Gold coin of Khosrau II.

Silver coin of Khosrau II, dating to ca. A. D. 600.

Egyptian woven pattern woolen curtain or trousers, which was a copy of a Sassanid silk import, which was in turn based on a fresco of Persian King Khosrau II fighting Ethiopian forces in Yemen, 5-6th century. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya

Sassanid King Khosrau II submitting to Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, from a plaque on a 12th century French cross

Khosrau II or Khosrow II (Chosroes II or Xosrov II in classical sources, sometimes called Parvez, "the ever Victorious" – in Persian: خسرو پرویز) was the twenty-second Sassanid King of Persia from 590 to 628. Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Events By Place Byzantine Empire Summer - Maurice agrees to Khosrau's entreaties and agrees to restart the war with Persia Events By Place Europe Pippin of Landen becomes Mayor of the Palace in Austrasia. He was the son of Hormizd IV (579–590) and grandson of Khosrau I (531–579). Hormizd IV, son of Khosrau I, reigned as the twenty-first King of Persia from 579 to 590 Khosrau I or Khosrow I ( Chosroes I in classical sources most commonly known in Persian as Anushirvan, Persian انوشيروان meaning

Biography

Personality and skills

Khosrau II was inferior to his grandfather in terms of proper education and discipline. He was haughty, cruel, and given to luxury; he was neither a warrior-general nor an administrator and despite his brilliant victories, he did not personally command an army in the field, relying instead on the strategy and loyalty of his generals. A bureaucrat is a member of a Bureaucracy, usually within an institution of the Government. Nevertheless Tabari describes him as:

Excelling most of the other Persian kings in bravery, wisdom and forethought, and none matching him in military might and triumph, hoarding of treasures and good fortunes, hence the epithet Parviz, meaning victorious. ^[1]

He had a shabestan of over 3,000 concubines ^[1]

Accession to the Throne

Khosrau II was raised to the throne by the magnates who had rebelled against Hormizd IV, who soon after had his father blinded and killed. Shabestan or Shabistan is an underground space that can be usually found in traditional architecture of mosques houses and schools in ancient Persia ( Iran) Concubinage is the state of a woman or youth in an ongoing quasi-matrimonial relationship with a man of higher social status But at the same time the general Bahram Chobin had proclaimed himself King Bahram VI (590–591), and Khosrau II was not able to maintain himself. Bahram Chobin (Chubin Chobina (in Persian بهرام چوبین was a famous Eran spahbod (military commander during Khosrau II 's rule in Sassanid

The war with the Romans, which had begun in 571, had not yet come to an end. This article is about the year AD 571 For the US telephone area code see Area code 571. Khosrau II fled to Syria, and subsequently to Constantinopole where the Emperor Maurice (582–602) agreed to send help in condition that Byzantine sovereignty over cities of Amida, Carrhae, Dara, Nisibis and Miyafariqin (Middle Persian Miyān Pārgin) be renewed. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Flavius Mauricius Tiberius Augustus (Φλάβιος Μαυρίκιος Τιβέριος Αύγουστος Մավրիկ Mavrig; 539 &ndash November 27 Diyarbakır (دیاربکر Diyâr-i Bekr 'land of the Bekr ' (from Persian) Kurdish Amed Zazaki language Dêrbekir Syriac Dara or Daras ( Δάρας) was an important East Roman fortress city in northern Mesopotamia on the border with the Sassanid Empire Nusaybin ancient Nisibis, Nisibia Nisibin is a city in Mardin Province, southeastern Turkey populated by Turks, Aramean-Syriacs Silvan or Miyarfarqin ( Kurdish: Farqîn, Middle Persian: Miyān Pārgin, Persian: سيلوان) is a district Furthermore, Persia was required to cease intervening in the affairs of Georgia and Armenia, effectively ceding control of Lazistan to Byzantines. Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Egrisi (ეგრისი is a medieval Georgian name for the region and kingdom in the western part of modern-day Georgia, known to the Byzantine ^{[2] [3]}. Many leading men and part of the troops acknowledged Khosrau II, and in 591 he was brought back to Ctesiphon. For the Spanish saint see Ctesiphon of Vergium. Ctesiphon (قطسيفون تیسفون was one of the great cities of the Persian Empire Bahram VI was defeated in Azerbaijan and fled to the Turks of Central Asia, among whom he was murdered. Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family Peace with Rome was then concluded. Maurice made no use of his advantage; he merely restored the former frontier and abolished the subsidies which had formerly been paid to the Persians.

