| History of Russia |
|---|
| Early East Slavic states |
| Rus' Khaganate (8th–9th c. Early history Pre-Slavic inhabitants See also Steppe nomads, Scythians, Bosporan Kingdom, Khazaria In prehistoric times The following is a list of East Slavic states that existed in the first half of the second millennium on the territories of contemporary Belarus, Russia, and The Rus' Khaganate Volkhov Rus, Ilmen Rus, or Novgorod Rus --> was a Polity that flourished during a poorly documented ) |
| Khazars (7th–10th c. ) |
| Volga Bulgaria (7th–13th c. Volga Bulgaria or Volga-Kama Bolghar, is an historic state that existed between the 7th and 13th centuries around the confluence of ) |
| Kievan Rus' (9th–12th c. Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan ) |
| Vladimir-Suzdal (12th–14th c. Vladimir-Suzdal Principality (Влади́миро-Су́здальское кня́жество ) |
| Novgorod Republic (12th–15th c. The Novgorod Republic (Новгородская республика / Novgorodskaya respublika Новгородская земьля / Novgorodskaya zemlja) was a ) |
| Mongol invasion (1220s–1240s) |
| Golden Horde (1240s–1480s) |
| Muscovy (1340–1547) |
| Khanate of Kazan (1438–1552) |
| Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721) |
| Russian Empire (1721–1917) |
| Soviet Russia and the USSR |
| Russian Federation (1991–present) |
| Timeline |
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The Khazars were a semi-nomadic Turkic people who dominated the Pontic steppe and the North Caucasus from the 7th to the 10th century CE. The Mongol invasion of Rus' was heralded by the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223 between Subutai 's reconnaissance unit and the combined force This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. The Grand Duchy of Moscow (Великое княжество Московское was a medieval Russian polity centered on Moscow between 1340 and The Kazan Khanate (Казан ханлыгы|Qazan xanlığı|قازان خانليغى Russian: Казанское ханство tr: Kazanskoe khanstvo The Tsardom of Rus' (Царство Русское was the official name for the Russian state between Ivan IV 's assumption of the title of Tsar (Emperor in 1547 The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Romanovcesar 2 and its gratitive sunlithg sundhie compared themselves ina servantly structure from its parative War and peace in Russia 1796-1825 Catherine II died in 1796, and her son Emperor Paul I (r Economic development The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were times of crisis for Russian nuts Radical revolutionary parties During the 1890s, Russia's industrial development led to a significant increase in the size of the urban Bourgeoisie and the working The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The History of the Soviet Union has roots in the Russian Revolution of 1917. See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them The Russian Civil War (1917–1923 was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed This period of the Soviet Union was dominated by Joseph Stalin, who sought to reshape Soviet society with aggressive economic planning in particular a sweeping collectivization of agriculture The Cold War ensued as the USSR and the United States struggled indirectly for influence around the world The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 the Russian Federation became an independent country This is a timeline of Russian history. To read about the background to these events see History of Russia. The territory of Ukraine was a key centre of East Slavic culture in the Middle Ages, before being divided between a variety of powers The Cucuteni culture, better known in the countries of the former Soviet Union as Trypillian culture or Tripolie culture, is a late Neolithic The Yamna (from Russian / Ukrainian яма "pit" also known as Pit Grave or Ochre Grave culture) is a late copper age /early The Catacomb culture, ca 2800-2200 BC refers to an early Bronze Age culture occupying essentially what is present-day Ukraine. See Cimmeria (Conan or Cimmeria (Poem for the fiction of Robert E In Classical Antiquity, Scythia ( Greek Skuthia) was the area in Eurasia inhabited by the Scythians, from the 8th The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες The Zarubintsy culture was one of the major Archaeological cultures which flourished in the area north of the Black Sea along the upper Dnieper and The Chernyakhiv culture (also known as Cherniakhov culture or Cherniakhovo culture) ( Second century to Fifth century) was found in Ukraine Hunnic Empire, the empire of the Huns.The Huns were a confederation of Eurasian tribes especially Turkic ones from the Steppes of The East Slavs are a Slavic ethnic group, the speakers of East Slavic languages. Old Great Bulgaria or Great Bulgaria (Стара Велика България Παλαιά Μεγάλη Βουλγαρία in Byzantine chronicles alternative White Croatia (also Chrobatia) is an ill-defined area said to lie somewhere in Central Europe, near Bavaria, beyond Hungary, and adjacent to Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan The Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia ( Ruthenian: sla Галицко-Волинскоє Королѣвство Regnum Galiciæ et Lodomeriæ or Galicia-Vladimir, was Cumania is a name formerly used to designate several distinct lands in Central and Eastern Europe inhabited by and under the military dominance of the Cumans, a The Mongol invasion of Rus' was heralded by the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223 between Subutai 's reconnaissance unit and the combined force This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. Moldavia (Moldova is a geographic and historical region and former Principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between Eastern Carpathians The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje The Cossacks (Каза́ки́ Kazaki; Козаки́ Kozaki; Kozacy are a group of martial people living in the southern Steppe regions of Eastern The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic The Crimean Khanate or the Khanate of Crimea (Qırım Hanlığı|قريم خانلغى Крымское ханство - Krymskoye khanstvo; The term Khmelnytsky Uprising (also Khmel'nyts'kyi/Chmielnicki Uprising or Khmelnytsky / Chmielnicki Rebellion) refers to a Rebellion or The Ruin (Руїна is a period of Ukrainian history from the death of Hetman Bohdan Khmelnitsky in 1657 and until ascension of Hetman Right-bank Ukraine ( Pravoberezhna Ukrayina; Pravoberezhnaya Ukraina; Prawobrzeżna Ukraina a historical name of a part of Ukraine on the right (west Left-bank Ukraine ( Livoberezhna Ukrayina; Levoberezhnaya Ukraina; Lewobrzeżna Ukraina is a historic name of the part of Ukraine on the left (East Sloboda Ukraine (Слобiдська Україна translit Slobids'ka Ukrayina, Слободская Украина translit The Hetmanate or officially Viysko Zaporozke (Гетьманщина Het’manshchyna; Військо Запорозьке Viys’ko Zaporoz’ke Zaporizhia ( Ukrainian: Запоріжжя Zaporizhzhya; Polish: Zaporoże or Dzikie Pola (Wild Fields or Savage Steppe The Danubian Sich (Задунайська Сiч Задунайская Сечь was a fortified settlement ( Sich) of Zaporozhian Cossacks who settled During the growth of the Ottoman Empire (also known as the " Pax Ottomana " the Ottoman Empire expanded southwestwards into North Africa Little Russia, sometimes Little or Lesser Rus’ ( Malorossiya; Mala Rus’) was the name applied to parts of the territory of modern-day Novorossiya (Новоро́ссия literally New Russia) is a historic area now mostly located in southern Ukraine, in southern Russia, in Bessarabia Habsburg Monarchy (alternatively Habsburg Empire) refers to the territories ruled by the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg, and then by the successor The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria official (Königreich Galizien und Lodomerien mit dem Großherzogtum Krakau und den Herzogtümern Auschwitz und Zator official Bukovina (Bucovina Буковина/ Bukovyna; German and Polish: Bukowina; see also other languages) is a historical region on the Carpathian Ruthenia, aka Transcarpathian Ruthenia, Rusinko Subcarpathian Rus, Subcarpathia ( Rusyn and Ukrainian Ukrainian territory was fought over by various factions after the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the First World War, which added the collapse of Austria-Hungary