some point in the 10th century and may never have existed in any earlier set of annals. The Mount Badon entry probably derived from the Historia Brittonum. ^[6]

This lack of convincing early evidence is the reason many recent historians exclude Arthur from their accounts of post-Roman Britain. In the view of historian Thomas Charles-Edwards, "at this stage of the enquiry, one can only say that there may well have been an historical Arthur [but …] the historian can as yet say nothing of value about him". Thomas Mowbray Charles-Edwards FBA (born 1943 is an academic at Oxford University. ^[7] These modern admissions of ignorance are a relatively recent trend; earlier generations of historians were less sceptical. Historian John Morris made the putative reign of Arthur the organising principle of his history of sub-Roman Britain and Ireland, The Age of Arthur (1973). Dr John Morris (1913 - June 1977 was an English historian who specialised in the study of the institutions of the Roman Empire and the history of Sub-Roman Britain Sub-Roman Britain is a term derived from an Archaeologists ' label for the material culture of Britain in Late Antiquity. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world Even so, he found little to say of an historic Arthur. ^[8]

Athrwys ap Meurig, one of many candidates for the historical Arthur

Partly in reaction to such theories, another school of thought emerged which argued that Arthur had no historical existence at all. Athrwys (sometimes misspelled as Arthwys) was a Prince possibly a King from Gwent in Wales, who is generally accepted as having lived in the early Morris's Age of Arthur prompted archaeologist Nowell Myres to observe that "no figure on the borderline of history and mythology has wasted more of the historian's time". John Nowell Linton Myres CBE ( 27 December 1902 - 25 September[[ 989]] was a British archaeologist and Bodley's Librarian at the Bodleian ^[9] Gildas' 6th century polemic De Excidio Britanniae ("On the Ruin of Britain"), written within living memory of Mount Badon, mentions that battle but does not mention Arthur. Saint Gildas (c 494 or 516 – c 570 was one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during the sixth century ^[10] Arthur is not mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle or named in any surviving manuscript written between 400 and 820. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of Annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. ^[11] He is absent from Bede's early 8th century Ecclesiastical History of the English People, another major early source for post-Roman history that mentions Mount Badon. Bede (ˈbiːd (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin Beda (beda (c The Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (in English: Ecclesiastical History of the English People) is a work in Latin by the ^[12] Historian David Dumville has written: "I think we can dispose of him [Arthur] quite briefly. He owes his place in our history books to a 'no smoke without fire' school of thought… The fact of the matter is that there is no historical evidence about Arthur; we must reject him from our histories and, above all, from the titles of our books. "^[13]

Some academics argue that Arthur was originally a fictional hero of folklore – or even a half-forgotten Celtic deity – who became credited with real deeds in the distant past. Celtic mythology is the Mythology of Celtic polytheism, apparently the Religion of the Iron Age Celts Like other Iron Age They cite parallels with figures such as the Kentish totemic horse-gods Hengest and Horsa, who later became historicised. The Kingdom of Kent was a kingdom of Jutes in southeast England and was one of the seven traditional kingdoms of the so-called Anglo-Saxon heptarchy. Horsa, according to tradition was a fifth century warrior and brother of Hengest who took part in the invasion and conquest of Britain from its native Bede ascribed to these legendary figures a historical role in the 5th-century Anglo-Saxon conquest of eastern Britain. For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south ^[14] It is not even certain that Arthur was considered a king in the early texts. Neither the Historia nor the Annales calls him "rex": the former calls him instead "dux" or "dux bellorum" (leader of battles). Dux (plural duces) is Latin for leader (from the verb ducere, 'to lead' and could refer to anyone who commanded troops such ^[15]

Historical documents for the post-Roman period are scarce, so a definitive answer to the question of Arthur's historical existence is unlikely. Sites and places have been identified as "Arthurian" since the 12th century,^[16] but archaeology can confidently reveal names only through inscriptions found in secure contexts. The following is a list and assessment of sites and places associated with King Arthur and the Arthurian legend in general The so-called "Arthur stone," discovered in 1998 among the ruins at Tintagel Castle in Cornwall in securely dated 6th-century contexts, created a brief stir but proved irrelevant. The Arthur stone was discovered in 1998 in securely dated sixth century contexts among the ruins at Tintagel Castle in Cornwall, England, Tintagel Castle ( is a Castle currently in ruins found on Tintagel Head, located near the village of Tintagel in Cornwall, England Cornwall ( Kernow ˈkɛɹnɔʊ is the most southwesterly county of England, on the Peninsula that lies to the west of the River Tamar ^[17] Other inscriptional evidence for Arthur is tainted with the suggestion of forgery. ^[18] Although several historical figures have been proposed as the basis for Arthur,^[19] no convincing evidence for these identifications has emerged.

Name

The origin of the name Arthur remains a matter of debate. Arthur is a common male name meaning " Bear -like" believed to possibly be descended from the Roman surname Artorius (" Plowman Some suggest it is derived from the Latin family name Artorius, of obscure and contested etymology. Artorius was a Roman Gens ( gens Artoria) It meant "plowman" ^[20] Others propose a derivation from Welsh arth (earlier art), meaning "bear", suggesting art-ur, "bear-man", (earlier *Arto-uiros) is the original form, although there are difficulties with this theory. ^[21] It may be relevant to this debate that Arthur's name appears as Arthur, or Arturus, in early Latin Arthurian texts, never as Artorius. However, this may not say anything about the origin of the name Arthur, as Artorius would regularly become Art(h)ur when borrowed into Welsh; all it would mean, as John Koch has pointed out, is that the surviving Latin references to a historical Arthur (if he was called Artorius and really existed) must date from after the sixth century. Welsh ( cy Cymraeg or cy y Gymraeg, kəmˈrɑːɨɡ and {{IPA|[ə ɡəmˈrɑːɨɡ]}}, is a member of the Brythonic branch of Celtic ^[22] An alternative theory links the name Arthur to Arcturus, the brightest star in the constellation Boötes, near Ursa Major or the Great Bear. |- bgcolor="#FFFAFA"| note (category variability || H and K emission vary Boötes ( Greek Βοώτης or herdsman) is one of the 88 modern Constellations and was also one of the 48 constellations listed by Ptolemy. Ursa Major ( is a Constellation visible throughout the year in most of the northern hemisphere Classical Latin Arcturus would also have become Art(h)ur when borrowed into Welsh, and its brightness and position in the sky led people to regard it as the "guardian of the bear" and the "leader" of the other stars in Boötes. Classical Latin is the form of the Latin language used by the ancient Romans in what is usually regarded as "classical" Latin literature. ^[23] The exact significance of such etymologies is unclear. It is often assumed that an Artorius derivation would mean that the legends of Arthur had a genuine historical core, but recent studies suggest that this assumption may not be well founded. ^[24] By contrast, a derivation of Arthur from Arcturus might be taken to indicate a non-historical origin for Arthur, but Toby Griffen has suggested it was an alternative name for a historical Arthur designed to appeal to Latin-speakers. ^[25]