Military Exploits and Early Victories

At the beginning of his reign, Khosrau II favoured the Christians; but when in 602 Maurice had been murdered by Phocas (602–610), he began war with Rome to avenge his death. Christianity in Iran has had a long history dating back to the very early years of the faith Events By Place Byzantine Empire Maurice, at war with the Avars and always dealing with the lack of money decrees that the army should Flavius Phocas Augustus, (el Φωκάς Phokas; reigned 602–610 called the Tyrant, usurped the Byzantine throne from the Emperor Maurice His armies plundered Syria and Asia Minor, and in 608 advanced to Chalcedon. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Events By Place Europe Eochaid Buide succeeds Áedán mac Gabráin as king of Dál Riata. For the Ecumenical Council of 451 see Council of Chalcedon; For the religious/political organization see Chalcedon Foundation.

In 613 and 614 Damascus and Jerusalem were taken by the general Shahrbaraz, and the True Cross was carried away in triumph. Events By Place Europe Clotaire II reunites the Frankish kingdoms by ordering the murder of Sigebert II. Events By Place Europe The Palace of Diocletian is damaged by the Avars who sack nearby Salona. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the Shahrbaraz (or Shahrwaraz) (died June 9, 630) was a general with the rank of Eran Spahbod ( Commander of the Army of Iran) under The True Cross is the name for physical remnants which by a Christian tradition are believed to be from the actual cross upon which Jesus was crucified Soon after, General Shahin marched through Anatolia and conquered Egypt in 618. Shāhin son of Dulnak (Persian دولناک ( (died c 626 was a senior Sassanid general ( Spahbod) during the reign of Khosrau II This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Events By Place Asia The Sui Dynasty ends and the Tang Dynasty begins in China. The Romans could offer but little resistance, as they were torn by internal dissensions, and pressed by the Avars and Slavs. The Caucasian Avars are a modern people of Caucasus, mainly of Dagestan.

Khosrau's forces at times also invaded Taron. Taron (Տարոն was a canton of the Duruperan province of Greater Armenia, now in the Muş Province, Turkey ^[4]

Richard Nelson Frye speculates that one mistake of Khosrau II, which was to have future consequences, was the imprisonment and execution of Nu'aman III (crushed by elephants in some accounts), king of the Lakhmids of Al-Hira about 600, presumably because of the failure of the Arab king to support Khosrau on his fight with the Byzantines. Richard Nelson Frye (born c 1920 is an American scholar of Iranian and Central Asian Studies, and Aga Khan Professor Emeritus Na'aman or Nu'aman (نعمان ابن منذربن امريء القيس اللخمي was the last Lakhmid king of Al-Hirah and a Christian Crushing by elephant (زير پى ِپيل افكندن literally "casting beneath an Elephant 's feet" was for thousands of years a common method of execution The Lakhmids ( Arabic:) Banu Lakhm ( Arabic:) Muntherids ( Arabic:) were a group of Arab Christians who lived in Al Hīra ( Arabic, الحيرة) was an ancient city located south of Al-Kufah in south-central Iraq. Afterwards the central government took over the defense of the western frontiers to the desert and the buffer state of the Lakhmids vanished. This soon led to invasion of lower Iraq in less than a decade after Khosrau's death. ^[5]