The Ukrainian People's Republic (Українська Народна Республіка Ukrayins’ka Narodna Respublika; also translated as the Ukrainian National The West Ukrainian National Republic (Західно-Українська Народна Республика Zakhidno-Ukrayins’ka Narodna Respublyka or ЗУНР ZUNR This article is about the government of the Ukrainian National Republic 1918&ndash1920 The Directorate, or Directory (Директорія Dyrektoriya) was a government of the Ukrainian National Republic formed in 1918 in rebellion against Galician Soviet Socialist Republic (Galician SSR existed from July 8, 1920 to September 21, 1920 during the Polish-Soviet War The Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic (Донецко-Криворожская советская республика was a short-lived Soviet republic. The Ukrainian War of Independence was a series of military conflicts between Ukrainian, Anarchist, Bolshevik, Central Powers forces The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic or the Ukrainian SSR was one of the 15 constituent republics that made up the Former Soviet Union from its Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Modern Qırım Muhtar Sotsialist Sovet Cumhuriyeti Official Crimean Tatar name ( Uniform Turkic Alphabet) Qrьm Avonomjalь The territory of Ukraine was a key centre of East Slavic culture in the Middle Ages, before being divided between a variety of powers Carpatho-Ukraine (Карпатська Україна Karpats’ka Ukrayina) was an autonomous region within Czechoslovakia from late 1938 to March 15 The Reichskommissariat Ukraine (Ukraine Reich Commission was the civil administration of much of German-occupied Ukraine (which included adjacent areas of modern Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The term Pontic-Caspian steppe summarizes the vast Steppelands stretching from north of the Black Sea as far as the east of the Caspian Sea, from central The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East The name 'Khazar'[1] seems to be tied to a Turkic verb form meaning "wandering". The Turkic languages constitute a Language family of some thirty languages spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the [2]
In the 7th century CE, the Khazars founded an independent Khaganate in the Northern Caucasus along the Caspian Sea. The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. For other titles related to and uses of Khan, see that article Origin The title The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. Although the Khazars were initially Tengri shamanists, many of them converted to Christianity, Islam, and other religions. Tengri is the supreme god of the old Xiongnu, Xianbei, Turkic, Bulgar, Mongolian, Hunnic and Altaic Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. During the eighth or ninth century the state religion became Judaism. A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut At their height, the Khazar khaganate and its tributaries controlled much of what is today southern Russia, western Kazakhstan, eastern Ukraine, Azerbaijan, large portions of the Caucasus (including Circassia, Dagestan, Chechnya, and parts of Georgia), and the Crimea. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Circassia, also known as Cherkessia in Russian is a region in Caucasia. The Republic of Dagestan dæɡɪˈstɑːn (IntEng ˈdeɪɡəstæn (AmEng (Респу́блика Дагеста́н Дагъистанлъул ДжумхIурият Daɣistanłul The Chechen Republic (ˈʧɛʧɨn rɪˈpʌblɨk Чече́нская Респу́блика Chechenskaya Respublika; Нохчийн Республика Noxçiyn Respublika Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым
Between 965 and 969, their sovereignty was broken by Sviatoslav I of Kiev, and they became a subject people of Kievan Rus'. 965 was a year in the 10th century. Events By Place Europe The Khazar fortress of Sarkel falls 969 was a year in the 10th century. Events By Place Byzantine Empire December 11 — John I becomes Sviatoslav I of Kiev ( Old East Slavic: С~тославъ (Свąтославъ Игорєвичь ( Sventoslavŭ Igorevichǐ) Russian: ru Святослав Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan Gradually displaced by the Rus, the Kipchaks, and later the conquering Mongol Golden Horde, the Khazars largely disappeared as a culturally-distinct people. This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band.
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Origins and prehistory
The origins of the Khazars are unclear. Following their conversion to Judaism, the Khazars themselves traced their origins to Kozar, a son of Togarmah. A conversion to Judaism (גיור giyur) is a formal act undertaken by a non-Jewish person who wishes to be recognised as a full member of the Jewish community According to Khazar tradition as related in the Khazar Correspondence, Kozar was the name of the eponymous ancestor of the Khazar people Togarmah ( Armenian: Thorgom, Թորգոմ Georgian: Thargamos, თარგამოს third son of Gomer, and grandson of Togarmah is mentioned in Genesis in the Bible as a grandson of Japheth. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Japheth (ˈdʒeɪfɪθ Hebrew. יפת Greek Ιάφεθ, Iapheth, Latin Iafeth or Iapetus Arabic يافث
Scholars in the former USSR considered the Khazars to be an indigenous people of the North Caucasus. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The term Indigenous Peoples or autochthonous peoples can be used to describe any Ethnic group who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest historical The North Caucasus, also Ciscaucasus, Ciscaucasia or Forecaucasia, is the northern part of the Caucasus region between Europe Some scholars, such as D.M. Dunlop, considered the Khazars to be connected with a Uyghur or Tiele confederation tribe called He'san in Chinese sources from the 7th-century (Suishu, 84). Douglas Morton Dunlop (1909 - 1987 was a renowned Orientalist and scholar of Islamic and Eurasian history The Uyghur (also spelled Uygur, Uighur, Uigur, Uyghur: ئۇيغۇر) are a Turkic people of Central Asia. The Dingling (丁零 or Gaoche (高車 Chile (敕勒, Tiele (鐵勒 were an ancient Siberian people The K'o-sa ( was a Uyghur tribe mentioned by ancient Chinese texts China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. However, the Khazar language appears to have been an Oghuric tongue, similar to that spoken by the early Bulgars and corresponding to the modern day Chuvash dialects. Khazar was the language spoken by the medieval Khazar tribe a semi- Nomadic Turkic people from Central Asia The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy The Bulgars (also Bolgars or proto-Bulgarians) were a seminomadic people probably of Turkic descent originally from Central Asia, [3] Therefore, a Hunnish origin has also been postulated. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy Since the Turkic peoples were never ethnically homogenous, these ideas need not be deemed mutually exclusive. It is likely that the Khazar nation was made up of tribes from various ethnic backgrounds, as steppe nations traditionally absorbed those they conquered. Their name is accordingly derived from Turkic *qaz-, meaning "to wander, flee. "
Armenian chronicles contain references to the Khazars as early as the late second century. Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani The 2nd century is the period from 101 to 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. These are generally regarded as anachronisms, and most scholars believe that they actually refer to Sarmatians or Scythians. An anachronism (from the Greek "ana" " ανά " "against anti-" and "chronos" " χρόνος " The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic Priscus relates that one of the nations in the Hunnish confederacy was called Akatziroi. Priscus was from Panium (in Thrace) living in the Roman Empire during the 5th century. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy One of the nations in the Hunnish tribal confederacy The Akatziroi were ruled by a king called Karadach or Karidachus and appear in the account of Priscus Their king was named Karadach or Karidachus. Karadach (Karidachos was a warlord of the Akatziroi (who some have linked to the later Khazar Khaganate) during the reign of Attila. Some, going on the similarity between Akatziroi and "Ak-Khazar" (see below), have speculated that the Akatziroi were early proto-Khazars.