Medieval literary traditions

The creator of the familiar literary persona of Arthur was Geoffrey of Monmouth, with his pseudo-historical Historia Regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain"), written in the 1130s. Geoffrey of Monmouth ( Gruffudd ap Arthur or Sieffre o Fynwy) (c The Historia Regum Britanniae ( English: The History of the Kings of Britain) is a pseudohistorical account of British history The textual sources for Arthur are usually divided into those written before Geoffrey's Historia (known as "pre-Galfridian" texts, from the Latin form of Geoffrey, Galfridus) and those written afterwards, which could not avoid his influence (Galfridian, or post-Galfridian, texts).

Pre-Galfridian traditions

A facsimile of Y Gododdin, one of the most famous early Welsh texts featuring Arthur

The earliest literary references to Arthur come from Welsh and Breton sources. Y Gododdin (pronounced /ə gɔ'dɔðɪn/ is a medieval Welsh poem consisting of a series of elegies to the men of the Brythonic kingdom of There have been few attempts to define the nature and character of Arthur in the pre-Galfridian tradition as a whole, rather than in a single text or text/story-type. One recent academic survey that does attempt this, by Thomas Green, identifies three key strands to the portrayal of Arthur in this earliest material. ^[26] The first is that he was a peerless warrior who functioned as the monster-hunting protector of Britain from all internal and external threats. Some of these are human threats, such as the Saxons he fights in the Historia Brittonum, but the majority are supernatural, including werewolves, giant cat-monsters, destructive divine boars, dragons, giants and witches. See also Lycanthropy (disambiguation Werewolves, also known as lycanthropes, are mythological or folkloric humans with the ability to ^[27] The second is that the pre-Galfridian Arthur was a figure of folklore (particularly topographic or onomastic folklore) and localized magical wonder-tales, the leader of a band of superhuman heroes who live in the wilds of the landscape. ^[28] The third and final strand is that the early Welsh Arthur had a close connection with the Welsh Otherworld, Annwn. Annwn or Annwfn ( Middle Welsh Annwvn, sometimes inaccurately written Annwyn Annwyfn or Annwfyn) was the Otherworld On the one hand, he launches assaults on Otherworldly fortresses in search of treasure and frees their prisoners. On the other, his warband in the earliest sources includes former pagan gods and his wife, and his possessions are clearly Otherworldly in origin. Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world ^[29]

One of the most famous Welsh poetic references to Arthur comes in the collection of heroic death-songs known as Y Gododdin ("The Gododdin"), attributed to the 6th century poet Aneirin. Y Gododdin (pronounced /ə gɔ'dɔðɪn/ is a medieval Welsh poem consisting of a series of elegies to the men of the Brythonic kingdom of Aneirin or Neirin was a late 6th century Brythonic Poet. He is believed to have been a Bard or 'court poet' in one of the Cumbric kingdoms In one stanza, the bravery of a warrior who slew 300 enemies is praised, but it is then noted that despite this "he was no Arthur", that is to say his feats cannot compare to the valour of Arthur. ^[30] Y Gododdin is known only from a 13th century manuscript, so it is impossible to determine whether this passage is original or a later interpolation: 9th or 10th century dates are often proposed for it, but John Koch's view that the passage dates from a 7th century or earlier version is regarded by scholars as unproven. ^[31] Several poems attributed to Taliesin, a poet said to have lived in the 6th century, also refer to Arthur, although these all probably date from between the 8th and 12th centuries. Taliesin (c 534 – c 599 (spelled as Taliessin in Alfred Lord Tennyson 's Idylls of the King and in some subsequent works was a Brythonic ^[32] They include Kadeir Teyrnon ("The Chair of the Prince"),^[33] which refers to "Arthur the Blessed", Preiddeu Annwn ("The Spoils of the Annwn"),^[34] which recounts an expedition of Arthur to the Otherworld, and Marwnat vthyr pen[dragon] ("The Elegy of Uthyr Pen[dragon]"),^[35] which refers to Arthur's valour and is suggestive of a father-son relationship for Arthur and Uthyr that pre-dates Geoffrey of Monmouth. Preiddeu Annwfn ( English: The Spoils of Annwfn) is a short enigmatic poem found in the Welsh Book of Taliesin.