Turn of Tides

Ultimately, in 622, the Emperor Heraclius (who had succeeded Phocas in 610 and ruled until 641) was able to take the field. Events Religion July 16 — Year one of the Islamic calendar begins during which the Hijra occurs — Prophet Muhammad Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East Flavius Phocas Augustus, (el Φωκάς Phokas; reigned 602–610 called the Tyrant, usurped the Byzantine throne from the Emperor Maurice This article is about the year 610. Events By Place Byzantine Empire October 4 — Heraclius arrives In 624 he advanced into northern Media, where he destroyed the great fire-temple of Ganzhak (Gazaca); in 626 he fought in Lazistan (Colchis). Events By Place Byzantine Empire After 70 years of Visigothic rule the Byzantine Empire recaptures Andalusia The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. For the similarly named locations see Takht-e-Sulaiman in Balochistan, and Sulayman Mountain near Osh, Kyrgyzstan. Ganzak ( Greek: Gazaca, Latin: Gaza, Ganzaga, Arabic: Janza, Jaznaq. Events By Place Byzantine Empire The Byzantines defeat the Avars and Slavs, who were besieging Constantinople In ancient Geography, Colchis or Kolchis ( Georgian and Laz: კოლხეთი k'olxeti; Greek:, Kolchís In 626, Persian general Shahrbaraz advanced to Chalcedon and tried to capture Constantinople with the help of Persia's Avar allies. Shahrbaraz (or Shahrwaraz) (died June 9, 630) was a general with the rank of Eran Spahbod ( Commander of the Army of Iran) under For the Ecumenical Council of 451 see Council of Chalcedon; For the religious/political organization see Chalcedon Foundation. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Caucasian Avars are a modern people of Caucasus, mainly of Dagestan. His attempt failed, and he withdrew his army from Anatolia later in 628. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black

Following the Khazar invasion of Transcaucasia in 627, Heraclius defeated the Persian army at the Battle of Nineveh and advanced towards Ctesiphon. The Third Perso-Turkic War was the third and final conflict between the Sassanian Empire and the Western Turkic Khaganate. The Battle of Nineveh was the climactic battle of the last of the Roman-Persian Wars between the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Empire, in 627 For the Spanish saint see Ctesiphon of Vergium. Ctesiphon (قطسيفون تیسفون was one of the great cities of the Persian Empire Khosrau II fled from his favourite residence, Dastgerd (near Baghdad), without offering resistance; some of the grandees freed his eldest son Kavadh II (he ruled briefly in 628), whom Khosrau II had imprisoned, and proclaimed King (night of 23-4 February, 628). Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Kavadh II (Siroes twenty-third Sassanid King of Persia son of Khosrau II (590&ndash628 was raised to the throne in opposition to his father in February 628 Events 1455 - Traditional date for the publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western Book printed from Movable ^[6] Four days afterwards, Khosrau II was murdered in his palace. Meanwhile, Heraclius returned in triumph to Constantinople; in 629 the Cross was given back to him and Egypt evacuated, while the Persian empire, from the apparent greatness which it had reached ten years ago, sank into hopeless anarchy. Events By Place Persian and Byzantine Empires September - Jerusalem is reconquered by the Byzantine Empire from It was overtaken by the armies of the first Islamic Caliphs beginning in 634. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Events By Place Oswald of Northumbria defeats Cadwallon ap Cadfan of Gwynedd in the Battle of Heavenfield and

Letter of Muhammad to Khosrau II

Khosrau II (Arabic كسري) is also remembered in Muslim tradition to be the Persian king to whom Muhammad had sent a messenger, Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi, together with a letter to preach the religion of Islam. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi was a close companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. In Tabari’s original Arabic manuscript the letter to Khosrau II reads:

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
من محمد رسول الله الى كسرى عظيم الفارس . Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923 أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير الطبري was one of the earliest most prominent and famous Persian Historians سلام على من اتبع الهدى و آمن بالله و رسوله و شهد ان لااله الا الله وحده لاشريك له و ان محمد عبده و رسوله. ادعوك بدعاء الله، فانى رسول الله الى الناس كافة لانذر من كان حيا و يحق القول على الكافرين. فاسلم تسلم . فان ابيت فان اثم المجوس عليك .

English translation:

In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Ever Merciful
From Muhammad, Messenger of Allah, to Chosroes, Ruler of Persia. Peace be on him who follows the guidance, believes in Allah and His Messenger and bears witness that there is no one worthy of worship save Allah, the One, without associate, and that Muhammad is His Servant and Messenger. I invite you to the Call of Allah, as I am the Messenger of Allah to the whole of mankind, so that I may warn every living person and so that the truth may become clear and the judgment of God may overtake the infidels. I call upon you to accept Islam and thus make yourself secure. If you turn away, you will bear the sins of your Zoroastrian subjects. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings

The assassination of Chosroes, in a Mughal manuscript of ca 1535, Persian poems are from Ferdowsi's Shahnameh