Dmitri Vasil'ev of Astrakhan State University recently hypothesized that the Khazars moved in to the Pontic steppe region only in the late 500s, and originally lived in Transoxiana. Astrakhan State University (formerly Astrakhan State Pedagogical University) is a University located in Astrakhan, Russian Federation. Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود According to Vasil'ev, Khazar populations remained behind in Transoxiana under Pecheneg and Oghuz suzerainty, possibly remaining in contact with the main body of their people. The Pechenegs or Patzinaks ( Turkish: Peçenekler, Hungarian: Besenyő, Greek: Patzinaki/Petsenegi or Πατζινάκοι/Πετσενέγοι/Πατζινακίται The Oghuz (variously known as Ghuzz, Guozz, Kuz, Oguz, Oğuz, Okuz, Oufoi, Ouz, Ouzoi, Suzerainty (ˈsjuːzərənti RP or /ˈsjuːzəreɪnti/ RP) (/ˈsuːzərənti/ GA) is a situation in which a Region or people is a
Tribes
The Khazars' tribal structure is not well understood. They were divided between Ak-Khazars ("White Khazars") and Kara-Khazars ("Black Khazars"). The Muslim Geographer al-Istakhri claimed that the White Khazars were strikingly handsome with reddish hair, white skin and blue eyes while the Black Khazars were swarthy verging on deep black as if they were "some kind of Indian". India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country [4] However, many Turkic nations had a similar (political, not racial) division between a "white" ruling warrior caste and a "black" class of commoners; the consensus among mainstream scholars is that Istakhri was himself confused by the name given to the two groups. [5]
Rise
Formation of the Khazar state
Early Khazar history is intimately tied with that of the Göktürk empire, founded when the Ashina clan overthrew the Juan Juan in 552 CE. Göktürks ( Turkish: Gök Türkler) were a Turkic people of ancient Central Asia. Ashina ( Asen, Asena, etc was a tribe and the ruling dynasty of the ancient Turks who rose to prominence in the mid- 6th century when their leader Rouran ( Wade-Giles: Jou-jan) Ruanruan/Ruru ( also known as Tan Tan ( was the name of a confederation of Nomadic tribes on Events By Place Europe Battle of Asfeld: Longobards under king Audoin defeat the Gepids. With the collapse of the Göktürk empire due to internal conflict in the seventh century, the western half of the Turk empire split into a number of tribal confederations, among whom were the Bulgars, led by the Dulo clan, and the Khazars, led by the Ashina clan, the traditional rulers of the Gok Turk empire. The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The Bulgars (also Bolgars or proto-Bulgarians) were a seminomadic people probably of Turkic descent originally from Central Asia, The Dulo Clan or the House of Dulo was the name of the ruling dynasty of the early Bulgars. Ashina ( Asen, Asena, etc was a tribe and the ruling dynasty of the ancient Turks who rose to prominence in the mid- 6th century when their leader By 670, the Khazars had broken the Bulgar confederation, causing various tribal groups to migrate and leaving two remnants of Bulgar rule - Volga Bulgaria, and the Bulgarian khanate [later EMPIRE] on the Danube River. Events By Place Europe On the death of his brother Clotaire Childeric II becomes king of all of the Frankish kingdoms ( Austrasia Volga Bulgaria or Volga-Kama Bolghar, is an historic state that existed between the 7th and 13th centuries around the confluence of The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj
The first significant appearance of the Khazars in history is their aid to the campaign of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius against the Sassanid Persians. Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Khazar ruler Ziebel (sometimes identified as Tong Yabghu Khagan of the West Turks) aided the Byzantines in overrunning Georgia. Tong Yabghu (d 628 (also known as T'ung Yabghu, Ton Yabghu, Tong Yabghu Khagan, Tun Yabghu, and Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between A marriage was even contemplated between Ziebel's son and Heraclius' daughter, but never took place. During these campaigns, the Khazars may have been ruled by Mo-ho-shad and their forces may have been under the command of his son Buri-shad. Mo-ho sad was a Göktürk Ishad or general of the early 7th century CE Buri-shad ("Wolf Prince" was a title of an appointed head of province-type principality in the most-western N [6]
During the 7th and 8th centuries the Khazar fought a series of wars against the Umayyad Caliphate, which was attempting simultaneously to expand its influence into Transoxiana and the Caucasus. The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East The first war was fought in the early 650 and ended with the defeat of an Arab force led by Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah outside the Khazar town of Balanjar, after a battle in which both sides used siege engines on the others' troops. Events By Place Asia The first Chinese Paper money is issued yet these banknotes will not become government-issued Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah ( عبدالرحمن بن ربيعة) was the Arab general of the early Caliphate. Balanjar ( Baranjar, Belenjer, Belendzher) was a medieval city located in the North Caucasus region between the cities of Derbent A siege engine is a device that is designed to Break or circumvent City walls and other Fortifications in Siege warfare.
A number of Russian sources give the name of a Khazar khagan, Irbis, from this period, and describe him as a scion of the Göktürk royal house, the Ashina. Whether Irbis ever existed is open to debate, as is the issue of whether he can be identified with one of the many Göktürk rulers of the same name. Göktürks ( Turkish: Gök Türkler) were a Turkic people of ancient Central Asia.
Several further conflicts erupted in the decades that followed, with Arab attacks and Khazar raids into Kurdistan and Iran. History See also History of the Kurdish people Ancient period See also Hurrians, Guti, Mannaeans, Medes For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. There is evidence from the account of al-Tabari that the Khazars formed a united front with the remnants of the Gok Turks in Transoxiana.