Culhwch entering Arthur's Court in the Welsh tale Culhwch and Olwen

Other early Welsh Arthurian texts include a poem found in the Black Book of Carmarthen, Pa gur yv y porthaur? ("What man is the gatekeeper?"). Culhwch (kʉlˈhuːχ kil-HOOKH with the final consonant of Scottish "loch" in Welsh mythology, is the son of Cilydd son of Celyddon and Culhwch and Olwen ( Culhwch ac Olwen) is a Welsh tale about a hero connected with Arthur and his warriors that survives in only two manuscripts The Black Book of Carmarthen (Welsh Llyfr Du Caerfyrddin) is thought to be the earliest surviving Manuscript written entirely or substantially in Welsh ^[36] This takes the form of a dialogue between Arthur and the gatekeeper of a fortress he wishes to enter, in which Arthur recounts the names and deeds of himself and his men, notably Cei and Bedwyr. The Welsh prose tale Culhwch and Olwen (c. Culhwch and Olwen ( Culhwch ac Olwen) is a Welsh tale about a hero connected with Arthur and his warriors that survives in only two manuscripts 1100), included in the modern Mabinogion collection, has a much longer list of more than 200 of Arthur's men, though Cei and Bedwyr again take a central place. The story as a whole tells of Arthur helping his kinsman Culhwch win the hand of Olwen, daughter of Ysbaddaden Chief-Giant, by completing a series of apparently impossible tasks, including the hunt for the great semi-divine boar Twrch Trwyth. Culhwch (kʉlˈhuːχ kil-HOOKH with the final consonant of Scottish "loch" in Welsh mythology, is the son of Cilydd son of Celyddon and In Welsh mythology, Olwen is the daughter of the giant Ysbaddaden. In Welsh romance Culhwch and Olwen, Ysbaddaden the giant is the father of the beautiful Olwen. Twrch Trwyth is the name of a particularly potent Wild boar Culhwch is instructed to hunt in the Middle Welsh prose tale Culhwch and Olwen This latter tale is also referenced in the 9th century Historia Brittonum, with the boar there named Troy(n)t. ^[37] Finally, Arthur is referenced numerous times in the Welsh Triads, a collection of short summaries of Welsh tradition and legend which are classified into groups of three linked characters or episodes in order to assist recall. The Welsh Triads ( Welsh Trioedd Ynys Prydein, literally "Triads of the Island of Britain " are a group of related texts in Medieval The later manuscripts of the Triads are partly derivative from Geoffrey of Monmouth and later Continental traditions, but the earliest ones show no such influence and are usually agreed to refer to pre-existing Welsh traditions. Even in these, however, Arthur's court has started to embody legendary Britain as a whole, with "Arthur's Court" sometimes substituted for "The Island of Britain" in the formula "Three XXX of the Island of Britain". ^[38] While it is not clear from the Historia Brittonum and the Annales Cambriae that Arthur was even considered a king, by the time Culhwch and Olwen and the Triads were written he had become Penteyrnedd yr Ynys hon, "Chief of the Lords of this Island", the overlord of Wales, Cornwall and the North. ^[39]

In addition to the pre-Galfridian Welsh poems and tales, Arthur appears in some other early Latin texts. In particular, Arthur appears in a number of well known vitae ("Lives") of post-Roman saints, none of which are now generally considered to be reliable historical sources (the earliest probably dates from the 11th century). A saint (from the Latin sanctus) is a human being to whom has been attributed (and who has generally demonstrated a high level of Holiness and Sanctity ^[40] According to the Life of Saint Gildas, written in the early 12th century by Caradoc of Llancarfan, Arthur is said to have killed Gildas' brother Hueil and to have rescued his wife Gwenhwyfar from Glastonbury. Saint Gildas (c 494 or 516 – c 570 was one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during the sixth century Caradoc of Llancarfan was a monk at the monastery of Llancarfan in Wales during the 12th century ^[41] In the Life of Saint Cadoc, written around 1100 or a little before by Lifris of Llancarfan, the saint gives protection to a man who killed three of Arthur's soldiers, and Arthur demands a herd of cattle as wergeld for his men. Saint Cadoc or Cadog (born about 497, Abbot of Llancarfan, was one of the 6th century Welsh saints, whose Vita twice mentions Weregeld (alternative spellings wergild, wergeld, weregeld, etc Cadoc delivers them as demanded, but when Arthur takes possession of the animals, they turn into bundles of ferns. ^[42] Similar incidents are described in the medieval biographies of Carannog, Padarn, and Eufflam, probably written around the 12th century. Saint Carantoc (also known in Welsh as Carannog, Irish as Cairnech, Breton as Karanteg, Latin as Carantocus Saint Padarn (Paternus is the Eponymous founder of St Padarn's Church A less obviously legendary account appears in the Legenda Sancti Goeznovii, which is often claimed to date from the early 11th century although the earliest manuscript of this text dates from the 15th century. Goeznovius, also known as Goueznou (died c 675 was a Cornish -born Bishop of Léon in Brittany, who is venerated as a Saint in the ^[43]

Geoffrey of Monmouth

Annales Cambriae

The first narrative account of Arthur's life is found in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Latin work Historia Regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain"). Geoffrey of Monmouth ( Gruffudd ap Arthur or Sieffre o Fynwy) (c The Historia Regum Britanniae ( English: The History of the Kings of Britain) is a pseudohistorical account of British history ^[44] This work, completed c.  1138, is an imaginative and fanciful account of British kings from the legendary Trojan exile Brutus to the 7th-century Welsh prince Cadwallader. Brutus ( Brut, Brute, Welsh Bryttys) a legendary descendant of the Trojan hero Aeneas, was known in medieval British legend Cadwaladr ap Cadwallon (c 633&ndash682 reigned from about 655 (Catuvelladurus Cadwallader also known as Cadwaladr Fendigaid ('the Blessed' was a Geoffrey places Arthur in the same post-Roman period as do Historia Brittonum and Annales Cambriae. The Historia Brittonum, or The History of the Britons, is a historical work that was first written sometime shortly after AD 833 and exists in several Annales Cambriae, or The Annals of Wales, is the name given to a complex of Cambro-Latin Chronicles deriving ultimately from a text compiled He incorporates Arthur's father, Uther Pendragon, his magician advisor Merlin, and the story of Arthur's conception, in which Uther, disguised as his enemy Gorlois by Merlin's magic, fathers Arthur on Gorlois's wife Igerna at Tintagel. The Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network ( MERLIN) is an Interferometer array of Radio telescopes spread across England and the Gorlois ( Old Welsh: Gwrlais) was a Duke of Cornwall and Igraine 's first husband before her marriage to Uther Pendragon, In Arthurian legend, Igraine is the mother of King Arthur. (She is also known in Latin as Igerna, in Welsh as Eigyr, in French as Igerne Tintagel (tɪnˈtædʒəl with the stress on the second syllable Cornish: Dintagell) is a village situated on the Atlantic coast of Cornwall On Uther's death, the fifteen-year-old Arthur succeeds him as King of Britain and fights a series of battles, similar to those in the Historia Brittonum, culminating in the Battle of Bath. He then defeats the Picts and Scots, before creating an Arthurian empire through his conquests of Ireland, Iceland, and the Orkney Islands. The Picts were a Confederation of tribes in what was later to become eastern and northern Scotland from Roman times until the 10th century Scoti or Scotti ( Old Irish Scot, modern Scottish Gaelic Sgaothaich) was the generic name given by the Romans to the Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( Orkney (also known as the Orkney Islands or incorrectly the Orkneys) is an Archipelago in northern Scotland, situated 10 miles (16 km north After twelve years of peace, Arthur sets out to expand his empire once more, taking control of Norway, Denmark and Gaul. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Gaul is still held by the Roman Empire when it is conquered, and Arthur's victory naturally leads to a further confrontation between his empire and Rome's. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Arthur and his warriors, including Kaius (Kay), Beduerus (Bedivere) and Gualguanus (Gawain), defeat the Roman emperor Lucius Tiberius in Gaul but, as he prepares to march on Rome, Arthur hears that his nephew Modredus – whom he had left in charge of Britain – has married his wife Guenhuuara and seized the throne. Gawain (ˈgɔːwɪn or /gəˈweɪn/ also called Gwalchmei Gawan Gauvain Walewein etc Lucius Tiberius (sometimes Lucius Hiberius, or just simply Lucius) is a fictional Roman Emperor from Arthurian legend appearing first in Mordred or Modred ( Welsh: Medraut, Medrod, etc is a character in the Arthurian legend, known as a notorious traitor who fought Guinevere was the legendary Queen consort of King Arthur. She was most famous for her love affair with Arthur's chief knight Sir Lancelot, which first Arthur returns to Britain and defeats and kills Modredus on the river Camblam in Cornwall, but he is mortally wounded. He hands the crown to his kinsman Constantine and is taken to the isle of Avalon to be healed of his wounds, never to be seen again. In Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia regum Britanniae, a fictional account of the rulers of Great Britain Constantine III was a legendary king of the Avalon (probably from the Celtic word abal: apple see Etymology below is a legendary island featured in the Arthurian legend, famous for its beautiful ^[45]