The Persian historian Tabari continues that in refusal and outrage, Khosrau tore up Muhammed's letter and commanded Badhan, his vassal ruler of Yemen, to dispatch two valiant men to identify, seize and bring this man from Hijaz (Muhammad) to him. Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923 أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير الطبري was one of the earliest most prominent and famous Persian Historians Meanwhile, back in Madinah, Abdullah told Muhammad how Khusraw had torn his letter to pieces and Muhammad's only reply was, "May his kingdom tear apart". The narration carries on with trivial accounts of their encounter and dialogue with Muhammad and conversion of Badhan (Bāzān) and the whole Yemenite Persians to Islam subsequent to receipt of shocking tidings of Khosrau’s murder by his own son, Kavadh II. Kavadh II (Siroes twenty-third Sassanid King of Persia son of Khosrau II (590&ndash628 was raised to the throne in opposition to his father in February 628 ^[7]

In other chapters Tabari gives two more detailed accounts. Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923 أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير الطبري was one of the earliest most prominent and famous Persian Historians One on how Islam had been presented in three subsequent years to the Persian monarch (Khosrau II) by an angel of Allah while he had refused the whole time; and the other on how Khosrau II orders Persians thrice to construct a dam and iwan on the Tigris river with untold toil and outlay with exact intervals of 8 months, only to see each one break once Khosrau himself embarked it to celebrate. An iwan (إيوان eyvān) is defined as a vaulted hall or space walled on three sides with one end entirely open The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern ^[8]

Criticism of Muslim Accounts

Coin of Khosrau II

Leone Caetani, in his ten-volume book Annali dell' Islam that was based on the research presented by German scholar Hubert Grimme in Das Leben Muhammed, dismisses the notion that Muhammad ever sent any envoys to rulers of neighboring kingdoms, much less received any responses; Caetani also refutes that whatever is told or written in this regard is merely a myth fabricated by the Islamic Caliphate many years after Muhammad's death. Leone Caetani ( September 12 1869 – December 25[[ 935]] Duke of Sermoneta (also known as Prince Caetani) was an Italian scholar Annali dell' Islam is a ten volume collection about Islam authored by Leone Caetani between 1904 and 1926 A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history

In his work, Caetani alludes to a number of facts to prove his point of view:

• All the information from historical sources (Persian, Armenian, Georgian, Syriac, Egyptian, etc. ) suggest that Sassanid court ceremonies have been the most intricate in the ancient world, and among the most elaborate of such formalities had been granting audience to individuals seeking to meet with the Sassanid Shahanshah. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Shah is an Iranian term for a Monarch (leader that has been adopted in many other languages Ibn Khordadbeh in Kitāb al-Masālik w’al- Mamālik describes how each and every foreign envoy had to submit his message to the marzban of the bordering province (in this case: vassal kingdom of Al-Hirah) whose bureaucratic system would evaluate the contents of the message and the envoy’s purpose of audience with the monarch. Abu'l Qasim Ubaid'Allah ibn Khordadbeh ( Persian: fa ابوالقاسم عبیدالله ابن خردادبه) (c The Book of Roads and Kingdoms (كتاب المسالك والممالك Kitāb al-Masālik w’al- Mamālik) is a 9th century Geography text Marzban (in مرزبان derived from the words Marz مرز meaning "border" or "boundary" and the suffix -ban بان meaning guardian were Al Hīra ( Arabic, الحيرة) was an ancient city located south of Al-Kufah in south-central Iraq. Most often, the envoy would be accommodated in an envoys' border lodge for a certain period of time awaiting such decision. The envoy was then escorted to the capital only if the message was considered pertinent for the court in Ctesiphon or if the said marzban would not be capable of resolving a much complicated diplomatic issue. For the Spanish saint see Ctesiphon of Vergium. Ctesiphon (قطسيفون تیسفون was one of the great cities of the Persian Empire In all other cases, the embassy was refused.