Khazars and Byzantium
Khazar overlordship over most of the Crimea dates back to the late 7th century. Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым In the mid-8th century the rebellious Crimean Goths were put down and their city, Doros (modern Mangup) occupied. Crimean Goths were those Gothic tribes who remained in the lands around the Black Sea, especially in Crimea. Mangup (Мангуп Мангуп Mangup also known as Mangup Kale is a historic fortress in Crimea, located on a plateau about 9 miles due east of Sevastopol A Khazar tudun was resident at Cherson in the 690s, despite the fact that this town was nominally subject to the Byzantine Empire. Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος Chersonesus Old East Slavic: Корсунь Korsun; Херсонес Khersones; also transliterated as Chersonese Events and Trends Zh-yue690年代
They are also known to have been allied with the Byzantine Empire during at least part of the eighth century. In 704/705 Justinian II, exiled in Cherson, escaped into Khazar territory and married Theodora, the sister of the Khagan Busir. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Justinian II re-takes the throne of the Byzantine Empire. Alternate meanings Area code 705; Project 705; Life 705 Events By Place Asia February 20 Justinian II (Ιουστινιανός Β΄ Ioustinianos II; 669&ndashDecember 711 known as Rinotmetos or Rhinotmetus (Ρινότμητος Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος Chersonesus Old East Slavic: Корсунь Korsun; Херсонес Khersones; also transliterated as Chersonese Theodora of Khazaria was the second Empress consort of Justinian II of the Byzantine Empire. Busir or Busir Glavan (in Greek, Ibouzir or Ibousiros Gliabanos) was Khagan of the Khazars in the With the aid of his wife, he escaped from Busir, who was intriguing against him with the usurper Tiberius III, murdering two Khazar officials in the process. Tiberios III or Tiberius III ( Greek: Τιβέριος Γ' (d He fled to Bulgaria, whose Khan Tervel helped him regain the throne. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian Tervel (Тервел also called Tarvel, or Terval, or Terbelis in some Byzantine sources was the ruler of the Bulgars at the beginning The Khazars later provided aid to the rebel general Bardanes, who seized the throne in 711 as Emperor Philippicus. Events By Place Europe April 30 — Ummayad troops led by Tariq ibn Ziyad land at Gibraltar, and begin
The Byzantine emperor Leo III married his son Constantine (later Constantine V Kopronymous) to the Khazar princess Tzitzak (daughter of the Khagan Bihar) as part of the alliance between the two empires. Leo III the Isaurian ' or the Syrian ' ( Greek: Λέων Γ΄ Leōn III) (c Constantine V (718&ndash September 14, 775) was Byzantine emperor from 741 to 775 Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Ε΄ Kōnstantinos This individual is sometimes confused with Byzantine Empress Irene, who was her daughter-in-law Bihar was a Khagan of the Khazars during the 730s. Bihar was the father of Tzitzak, the Khazar princess who married the son of Byzantine Tzitzak, who was baptized as Irene, became famous for her wedding gown, which started a fashion craze in Constantinople for a type of robe (for men) called tzitzakion. Their son Leo (Leo IV) would be better known as "Leo the Khazar". Leo IV the Khazar ( Greek: Λέων Δ΄ Leōn IV) ( January 25, 750 &ndash September 8, 780
Second Khazar-Arab war
From The Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1923
Courtesy of The General Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin
Hostilities broke out again with the Caliphate in the 710s, with raids back and forth across the Caucasus but few decisive battles. Events and Trends 717 - Second Arab siege of Constantinople Zh-yue710年代 The Khazars, led by a prince named Barjik, invaded northwestern Iran and defeated the Umayyad forces at Ardabil in 730, killing the Arab warlord al-Djarrah al-Hakami and briefly occupying the town. Barjik (died 731 was a Khazar Prince who flourished in the late 720s For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Ardabil ( Persian and Azeri: اردبیل also known as Ardebil; Old Persian: Artavil Events By Place Europe Charles Martel defeats the last independent dukedom of the Alamanni, and launches raids on the Saxons Abu `Uqbah al-Djarrah ibn `Abdullah al-Hakami (أبو عقبة الجراح بن عبد الله الحكمي was an Arab Nobleman of the Hakami tribe They were defeated the next year at Mosul, where Barjik directed Khazar forces from a throne mounted with al-Djarrah's severed head, and Barjik was killed. For the village in Azerbaijan see Mosul Azerbaijan. Mosul (الموصل Al Mūṣul, Kurdish: Mosul/Ninawa, Musul Arab armies led first by the Arab prince Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik and then by Marwan ibn Muhammad (later Caliph Marwan II) poured across the Caucasus and eventually (in 737) defeated a Khazar army led by Hazer Tarkhan, briefly occupying Atil itself and possibly forcing the Khagan to convert to Islam. Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik ( مسلمة بن عبد الملك) was a son of the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan. Marwan ibn Muhammad ibn Marwan or Marwan II (688-750 (Arabic مروان بن محمد بن مروان بن الحكم was an Umayyad Caliph who ruled Events By Place Europe Battle of Narbonne: The Frankish army under Charles Martel again defeats the Moors Hazer Tarkhan was a general ( Tarkhan is both a military rank and in some cases a personal name who led a Khazar army of 40000 men in the failed defense of For the small town and municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora see Atil Sonora Atil, also spelled Itil The instability of the Umayyad regime made a permanent occupation impossible; the Arab armies withdrew and Khazar independence was re-asserted. It has been speculated that the adoption of Judaism (which in this theory would have taken place around 740) was part of this re-assertion of independence. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut This is about the year in the Gregorian Calendar Events By Place Europe October 26 — An Earthquake strikes Independence is the Self-government of a Nation, Country, or State by its residents and population or some portion thereof generally exercising
It is worth noting that around 729, Arab sources give the name of the ruler of the Khazars as Parsbit or Barsbek, a woman who appears to have directed military operations against them. Events By Place Europe The Battle of Ravenna is fought between the troops of Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian, and a force Parsbit, also known as Prisbit, was a Khazar noblewoman active in the 730s CE This suggests that women could have very high positions within the Khazar state, possibly even as a stand-in for the khagan.
Although they stopped the Arab expansion into Eastern Europe for some time after these wars, the Khazars were forced to withdraw behind the Caucasus. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. In the ensuing decades they extended their territories from the Caspian Sea in the east (many cultures still call the Caspian Sea "Khazar Sea"; e. The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. g. "Xəzər dənizi" in Azeri, "Hazar Denizi" in Turkish, "Bahr ul-Khazar" in Arabic, "Darya-ye Khazar" in Persian) to the steppe region north of Black Sea in the west, as far west at least as the Dnieper River. The Azerbaijanis are an Ethnic group mainly in the Republic of Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey For the rocket see Dnepr rocket. For other uses see Dnieper (disambiguation.
In 758, the Abbasid Caliph Abdullah al-Mansur ordered Yazid ibn Usayd al-Sulami, one of his nobles and military governor of Armenia, to take a royal Khazar bride and make peace. Events By Place Asia Emperor Junnin succeeds Empress Kōken on the throne of Japan. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Al-Mansur Almanzor or Abu Ja'far Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Mansur (712&ndash775 Arabic: ابو جعفر عبدالله ابن محمد المنصور was the second Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Yazid took home a daughter of Khagan Baghatur, the Khazar leader. Baghatur is an old Altaic term for a Warrior, a military commander or an epic Hero. Unfortunately, the girl died inexplicably, possibly in childbirth. Her attendants returned home, convinced that some Arab faction had poisoned her, and her father was enraged. A Khazar general named Ras Tarkhan invaded what is now northwestern Iran, plundering and raiding for several months. Khazar general of the mid 700s sometimes referred to as As Tarkhan, who led an invasion of Abbasid territories in Armenia, Azerbaijan and northwestern Thereafter relations between the Khazars and the Abbasid Caliphate (whose foreign policies were generally less expansionist than its Umayyad predecessor) became increasingly cordial.