How much of this narrative was Geoffrey's own invention is open to debate. Certainly, Geoffrey seems to have made use of the list of Arthur's twelve battles against the Saxons found in the 9th-century Historia Brittonum. ^[46] Arthur's personal status as the king of all Britain would also seem to be borrowed from pre-Galfridian tradition, being found in Culhwch and Olwen, the Triads and the Saints' Lives. The Welsh Triads ( Welsh Trioedd Ynys Prydein, literally "Triads of the Island of Britain " are a group of related texts in Medieval ^[47] Finally, Geoffrey borrowed many of the names for Arthur's possessions and companions from the pre-Galfridian Welsh tradition, including Kaius (Cei), Beduerus (Bedwyr), Guenhuuara (Gwenhwyfar) and Uther (Uthyr). ^[48] However, whilst names and titles may have been borrowed, Brynley Roberts has argued that "the Arthurian section is Geoffrey’s literary creation and it owes nothing to prior narrative. "^[49] So, for instance, the Welsh Medraut is made the villainous Modredus by Geoffrey, but there is no trace of such a negative character for this figure in Welsh sources until the 16th century. ^[50] There have been relatively few modern attempts to challenge this notion that the Historia Regum Britanniae is primarily Geoffrey's own work, with scholarly opinion often echoing William of Newburgh's late-12th-century comment that Geoffrey "made up" his narrative, perhaps through an "inordinate love of lying". William of Newburgh (1136? &ndash 1198? also known as William Parvus was a 12th century English historian and Augustinian canon from Bridlington, ^[51] Geoffrey Ashe is one dissenter from this view, believing that Geoffrey's narrative is partially derived from a lost source telling of the deeds of a 5th-century British king named Riotamus, this figure being the original Arthur, although historians and Celticists have been reluctant to follow Ashe in his conclusions. Geoffrey Ashe (born 29 March 1923) is a British cultural historian a writer of Non-fiction books and a few novels Riothamus (also spelled Riotimus, Rigothamus, Rigotamos) was a Romano-British military leader active circa 470 ^[52]

Merlin, Arthur's advisor

Whatever his sources may have been, the immense popularity of Geoffrey's Historia Regum Britanniae cannot be denied. The Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network ( MERLIN) is an Interferometer array of Radio telescopes spread across England and the Well over 200 manuscript copies of Geoffrey’s Latin work are known to have survived, and this does not include translations into other languages. ^[53] Thus, for example, around sixty manuscripts are extant containing Welsh-language versions of the Historia, the earliest of which were created in the 13th century; the old notion that some of these Welsh versions actually underlie Geoffrey's Historia, advanced by antiquarians such as the 18th-century Lewis Morris, has long since been discounted in academic circles. ^[54] As a result of this popularity, Geoffrey's Historia Regum Britanniae was enormously influential on the later medieval development of the Arthurian legend. Whilst it was by no means the only creative force behind Arthurian romance, many of its elements were borrowed and developed (e. g. the death of Arthur) and it provided the historical framework into which the romancers' tales of magical and wonderful adventures were inserted. ^[55]

Romance traditions

During the 12th century, Arthur's character began to be marginalized by the accretion of "Arthurian" side-stories such as that of Tristan and Iseult