Even second-class marzbans and spahbods were not exempted from such cumbersome formalities, not to mention an envoy arriving from a relatively obscure source to the Sassanid court; and even then during the royal audience, one had to observe certain strict customs such as kissing the floor, covering one’s mouth by panam (Persian: پنام), conversing with particular etiquette, and carefully avoiding approaching Shahanshah’s throne. Marzban (in مرزبان derived from the words Marz مرز meaning "border" or "boundary" and the suffix -ban بان meaning guardian were Spahbod or Spahbed ( Persian: سپهبد in Modern Persian Sepahbod, is derived from the words Spah سپه army bod ^[9]

Caetani deduces that bearing in mind the impertinence and assertive tone of the message, Sassanid administrators must, in all probability, have denied such audience.

• As regards to Khosrau’s challenging dam project on the Tigris, Caetani elaborates that the years 6 and 7 AH (627-628 AD) had been the most tumultuous periods of the Sassanid era: Heraclius was closing in on gates of Ctesiphon following his decisive victory at Nineveh; the treasury was nearly exhausted and the empire itself was weakening. The Battle of Nineveh was the climactic battle of the last of the Roman-Persian Wars between the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Empire, in 627

It would then be negligence towards historical facts to imagine an unstable monarch triply commencing the ambitious task of “untold toil and outlay” with a bankrupted treasury and lack of safety on the Tigris riverside. ^[10]

• Caetani also hints at the fact that none of the Persian historical chronicles recording the ending years of the Sassanid era - specifically khodaynamehs (Persian: خداينامه meaning “book of lords”) that later became sources of information for Ferdowsi and other scientists and historians such as Birouni, Tha'alibi, Masudi, Isfahani – mention such an embassy, and whatever narrated in this context is exclusively limited to Arabic sources, while Iranians have never been aware of this matter. Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn íbn Ali al-Mas'udi (transl) (born c Abu al-Fath Mahmud ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim ibn Fadl al-Isfahani was a 10th century Persian Mathematician.

Furthermore, there is no reference to these letters in Latin, Greek, Armenian, Georgian, or Syriac sources, signifying that these letters - including the ones dispatched to Heraclius, Ashama ibn Abjar and Patriarch of Alexandria- for all non-Arabic sources, are entirely unheard-of. Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East According to Arabic sources Aṣḥama ibn Abjar was Emperor or al-Najashi ( Arabic النجاشي) of Aksum at the time of Muhammad The Patriarch of Alexandria is the Archbishop of Alexandria and Cairo, Egypt. ^[11]

In art

The battles between Heraclius and Khosrau are depicted in a famous early Renaissance fresco by Piero della Francesca, part of the History of the True Cross cycle in the church of San Francesco, Arezzo. Piero della Francesca (c 1412 &ndash October 12, 1492) was an Italian artist of the Early Renaissance. The History of the True Cross or The Legend of the True Cross is a sequence of Frescoes painted by Piero della Francesca in the

See also

• Shirin Beloved wife of Khosrau
• Chosroes and Shirin A Persian love story depicting a ménage à trois between Khosrau and Shirin as king and queen, and Farhad as Shirin's lover
• Barbad Khosrau's favorite court musician
• Shabdiz Khosrau's highly admired horse
• Non-Muslims Interactants with Muslims During Muhammad's Era
• Muqawqis, Ruler of Alexandria

References

• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Hormizd IV, son of Khosrau I, reigned as the twenty-first King of Persia from 579 to 590 The following is a comprehensive list of kings of Persia, which includes all of the empires ruling over geographical Iran Kavadh II (Siroes twenty-third Sassanid King of Persia son of Khosrau II (590&ndash628 was raised to the throne in opposition to his father in February 628 Shirin (? – 628 ad (شيرين was a wife of the Sassanid Persian Shahanshah (king of kings Khosrau II. Barbad or Barbad the Great (in باربد The name is the arabicized pronunciation of the Persian name Pahlbod which is most probably how he was called in his own day Shabdiz (in شبديز is the name of the legendary and beloved horse of Khosrau Parvez, one of the most famed Sassanid Persians kings This is a list of the non-Muslim interactants with Muslims during Muhammad's era. Al-Muqawqis (المقوقس is mentioned in Islamic history as a ruler of Egypt, who corresponded with the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone
• Edward Walford, translator, The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594, 1846. Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-88-6. [1] — a primary source containing detailed information about the early reign of Khosrau II and his relationship with the Romans.

Footnotes