Khazar religion
Turkic shamanism
Originally, the Khazars practiced traditional Turkic shamanism, focused on the sky god Tengri, but were heavily influenced by Confucian ideas imported from China, notably that of the Mandate of Heaven. See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always Tengri is the supreme god of the old Xiongnu, Xianbei, Turkic, Bulgar, Mongolian, Hunnic and Altaic Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Mandate of Heaven (天命 Pīnyīn: Tiānmìng is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers The Ashina clan were considered to be the chosen of Tengri and the kaghan was the incarnation of the favor the sky-god bestowed on the Turks. Ashina ( Asen, Asena, etc was a tribe and the ruling dynasty of the ancient Turks who rose to prominence in the mid- 6th century when their leader A kaghan who failed had clearly lost the god's favor and was typically ritually executed. Human sacrifice is the act of Homicide (the Killing of one or several Human beings in the context of a Religious ritual ( ritual killing Historians have sometimes wondered, only half in jest, whether the Khazar tendency to occasionally execute their rulers on religious grounds led those rulers to seek out other religions.
The Khazars worshipped a number of deities subordinate to Tengri, including the fertility goddess Umay, Kuara, a thunder god, and Erlik, the god of death. A goddess is a Female Deity. Many Cultures have goddesses Often deities are part of a polytheistic system that includes several deities Umay (also known as Eje) is the goddess (or spirit of the earth and fertility in Tengriism. In Turkic Shamanism, the god of Thunder. Also called Kvara. He was held in particular reverence by the early Bulgars. In Turkic Shamanism, the god of death and evil The word “Erlik” derives from “Erklig” which means “strong”
Conversion to Judaism and relations with world Jewry
Jewish communities had existed in the Greek cities of the Black Sea coast since late classical times. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut " Who is a Jew? " (Mihu Yehudi? ?מיהו יהודי is a basic question about Jewish identity. This article focuses on the Etymology of the word Jew. Biblical and Middle Eastern origins The Jews in their land The Jewish ethnonym in Secular Jewish culture embraces several related phenomena above all it is the Culture of secular communities of Jewish people but it can also include Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Although Jews and religious leaders share a core of monotheistic principles Judaism has no formal statement of principles of faith such as a Creed or Catechism In Judaism, the name of God is more than a distinguishing title See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to Nevi'im (נְבִיאִים "Prophets" is the second of the three major sections in the Hebrew Bible, the Tanakh, between the Ketuvim (כְּתוּבִים "writings" is the third and final section of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) after Torah and Nevi'im This article is about commandments in Judaism For the Jewish rite of passage see Bar Mitzvah and Bat Mitzvah Mitzvah ( Hebrew: מצוה See also Mitzvah See also Biblical law in Christianity The 613 Mitzvot ("commandments" (also " 613 Mitzvos The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law For the Gregorian dates of Jewish Holidays see Jewish holidays 2000-2050. Jewish services ( Hebrew: תפלה, tefillah; plural תפלות, tefillos or tefillot; Yinglish: davening Tzedakah ( צדקה) is a Hebrew word commonly translated as charity, though it is based on a root meaning Justice Jewish ethics stands at the intersection of Judaism and the Western philosophical tradition of Ethics. Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. Minhag ( Hebrew: מנהג "custom" pl minhagim) is an accepted tradition or group of traditions in Judaism. Midrash ( Hebrew: מדרש plural midrashim, lit "to repeat" is a Hebrew term referring to the not exact but comparative ( homiletic See also Judaism by country Jewish ethnic divisions refers to a number of distinct communities within the world's ethnically Jewish population Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim ( Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, ˌaʃkəˈnazim sing Sephardi Jews ( Hebrew: ספרדי, Standard Səfardi Tiberian Səp̄arədî; plural Mizrahi Jews or Mizrahim, ( also referred to as Edot HaMizrach (Communities of the East are Jews descended Jewish population refers to the number of Jews in the world Precise figures are difficult to calculate because the definition of " Who is a Jew " remains a Jewish population centers have shifted tremendously over time due to the constant streams of Jewish refugees created by expulsions persecution and officially sanctioned killing This article deals with the practice of Judaism and the living arrangement of Jewish people in the listed countries The History of the Jews in the Land of Israel begins with the ancient Israelites (also known as Hebrews) who settled in the Land of Israel. The history of the Jews in the United States has been influenced by waves of immigration primarily from Europe inspired by the social and economic opportunities of the United Iraqi Jews are Jews born in Iraq or of Iraqi heritage The history of the Jews in Iraq is documented from the time of the Babylonian captivity c Spanish Jews once constituted one of the largest and most prosperous Jewish communities under Muslim and Christian rule in Spain, before they The history of the Jews in Portugal is directly related to Sephardi history a Jewish ethnic division that represents communities who have originated The history of the Jews in Poland dates back over a Millennium. Jews have lived in Germany, or " Ashkenaz " at least since the early 4th century, through both periods of tolerance and spasms of The Jewish community of Bosnia and Herzegovina has a rich and varied history surviving World War II and the Yugoslav Wars, after having The history of the Jews in the Americas dates back to Christopher Columbus and his first cross- Atlantic voyage on August 3, 1492 The history of the Jews of Argentina harks back to the days of the Spanish Inquisition and Portuguese Inquisition when Jews fleeing persecution settled in what A Brazilian Jew ( Portuguese: Judeu Brasileiro) is a Brazilian person of full partial or predominantly Jew ancestry or a Jew-born person residing in Brazil Jewish immigration to Latin America began with seven sailors arriving in Christopher Columbus 's crew Jewish Cubans, Cuban Jews, or Cubans of Jewish heritage, have lived on the island of Cuba for centuries Jews have been present in El Salvador since the early 19th Century. Jews have lived in Mexico since the times of the Inquisition. Jewish Nicaraguans or Nicaraguan Jews (Judío Nicaragüense are Nicaraguans of Jewish Ancestry who were born in or have immigrated to Nicaragua The History of the Jews in Venezuela dates to the middle of the 17th century when records suggest that groups of Marranos (Spanish and Portuguese descendants of baptized The Jewish community in France presently numbers around 600000 according to the World Jewish Congress and 500000 according to the Appel Unifié Juif de France and is The first written records of Jewish settlement in England date from the time of the Norman Conquest, mentioning Jews who arrived with William the Conqueror Canada has the world's fourth-largest Jewish population According to the Canada 2001 Census, there are an estimated 351000 Jews currently living in Canada The history of the Jews in Australia began with the transportation of a number of Jewish Convicts aboard the First Fleet in 1788 when History of the Jews in Hungary concerns the Jews of Hungary and of Hungarian origins Indian Jews are a religious minority of India. Judaism was one of the first non- Dharmic religions to arrive in India in recorded history Jews {ref|name|§}} have lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) for more than 2400 years There have been organized Jewish communities in Greece for more than two thousand years Since Biblical times the Jewish people have had close ties with Africa beginning with Abraham 's sojourns in Egypt, and later the Israelite captivity under The beginnings of Jewish history in Iran date back to late biblical times Jews and Judaism in China' have had a long history Jewish settlers are documented in China as early as the 7th or 8th century CE, but may The history of Jews in the territory of the present-day Republic of Macedonia began in Roman times when Jews first arrived in the region in the The history of Jews in Romania concerns the Jews of Romania and of Romanian origins from their first mention on what is nowadays Romanian territory By type List of Jewish historians List of Jewish scientists and philosophers List of Jewish nobility Crypto-Judaism is the secret adherence to Judaism while publicly professing to be of another faith people who practice crypto-Judaism