The popularity of Geoffrey's Historia and its derivative works (such as Wace's Roman de Brut) is generally agreed to be an important factor in explaining the appearance of significant numbers of new Arthurian works in 12th and 13th century continental Europe, particularly in France. The Matter of Britain is a name given collectively to the Legends that concern the Celtic and legendary History of Great Britain, especially those The legend of Tristan and Iseult is an influential romance and tragedy retold in numerous sources with as many variations WACE (730 AM) is a Radio station broadcasting a Christian radio format Roman de Brut or Brut is a verse literary history of Britain by the poet Wace. ^[56] It was not, however, the only Arthurian influence on the developing "Matter of Britain". The Matter of Britain is a name given collectively to the Legends that concern the Celtic and legendary History of Great Britain, especially those There is clear evidence for a knowledge of Arthur and Arthurian tales on the Continent before Geoffrey's work became widely known (see for example, the Modena Archivolt),^[57] as well as for the use of "Celtic" names and stories not found in Geoffrey's Historia in the Arthurian romances. Modena (ˈmɔːdena Mòdna in Modenese dialect is a city and a Comune ( Municipality) on the south side of the Po valley, in the As a Literary genre of High culture, romance or chivalric romance refers to a style of heroic Prose and verse Narrative ^[58] From the perspective of Arthur, perhaps the most significant effect of this great outpouring of new Arthurian story was on the role of the king himself: much of this 12th century and later Arthurian literature centres less on Arthur himself than on characters such as Lancelot and Guenevere, Perceval, Galahad, Gawain, and Tristan and Isolde. In the Arthurian legend, Sir Lancelot ( Lancelot du Lac, also Launcelot) is one of the Knights of the Round Table. Guinevere was the legendary Queen consort of King Arthur. She was most famous for her love affair with Arthur's chief knight Sir Lancelot, which first Percival or Perceval is one of King Arthur 's legendary Knights of the Round Table. Sir Galahad is a knight of King Arthur 's Round Table and one of the three achievers of the Holy Grail in Arthurian legend. Gawain (ˈgɔːwɪn or /gəˈweɪn/ also called Gwalchmei Gawan Gauvain Walewein etc The legend of Tristan and Iseult is an influential romance and tragedy retold in numerous sources with as many variations Whereas Arthur is very much at the centre of the pre-Galfridian material and Geoffrey's Historia itself, in the romances he is rapidly sidelined. ^[59] His character also alters significantly. In both the earliest materials and Geoffrey he is a great and ferocious warrior, who laughs as he personally slaughters witches and giants and takes a leading role in all military campaigns,^[60] whereas in the continental romances he becomes the roi fainéant, the "do-nothing king", whose "inactivity and acquiescence constituted a central flaw in his otherwise ideal society. "^[61] Arthur's role in these works is frequently that of a wise, dignified, even-tempered, somewhat bland, and occasionally feeble monarch. So, he simply turns pale and silent when he learns of Lancelot's affair with Guinevere in the Mort Artu, whilst in Chrétien de Troyes's Yvain, the Knight of the Lion he is unable to stay awake after a feast and has to retire for a nap. Chrétien de Troyes was a French poet and Trouvère who flourished in the late 12th century. Yvain the Knight of the Lion (Yvain le Chevalier au Lion is a romance by Chrétien de Troyes. ^[62] Nonetheless, as Norris J. Lacy has observed, whatever his faults and frailties may be in these Arthurian romances, "his prestige is never – or almost never – compromised by his personal weaknesses. Norris J Lacy (born 1940 is an American scholar focusing on French Medieval literature. . . his authority and glory remain intact. "^[63]

Arthur and his retinue appear in some of the Lais of Marie de France,^[64] but it was the work of another French poet, Chrétien de Troyes, that had the greatest influence on the development of Arthur and his legend. The Lais of Marie de France are a series of twelve short narrative Poems in Anglo-Norman, generally focused on glorifying the concepts of Courtly love Marie de France ("Mary of France" was a Poet evidently born in France and living in England during the late 12th century ^[65] Chrétien wrote five Arthurian romances between c. As a Literary genre of High culture, romance or chivalric romance refers to a style of heroic Prose and verse Narrative  1170 and c.  1190. Erec and Enide and Cligès are tales of courtly love with Arthur's court as their backdrop, and Yvain, the Knight of the Lion features Yvain and Gawain in a supernatural adventure. Erec and Enide ( Érec et Énide) is Chrétien de Troyes ' first romance, completed around 1170. Cligès is a poem by the Medieval French poet Chrétien de Troyes, dating from around 1176. Yvain the Knight of the Lion (Yvain le Chevalier au Lion is a romance by Chrétien de Troyes. Sir Ywain (also called Owain, Yvain, Ewain or Uwain) is a Knight of the Round Table and the son of King Urien Gawain (ˈgɔːwɪn or /gəˈweɪn/ also called Gwalchmei Gawan Gauvain Walewein etc However, the most significant for the development of the Arthurian legend are Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, which introduces Lancelot and his adulterous relationship with Arthur's queen (Guinevere), and Perceval, the Story of the Grail, which introduces the Holy Grail and the Fisher King. Lancelot the Knight of the Cart (Lancelot le Chevalier de la Charrette is an Old French poem by Chrétien de Troyes. In the Arthurian legend, Sir Lancelot ( Lancelot du Lac, also Launcelot) is one of the Knights of the Round Table. Guinevere was the legendary Queen consort of King Arthur. She was most famous for her love affair with Arthur's chief knight Sir Lancelot, which first Perceval the Story of the Grail (Perceval le Conte du Graal is the unfinished fifth romance of Chrétien de Troyes. According to Christian mythology, the Holy Grail was the dish plate or cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper, said to possess miraculous powers The Fisher King or the Wounded King figures in Arthurian legend as the latest in a line charged with keeping the Holy Grail. ^[66] Chrétien was thus "instrumental both in the elaboration of the Arthurian legend and in the establishment of the ideal form for the diffusion of that legend",^[67] and much of what came after built upon the foundations he had laid. Perceval, although unfinished, was particularly popular: four separate continuations of the poem appeared over the next half century, with the notion of the Grail and its quest being developed by other writers such as Robert de Boron. Robert de Boron (also spelled in the manuscripts "Bouron" "Beron" was a French poet of the late 12th and early 13th centuries originally from the village ^[68] Similarly, Lancelot and his affair with Guinevere became one of the classic motifs of the Arthurian legend, although the Lancelot of the prose Lancelot (c.  1225) and later texts was a combination of Chrétien's character and that of Ulrich von Zatzikhoven's Lanzelet. Ulrich von Zatzikhoven was the author of the Middle High German Arthurian romance Lanzelet. Lanzelet is a Medieval romance written by Ulrich von Zatzikhoven sometime after 1194. ^[69] Chrétien's work even appears to feed back into Welsh Arthurian literature, where there are three Arthurian romances that are closely similar to those of Chrétien, albeit with some significant differences: Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain is related to Chrétien's Yvain; Geraint and Enid, to Erec and Enide; and Peredur son of Efrawg, to Perceval. Owain or the Lady of the Fountain ( Welsh: Owain neu Iarlles y Ffynnon) is one of the Three Welsh Romances ( Y Tair Rhamant Geraint and Enid, also known by the title Geraint son of Erbin, is a one of the Three Welsh Romances typically associated with the Peredur son of Efrawg is one of the three Welsh Romances associated with the Mabinogion. ^[70] However, it is not entirely certain that these Welsh romances are derivative of Chrétien's works. A number of academics, including Ceridwen Lloyd-Morgan, consider this to be the case, but others maintain that the relationship could move in the opposite direction or that there is a lost common source. ^[71]

Up to c.  1210, continental Arthurian romance was expressed primarily through poetry; after this date the tales began to be told in prose. The most significant of these 13th-century prose romances was the Vulgate Cycle, (also known as the Lancelot-Grail Cycle), a series of five Middle French prose works written in the first half of that century. The Lancelot-Grail, also known as the Prose Lancelot, the Vulgate Cycle, or the Pseudo-Map Cycle, is a major source of Arthurian legend ^[72] These works were the Estoire del Saint Grail, the Estoire de Merlin, the Lancelot propre (or Prose Lancelot, which made up half the entire Vulgate Cycle on its own), the Queste del Saint Graal and the Mort Artu. They combine to form the first coherent version of the entire Arthurian legend. The cycle introduced the character of Galahad, expanded the role of Merlin, and established the role of Camelot, first mentioned in passing in Chrétien's Lancelot, as Arthur's primary court. Sir Galahad is a knight of King Arthur 's Round Table and one of the three achievers of the Holy Grail in Arthurian legend. Camelot is the most famous Castle and court associated with the legendary King Arthur. ^[73] This series of texts was quickly followed by the Post-Vulgate Cycle (c. The Post-Vulgate Cycle is one of the major Old French Prose cycles of Arthurian literature  1230–40), of which the Suite du Merlin is a part, which greatly reduced the importance of Lancelot's affair with Guinevere, focussing more on the Grail quest. ^[72] Nonetheless, Arthur remained a relatively minor character in these French prose romances (in the Vulgate itself he only figures significantly in the Estoire de Merlin and the Mort Artu).

The development of the medieval Arthurian cycle culminated in Le Morte d'Arthur, Thomas Malory's retelling of the entire legend in a single work in English in the late 15th century. Le Morte d'Arthur (spelled Le Morte Darthur in the first printing and also in some modern editions Middle French for la mort d'Arthur Sir Thomas Malory (c 1405 – 14 March 1471 was an English writer the author or compiler of Le Morte d'Arthur. Malory based his book – originally titled The Whole Book of King Arthur and of His Noble Knights of the Round Table – on the various previous romance versions, in particular the Vulgate Cycle, and appears to have aimed at creating a comprehensive and authoritative collection of Arthurian stories. ^[74] Perhaps as a result of this, and the fact that Le Morte D'Arthur was one of the earliest printed books in England, published by William Caxton in 1485, most later Arthurian works are derivative of Malory's. ^[75]

Decline, revival and the modern legend

Post-medieval literature

The end of the Middle Ages brought with it a waning of interest in King Arthur. Although Malory's English version of the great French romances was popular, there were increasing attacks upon the truthfulness of the historical framework of the Arthurian romances – established since Geoffrey of Monmouth's time – and thus the legitimacy of the whole Matter of Britain. The Matter of Britain is a name given collectively to the Legends that concern the Celtic and legendary History of Great Britain, especially those So, for example, the 16th-century humanist scholar Polydore Vergil famously rejected the idea of a post-Roman Arthurian empire as a fabrication, to the horror of Welsh and English antiquarians. Polydore Vergil or Virgil (c 1470 &ndash April 18 1555) was an English Historian, of Italian birth otherwise known as ^[76] Social changes associated with the end of the medieval period and the Renaissance also conspired to rob the Arthurian legend of some of its power to enthral audiences, with the result that 1634 saw the last printing of Malory's Le Morte D'Arthur for nearly 200 years. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Le Morte d'Arthur (spelled Le Morte Darthur in the first printing and also in some modern editions Middle French for la mort d'Arthur ^[77] King Arthur and the Arthurian legend were not entirely abandoned, but until the early 19th century, the material was taken less seriously and often used simply as vehicle for allegories of 17th and 18th century politics. ^[78] Thus Richard Blackmore's epics Prince Arthur (1695) and King Arthur (1697) feature Arthur as an allegory for the struggles of William III against James II. Sir Richard Blackmore, ( 22 January 1654 &ndash 9 October 1729) English Poet and Physician, is remembered primarily William III or William of Orange (14 November 1650 &ndash 8 March 1702 He is informally known in Northern Ireland and Scotland as "King Billy" James II of England and Ireland James VII of Scotland (14 October 1633 &ndash 16 September 1701 was King of England, King of Scots, Later that same year James ^[78] Similarly, the most popular Arthurian tale throughout this period seems to have been that of Tom Thumb, which was set in Arthurian Britain and was told first through chapbooks and later through the political plays of Henry Fielding. Tom Thumb is a traditional hero in English folklore who is no bigger than his father's thumb Chapbook is a generic term to cover a particular genre of pocket-sized booklet popular from the sixteenth through to the later part of the nineteenth century Henry Fielding ( April 22, 1707 &ndash October 8, 1754) was an English Novelist and Dramatist known for his ^[79]

Tennyson and the revival

In the early 19th century, medievalism, Romanticism, and the Gothic Revival reawakened interest in the Arthurian legends and the medieval romances. In academic usage medievalism is the study of the Middle Ages, also referred to as medieval studies. Romanticism is a complex artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the The Gothic Revival is an architectural movement which began A new code of ethics for 19th-century gentlemen was shaped around chivalric ideals. Chivalric order Chivalry is a term related to the Medieval institution of Knighthood. This renewed interest first made itself felt in 1816, when Malory's Le Morte D'Arthur was reprinted for the first time since 1634. Le Morte d'Arthur (spelled Le Morte Darthur in the first printing and also in some modern editions Middle French for la mort d'Arthur ^[80] Initially the medieval Arthurian legends were of particular interest to poets, inspiring, for example, William Wordsworth to write "The Egyptian Maid" (1835), an allegory of the Holy Grail. According to Christian mythology, the Holy Grail was the dish plate or cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper, said to possess miraculous powers ^[81] Pre-eminent among these was Alfred Lord Tennyson, whose first Arthurian poem, "The Lady of Shalott", was published in 1832. Alfred Tennyson 1st Baron Tennyson (6 August 1809 – 6 October 1892 was Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom and remains one of the most popular English poets "The Lady of Shalott" is a Victorian Poem or ballad by the English poet Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809&ndash1892 ^[82] Tennyson's Arthurian work reached its peak of popularity with Idylls of the King, which reworked the entire narrative of Arthur's life. Idylls of the King, published between 1856 and 1885 is a cycle of twelve Narrative poems by the English poet Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809–1892 First published in 1859, it sold 10,000 copies within the first week. ^[83] In the Idylls, Arthur became a symbol of ideal manhood whose attempt to establish a perfect kingdom on earth fails, finally, through human weakness. ^[84] Tennyson's works prompted an explosion of imitators, generated considerable public interest in the legend of Arthur, and brought Malory’s tales to a wider audience. ^[85]