are referred to as "crypto-Jews" Rabbi (pronunciation, although in English usually) in Judaism, means a religious ‘teacher’ or more literally ‘my great one’ when addressing any master Orthodox Judaism is the formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized Conservative Judaism (also known as Masorti Judaism in Israel and Europe) is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions Reconstructionist Judaism is a modern American-based Jewish movement based on the ideas of the late Mordecai Kaplan (1881 – 1983 Karaite Judaism or Karaism (ˈkærəˌaɪt ˈkærəˌɪzəm) is a Jewish movement NOTE The word sect should not be used without defining it first and Humanistic Judaism is a movement within Judaism that emphasizes Jewish culture and history—rather than belief in God—as the sources of Jewish identity Jewish Renewal is a recent movement in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with mystical, Hasidic, Musical and Alternative Judaism or Agnostic Judaism refers to a variety of groups whose members while identifying as Jews in some fashion nevertheless do not practice Rabbinical The Jewish languages are a set of Languages that developed in various Jewish communities around the world more notably in Europe, West Asia, and Yiddish (yi [[wiktייִדיש ייִדיש]] yidish or yi [[wiktאידיש אידיש]] idish, literally "Jewish" is a nonterritorial High Judæo-Persian dialects are a subgroup of Persian dialects spoken by the Jews of Iran Judæo-Aramaic is a collective term used to describe several Hebrew -influenced Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic Languages History The Judæo-Arabic languages are a collection of Arabic dialects spoken by Jews living or formerly living in the Arab world; the term also refers to Jewish history is the History of the Jewish people, faith, and culture. This is a timeline of the development of Judaism and the Jewish people. Jewish leadership has evolved over time Since the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE there has been no single body that has a leadership The history of Ancient Israel and Judah is known to us from classical sources including Judaism 's Tanakh or Hebrew Bible (known Etymology The Hebrew name given in Scripture for the building is Beit HaMikdash or "The Holy House" and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name The Babylonian captivity, Babylonian exile, is the name typically given to the deportation and exile of the Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah to Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the See also Religious significance of Jerusalem Since the 10th century BCE Jerusalem in Judaism has been the holiest city, focus and spiritual centre of This is a partial timeline of major events in the History of Jerusalem:; 1800 BCE: The Jebusites build the wall Jebus ( Jerusalem The Hasmoneans (/hæzməˡniən/ חשמונאים Hashmonaiym, Audio were the ruling dynasty of the Hasmonean Kingdom ( 140 &ndash 37 BCE The Sanhedrin (סנהדרין συνέδριον ''synedrion'', "sitting together" hence " assembly " or "council" was an assembly Schisms among the Jews are cultural as well as religious They have happened as a product of historical accident geography and Theology. The word Pharisees ( lat. pharisæ|us, - i) comes from the Hebrew פרושים perushim from פרוש parush, meaning "separated" This article discusses the traditional views of the two religions and may not be applicable all adherents of each The historical interaction of Judaism and Islam started in the 7th century CE with the origin and spread of Islam in the Arabian peninsula. The Jewish diaspora ( Hebrew: Tefutzah, "scattered" or Galut גלות "exile" Yiddish: tfutses) the presence The History of Jews in the Middle Ages (approximately 500 CE to 1750 CE can be divided into two categories Also not to be confused with Subbotniks or Sabbatarians. Note Most Sabbateans during and after Sabbatai Zevi were Jews Hasidic Judaism (also Chasidic, etc from the Hebrew: he '''''חסידות''''', Chassidus, meaning "piety" from the Hebrew Haskalah ( Hebrew: השכלה "enlightenment" "education" from sekhel " Intellect " "mind") the Jewish Enlightenment Jewish question Jewish emancipation was the abolition of discriminatory laws as applied especially to Jews in Europe in the nineteenth century the recognition of Jews The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as Aliyah ( refers to Jewish Immigration to the Land of Israel (and since its establishment in 1948 the State of Israel) For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The State of Israel (מדינת ישראל Medinat Yisrael) was established in 1948 after nearly two thousand For other uses see Israel (disambiguation The Land of Israel ( Hebrew: אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל Eretz Yisrael) is Note This article is about the movement See Orthodox outreach, Reform outreach, and Conservative outreach for more information about the rabbis See also Antisemitism, History of antisemitism, New antisemitism The persecution of Jews has occurred many times in Jewish history. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility The history of antisemitism, hostile actions or discrimination against Jews as a religious or ethnic group goes back many centuries Jewish political movements refer to the organized efforts of Jews to build their own political parties or otherwise represent their interest in politics outside of History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the Labor Zionism ( Labour Zionism, ציונות סוציאליסטית tsionut sotsialistit) can be described as the major stream of the Left wing of the Revisionist Zionism is a nationalist faction within the Zionist movement Religious Zionism, or the Religious Zionist Movement (a branch of which is also called Mizrachi) is an ideology that combines Zionism and religious The General Zionists (ציונים כלליים Tzionim Klalim) were centrists within the Zionist movement and a political party in Israel World Agudath Israel (The World Jewish Union usually known as the Aguda, was established in the early twentieth century as the political arm of Ashkenazi Torah Judaism Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious legal and social status of women within Judaism and to open up new opportunities for religious experience Politics of Israel takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic Republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Israel is PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey Chersonesos, Sudak, Kerch and other Crimean cities possessed Jewish communities, as did Gorgippia, and Samkarsh / Tmutarakan was said to have had a Jewish majority as early as the 670s. Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος Chersonesus Old East Slavic: Корсунь Korsun; Херсонес Khersones; also transliterated as Chersonese Sudak or Sudaq (Sudaq Судак is a small historic town located in Crimea, Ukraine situated to the west of Feodosiya (the nearest railway Kerch (Керч Керчь Keriç Old East Slavic: Кърчевъ Ancient Greek: Pantikapaion) is a city (2001 pop 157000 on the Kerch Peninsula Anapa (Ана́паАнапэ originally is a seaport for the Natkhuay tribe Adyghe_people, and now a town in Krasnodar Krai, Russia, Tmutarakan (Тмутаракань is an ancient city that controlled the Cimmerian Bosporus, the passage from the Black Sea to the Sea of Azov. Tmutarakan (Тмутаракань is an ancient city that controlled the Cimmerian Bosporus, the passage from the Black Sea to the Sea of Azov. Events and Trends 674–677 — Arab army first besieges Constantinople Zh-yue670年代 Jews fled from Byzantium to Khazaria as a consequence of persecution under Heraclius, Justinian II, Leo III, and Romanos I. Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East Justinian II (Ιουστινιανός Β΄ Ioustinianos II; 669&ndashDecember 711 known as Rinotmetos or Rhinotmetus (Ρινότμητος Leo III the Isaurian ' or the Syrian ' ( Greek: Λέων Γ΄ Leōn III) (c Romanos I Lekapenos or Romanus I Lecapenus ( Greek: Ρωμανός Α΄ Λακαπήνος Rōmanos I Lakapēnos; Րոմանոս Ա Ղակապենոս [7] These were joined by other Jews fleeing from Sassanid Persia (particularly during the Mazdak revolts),[8] and, later, the Islamic world. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Mazdak (in Persian مزدک (died c 524 or 528 was a proto- socialist Persian reformer who gained influence under the reign of the Sassanian For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Jewish merchants such as the Radhanites regularly traded in Khazar territory, and may have wielded significant economic and political influence. The Radhanites (also Radanites, Hebrew sing רדהני Radhani, pl Though their origins and history are somewhat unclear, the Mountain Jews also lived in or near Khazar territory and may have been allied with or subject to Khazar overlordship; it is conceivable that they too played a role in the conversion. Mountain Jews, Juvuro, Juhuro, are Jews of the eastern Caucasus, mainly of Azerbaijan and Dagestan.