Following the publication of Tennyson's Idylls, there was a burst of Arthurian poetry and art in the second half of the 19th century. William Morris, Matthew Arnold and Algernon Charles Swinburne were all inspired to write Arthurian verse by Tennyson's Idylls. William Morris (24 March 1834 – 3 October 1896 was an English Architect, Furniture and Textile designer artist writer and socialist associated Matthew Arnold (24 December 1822 &ndash 15 April 1888 was an English Poet, and Cultural critic who worked as an inspector of schools Algernon Charles Swinburne (5 April 1837 – 10 April 1909 was a Victorian era English poet Pre-Raphaelite artists, such as Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Edward Burne-Jones, were initially inspired by Tennyson but later broadened their interests to the larger medieval tradition. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (also known as the Pre-Raphaelites) was a group of English painters Poets, and critics founded in 1848 by Dante Gabriel Rossetti (12 May 1828 – 9 April 1882 was an English poet Illustrator, painter and Translator. Sir Edward Coley Burne-Jones 1st Baronet (28 August 1833 &ndash 17 June 1898 was an English Artist and Designer closely associated with the later ^[86] Changes swept popular culture, too. The humorous tale of Tom Thumb, which was the primary manifestation of the Arthurian legend in the 18th century, was rewritten after the publication of Idylls. Tom Thumb is a traditional hero in English folklore who is no bigger than his father's thumb While Tom maintained his small stature and remained a figure of comic relief, his story now included more elements from the medieval Arthurian romances. ^[87] Finally, the first modernization of Malory's work was published in 1862, shortly after Idylls appeared; there were six further editions and five competitors before the century ended. ^[88]

This interest in the "Arthur of romance" continued through the 19th century and into the 20th, and it stretched beyond England. For example, the German composer Richard Wagner was inspired to produce his operas Tristan und Isolde and Parsifal. Tristan und Isolde ( Tristan and Isolde, or Tristan and Isolda) is an Opera, or Music drama, in three acts by Richard Wagner Parsifal is an Opera, or Music drama, in three acts by Richard Wagner. ^[89] The revived Arthurian romance also proved influential in the United States, with such books as Sidney Lanier's The Boy's King Arthur (1880) reaching wide audiences and providing inspiration for Mark Twain's satiric A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889). Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30 1835 – April 21 1910 better known by the Pen name Mark Twain, was an American Humorist, satirist A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court is an 1889 Novel by American Humorist and Writer Mark Twain. ^[90] The Arthurian revival did not, however, continue unabated. By the end of the 19th century, it was confined mainly to Pre-Raphaelite imitators. ^[91] Furthermore, the romance tradition could not avoid being affected by the First World War, which damaged the reputation of chivalry and thus interest in its medieval manifestations. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All ^[92] The romance tradition did, however, remain sufficiently powerful to persuade Thomas Hardy, Laurence Binyon and John Masefield to compose Arthurian plays,^[93] and T. S. Eliot alludes to the Arthur myth in his poem The Waste Land, which mentions the Fisher King. Thomas Hardy OM (2 June 1840 – 11 January 1928 was an English novelist Short story writer and poet of the naturalist movement though he saw Robert Laurence Binyon ( 10 August 1869 at Lancaster &ndash 10 March 1943 at Reading Berkshire) was an English John Edward Masefield, OM, ( 1 June 1878 &ndash 12 May 1967) was an English poet and writer and Poet Laureate Thomas Stearns Eliot, OM (September 26 1888 – January 4 1965 was a poet Dramatist, and Literary critic. The Waste Land ( 1922) is a highly influential 434-line modernist poem by T The Fisher King or the Wounded King figures in Arthurian legend as the latest in a line charged with keeping the Holy Grail. ^[94]

Modern legend

See also: King Arthur in various media

In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the romance tradition continued, through novels such as T. H. White's The Once and Future King (1958) and Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon (1982) in addition to comic strips such as Prince Valiant (1937–present). The Matter of Britain stories focussing on King Arthur, are one of the most popular literary subjects of all time and have been adapted numerous times in every form of media Terence Hanbury White ( 29 May 1906 &ndash 17 January 1964) was an English Author best known for his sequence of Arthurian The Once and Future King is an Arthurian Fantasy novel written by T Marion Eleanor Zimmer Bradley ( June 3, 1930 – September 25, 1999) was an American author of Fantasy novels such The Mists of Avalon is a 1982 novel by Marion Zimmer Bradley, in which she relates the Arthurian legends from the perspective of the female characters Prince Valiant in the Days of King Arthur, or simply Prince Valiant, is a Comic strip created by Hal Foster. ^[95] Tennyson had reworked the romance materials to suit the issues of the day, and the same is often the case with modern treatments. Bradley's tale, for example, takes a feminist approach to the legend and focuses on religious struggles between paganism and Christianity. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Celtic polytheism refers to the religious beliefs and practices of ancient Celts, prior to the Christianization of the Celtic-speaking lands Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings ^[96] The Arthurian legend has become popular in film as well. The musical Camelot, with its focus on the love of Lancelot and Guinevere, was made into a film in 1967. Camelot is a musical by Alan Jay Lerner (book and lyrics and Frederic Loewe (music The romance tradition is particularly evident and, according to critics, successfully handled in Robert Bresson's Lancelot du Lac (1974), Eric Rohmer's Perceval le Gallois (1978), and perhaps John Boorman's fantasy film Excalibur (1981). Robert Bresson (ʁɔbɛʁ bʁɛˈsɔ̃ in French ( September 25, 1901 &ndash December 18, 1999) was a French Film director Lancelot du Lac is 1974 Film that was written and directed by Robert Bresson. Éric Rohmer (born Jean-Marie Maurice Scherer, 4 April 1920 Tulle, France) is a French Film director and Screenwriter. Perceval le Gallois is a 1978 French film directed by Éric Rohmer. John Boorman (born January 18, 1933) is an English filmmaker currently based in Ireland best known for his feature films such as Point Excalibur is a 1981 Fantasy film which retells the legend of King Arthur. ^[97]