At some point in the last decades of the 8th century or the early 9th century, the Khazar royalty and nobility converted to Judaism, and part of the general population followed. The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. A royal family is the extended family of a monarch. Generally the head of a royal family is a king or queen regnant Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut [9] The extent of the conversion is debated. Ibn al-Faqih reported in the 10th century that "all the Khazars are Jews. Ibn al-Faqih al-Hamadhani (ابن الفقيه الهمذاني was a 10th century Persian Historian and Geographer, famous for his Mukhtasar " Notwithstanding this statement, some scholars believe that only the upper classes converted to Judaism; there is some support for this in contemporary Muslim texts. [10] However, recent archeological excavations have uncovered widespread shifts in burial practices. Around the mid-800s burials in Khazaria began to take on a decidedly Jewish flavor. Grave goods disappeared almost altogether. Judging by interment evidence, by 950 Judaism had become widespread among all classes of Khazar society. Events By Place Europe Duke Boleslav I of Bohemia makes peace with Otto I.
Essays in the Kuzari, written by Yehuda Halevi, detail a moral liturgical reason for the conversion which some consider a moral tale. The Kuzari is one of most famous works of the medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet Rabbi Yehuda Halevi. Yehuda Halevi, in full Yehuda ben Shemuel Ha-Levi, also Judah Halevi, or Judah ben Samuel Halevi ( Hebrew: יהודה הלוי) (c Some researchers have suggested part of the reason for this mass conversion was political expediency to maintain a degree of neutrality: the Khazar empire was between growing populations, Muslims to the east and Christians to the west. For other uses of Neutral and Neutrality see Neutral A neutral country takes no side in a War between other parties A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Both religions recognized Judaism as a forebear and worthy of some respect. The exact date of the conversion is hotly contested. It may have occurred as early as 740 or as late as the mid-800s. Recently discovered numismatic evidence suggests that Judaism was the established state religion by c. Numismatics (numisma nomisma "coin" from the νομίζειν nomízein, "to use according to law" is the study or collection of Currency 830, and though St. Cyril (who visited Khazaria in 861) did not identify the Khazars as Jews, the khagan of that period, Zachariah, had a biblical Hebrew name. Events By Place Europe Earliest date of composition for the Historia Brittonum, attributed to Nennius, and known for Saints Cyril and Methodius (Κύριλλος και Μεθόδιος Old Church Slavonic: Кѷриллъ и Меѳодїи) were two Byzantine Greek brothers born Events By Place Europe Carloman revolts against his father Louis the German. Zachary Zachariah St Zacharias and various other spellings of the name redirect here Some medieval sources give the name of the rabbi who oversaw the conversion of the Khazars as Isaac Sangari or Yitzhak ha-Sangari. Rabbi (pronunciation, although in English usually) in Judaism, means a religious ‘teacher’ or more literally ‘my great one’ when addressing any master Yitzhak ha-Sangari is the name of the rabbi who converted the Khazars to Judaism according to medieval Jewish sources Yitzhak ha-Sangari is the name of the rabbi who converted the Khazars to Judaism according to medieval Jewish sources
The first Jewish Khazar king was named Bulan which means "elk", though some sources give him the Hebrew name Sabriel. Bulan was a Khazar king who led the conversion of the Khazars to Judaism. The moose (North America or elk (Europe Alces alces, is the largest extant Species in the Deer family. This article is about the book For the character Sabriel herself see Sabriel (character. A later king, Obadiah, strengthened Judaism, inviting rabbis into the kingdom and built synagogues. Obadiah ( Heb עבדיה) was the name of a Khazar ruler of the late eighth or early ninth century. Rabbi (pronunciation, although in English usually) in Judaism, means a religious ‘teacher’ or more literally ‘my great one’ when addressing any master A synagogue (from Greek: grc συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, "assembly" he בית כנסת beit knesset, "house of Jewish figures such as Saadia Gaon made positive references to the Khazars, and they are excoriated in contemporary Karaite writings as "bastards"; it is therefore unlikely that they adopted Karaism as some (such as Avraham Firkovich) have proposed. Karaite Judaism or Karaism (ˈkærəˌaɪt ˈkærəˌɪzəm) is a Jewish movement NOTE The word sect should not be used without defining it first and Abraham (Avraham ben Samuel Firkovich ( Hebrew אברהם בן שמואל - Avraham ben Shmuel; Crimean Karaim: Аврагъам Фиркович
According to the Schechter Letter, early Khazar Judaism was centered on a tabernacle similar to that mentioned in the Book of Exodus. The "Schechter Letter" (also called the "Cambridge Document") was discovered in the Cairo Geniza by Solomon Schechter. The Tabernacle is known in Hebrew as the Mishkan ( משכן "Residence" or "Dwelling Place" Exodus ( Greek: έξοδος eksodos = "departure" is the second book of the Jewish Torah and of the Christian Old Testament. Archaeologists at Rostov-on-Don have tentatively identified a folding altar unearthed at Khumar as part of such a construct. Rostov-on-Don (Росто́в-на-Дону́ Rostov-na-Donu rɐ'stof nə dɐ'nu is the city and the administrative center of Rostov Oblast and the Khumarinskoye gorodishche (Russian Хумаринское городище or Khumar is a ruined medieval fortress on the top of Mount Kalezh above the Kuban Gorge
The Khazars enjoyed close relations with the Jews of the Levant and Persia. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Persian Jews, for example, hoped that the Khazars might succeed in conquering the Caliphate. [11] The high esteem in which the Khazars were held among the Jews of the Orient may be seen in the application to them, in an Arabic commentary on Isaiah ascribed by some to Saadia Gaon, and by others to Benjamin Nahawandi, of Isaiah 48:14: "The Lord hath loved him. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Isaiah (; Greek:, Ēsaiās; Arabic: اشعیاء, Ash-ee-yaa; "Salvation of/is YHWH " is Benjamin Nahawandi or Benjamin ben Moses or Benyamin ben Moshe al-Nahawendi was one of the greatest of the Karaite scholars of the early Middle Ages Isaiah (; Greek:, Ēsaiās; Arabic: اشعیاء, Ash-ee-yaa; "Salvation of/is YHWH " is " "This," says the commentary, "refers to the Khazars, who will go and destroy Babel" (i. Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq e. , Babylonia), a name used to designate the country of the Arabs. Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq [12] From the Khazar Correspondence it is apparent that two Spanish Jews, Judah ben Meir ben Nathan and Joseph Gagris, had succeeded in settling in the land of the Khazars. The Khazar Correspondence was an exchange of letters in the 950s or 960s between Hasdai ibn Shaprut, foreign secretary to the Caliph of Cordoba, and Saadia, who had a fair knowledge of the kingdom of the Khazars, mentions a certain Isaac ben Abraham who had removed from Sura to Khazaria. Sura was a city in the southern part of ancient Babylonia, located west of the Euphrates River. [13]