Re-tellings and re-imaginings of Arthurian romance are not the only important aspect of the modern Arthurian legend. Attempts to portray Arthur as a genuine historical figure of c. 500 AD, stripping away the "romance", have also emerged. As Taylor and Brewer have noted, this return to the medieval "chronicle tradition" of Geoffrey of Monmouth and the Historia Brittonum is a relatively recent trend which became dominant in Arthurian literature in the years following the outbreak of the Second World War, when Arthur's legendary resistance to Germanic invaders struck a chord in Britain. Geoffrey of Monmouth ( Gruffudd ap Arthur or Sieffre o Fynwy) (c The Historia Brittonum, or The History of the Britons, is a historical work that was first written sometime shortly after AD 833 and exists in several World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including ^[98] Clemence Dane's series of radio plays, The Saviours (1942), used a historical Arthur to embody the spirit of heroic resistance against desperate odds, and Robert Sherriff's play The Long Sunset (1955) saw Arthur rallying Romano-British resistance against the Germanic invaders. Clemence Dane was the Pseudonym of Winifred Ashton ( 21 February 1888 in Blackheath, England, United Kingdom Robert Cedric Sherriff ( 6 June 1896 &ndash 13 November 1975) was an English Playwright and Scriptwriter, best ^[99] This trend towards placing Arthur in a historical setting is also apparent in historical and fantasy novels published during this period. An historical novel is a Novel in which the story is set among historical events or more generally in which the time of the action predates the lifetime of the Author Fantasy literature is Fantasy in written form Historically speaking the majority of fantasy works have been literature ^[100] In recent years the portrayal of Arthur as a real hero of the fifth century has also made its way into film versions of the Arthurian legend, most notably King Arthur (2004) and The Last Legion (2007). King Arthur is a 2004 Film directed by Antoine Fuqua and written by David Franzoni. The Last Legion is a 2007 movie directed by Doug Lefler. Produced by Dino De Laurentiis and others it is based on a 2003 Italian ^[101]

Arthur has even been used as a model for modern-day behaviour. In the 1930s, the Order of the Fellowship of the Knights of the Round Table formed in Britain to promote Christian ideals and Arthurian notions of medieval chivalry. ^[102] In the United States, hundreds of thousands of boys and girls joined Arthurian youth groups, such as the Knights of King Arthur, in which Arthur and his legends were promoted as wholesome exemplars. ^[103] However, Arthur's diffusion within contemporary culture goes beyond such obviously Arthurian endeavours, with Arthurian names being regularly attached to objects, buildings and places. As Norris J. Lacy has observed, "The popular notion of Arthur appears to be limited, not surprisingly, to a few motifs and names, but there can be no doubt of the extent to which a legend born many centuries ago is profoundly embedded in modern culture at every level. "^[104]

See also

• List of Arthurian characters
• List of books about King Arthur
• King Arthur's family
• King Arthur's messianic return
• List of legendary kings of Britain
• Mythological king
• Nine Worthies, of which Arthur was one
• Sites and places associated with Arthurian legend

Notes

References

Further reading

• Green, Thomas (2007), Concepts of Arthur, Stroud: Tempus, ISBN 978-0752444611, <http://www.arthuriana.co.uk/concepts> .
• Lacy, Norris, ed. (1996), The New Arthurian Encyclopedia, New York: Garland, pp. 179-82, ISBN 978-1568654324 .
• Thorpe, Lewis, ed. (1966), Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain, Harmondsworth: Penguin, OCLC 3370598 . The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose
• Vinaver, Sir Eugène, ed. (1990), The Works of Sir Thomas Malory, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198123460 . Third, revised, ed.

External links

• Arthurian Resources: King Arthur, History and the Welsh Arthurian Legends, <http://www.arthuriana.co.uk>. Retrieved on 22 May 2008 . A detailed and comprehensive academic site, which includes numerous scholarly articles, from Thomas Green of Oxford University.
• Arthuriana, <http://faculty.smu.edu/arthuriana/>. Retrieved on 22 May 2008 . The only academic journal solely concerned with the Arthurian Legend; a good selection of resources and links.
• The Camelot Project, The University of Rochester, <http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/cphome.stm>. Retrieved on 22 May 2008 . Provides valuable bibliographies and freely downloadable versions of Arthurian texts.
• “Arthurian Gwent”, Blaenau Gwent Borough County Council, <http://www.blaenau-gwent.gov.uk/8035.asp>. Retrieved on 22 May 2008 . An excellent site detailing Welsh Arthurian folklore.
• Celtic Literature Collective, <http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/index_welsh.html>. Retrieved on 22 May 2008 . Provides texts and translations (of varying quality) of Welsh medieval sources, many of which mention Arthur.
• “Faces of Arthur”, Vortigern Studies, <http://www.geocities.com/vortigernstudies/bibliograrth.htm>. Retrieved on 22 May 2008 . An interesting collection of articles on King Arthur by various Arthurian enthusiasts.
• The Heroic Age: A Journal of Early Medieval Northwestern Europe, ISSN 1526-1827, <http://www.heroicage.org/>. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication. Retrieved on 22 May 2008 . An online peer-reviewed journal that includes regular Arthurian articles; see especially the first issue.
• “The Medieval Development of Arthurian Literature”, h2g2, BBC, <http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A533350>. Retrieved on 22 May 2008 
• Ford, David Nash, “King Arthur, General of the Britons”, Britannia History, <http://www.britannia.com/history/arthur/kageneral.html>. Retrieved on 22 May 2008 .