Likewise, the Khazar rulers viewed themselves as the protectors of international Jewry, and corresponded with foreign Jewish leaders (the letters exchanged between the Khazar ruler Joseph and the Spanish rabbi Hasdai ibn Shaprut have been preserved). Jewish population refers to the number of Jews in the world Precise figures are difficult to calculate because the definition of " Who is a Jew " remains a The Khazar Correspondence was an exchange of letters in the 950s or 960s between Hasdai ibn Shaprut, foreign secretary to the Caliph of Cordoba, and Joseph ben Aaron was king of the Khazars during the 950s and 960s Hasdai (Abu Yusuf ben Yitzhak ben Ezra ibn Shaprut ( Hebrew: חסדאי אבן שפרוט) born about 915 at Jaén; died 970 or 990 at Córdoba They were known to retaliate against Muslim or Christian interests in Khazaria for persecution of Jews abroad. Ibn Fadlan relates that around 920 the Khazar ruler received information that Muslims had destroyed a synagogue in the land of Babung, in Iran; he gave orders that the minaret of the mosque in his capital should be broken off, and the muezzin executed. Ahmad Ibn Fadlān ibn al-Abbās ibn Rašīd ibn Hammād (أحمد بن فضلان بن العباس بن رشيد بن حماد was a 10th century Arab Muslim 920 AD was a year in the 10th century Events By Place Africa The golden age of the Ghana Empire begins in Africa. A region referred to by Ibn Fadlan, probably in Iran. Its location is unknown For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. For the mountain formation see Minarets (California. Minarets ( Arabic manara (lighthouse منارة but more usually مئذنة A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger The muezzin (via Turkish müezzin from Arabic: مؤذن mu’aḏḏin) is a chosen person at the He further declared that he would have destroyed the mosque entirely had he not been afraid that the Muslims would in turn destroy all the synagogues in their lands. Similarly, during the persecutions of Byzantine Jews under Romanos I, the Khazar government retaliated by attacking Byzantine interests in the Crimea. Romanos I Lekapenos or Romanus I Lecapenus ( Greek: Ρωμανός Α΄ Λακαπήνος Rōmanos I Lakapēnos; Րոմանոս Ա Ղակապենոս
The theory that the majority of Ashkenazic Jews are the descendants of the non-Semitic converted Khazars was advocated by various racial theorists[14][15] and antisemitic sources[16][17][15][18] in the 20th century, especially following the publication of Arthur Koestler's The Thirteenth Tribe. Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim ( Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, ˌaʃkəˈnazim sing Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility The Thirteenth Tribe (1976 is a book by Arthur Koestler. It advances the controversial thesis that North/East European Jews and their descendants or Ashkenazim Despite recent genetic evidence to the contrary,[19] and a lack of any real mainstream scholarly support, this belief is still popular among groups such as the Christian Identity Movement, Black Hebrews, British Israelitists and others (particularly Arabs[20][21][22]) who claim that they, rather than Jews, are the true descendants of the Israelites, or who seek to usurp the connection between Ashkenazi Jews and Israel in favor of their own. For the general identity of an individual with certain core essential religious doctrines see Christianity. Black Hebrew Israelites (also Black Hebrews, African Hebrew Israelites, and Hebrew Israelites) are groups of people of Black African ancestry British Israelism (sometimes called Anglo-Israelism) is the belief that many early Britons, Europeans and/or their royal families were direct lineal descendants For more detail on this controversy, see below. "Kazar" redirects here for the Marvel Comics character see Ka-Zar; for the village in Azerbaijan see Xəzər.
Other religions
Besides Judaism, other religions probably practiced in areas ruled by the Khazars included Greek Orthodox, Nestorian, and Monophysite Christianity, Zoroastrianism as well as Norse, Finnic, and Slavic cults. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Nestorius Nestorius (c 386 &ndashc 451) was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia in Antioch in Syria (modern Monophysitism (from the Greek monos meaning 'one alone' and physis meaning 'nature' or Monophysiticism is the Christological position that Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Germanic paganism refers to the religious beliefs of the Germanic peoples preceding Christianization. Finnish paganism was the indigenous pagan Religion in present-day Finland and Karelia prior to Christianization. Slavic mythology is the Mythological aspect of the Religion that was practised by the ancient Slavs. The Khazar government tolerated a wide array of religious practices within the Khaganate. Many Khazars reportedly were converts to Christianity and Islam. (See "Judiciary", below. )
A Greek Orthodox bishop was resident at Atil and was subject to the authority of the Metropolitan of Doros. The Greek Orthodox Church ( Greek: Ἑλληνορθόδοξη Ἐκκλησία Hellēnorthódoxē Ekklēsía) is formed by several autocephalous churches Mangup (Мангуп Мангуп Mangup also known as Mangup Kale is a historic fortress in Crimea, located on a plateau about 9 miles due east of Sevastopol The "apostle of the Slavs", Saint Cyril, is said to have attempted the conversion of Khazars without enduring results. Saints Cyril and Methodius (Κύριλλος και Μεθόδιος Old Church Slavonic: Кѷриллъ и Меѳодїи) were two Byzantine Greek brothers born Khazaran had a sizable Muslim quarter with a number of mosques. A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger A Muslim officer, the khazz, represented the Muslim community in the royal court. Khazz is the Ethnarch of the Muslim community in Khazaria. The Khazz resided in the city of Khazaran.
Government
Khazar kingship
Khazar kingship was divided between the khagan and the Bek or Khagan Bek. For other titles related to and uses of Khan, see that article Origin The title Khagan Bek is the title used by the Bek (generalissimo of the Khazars. Contemporary Arab historians related that the Khagan was purely a spiritual ruler or figurehead with limited powers, while the Bek was responsible for administration and military affairs.
Both the Khagan and the Khagan Bek lived in Itil. The Khagan's palace, according to Arab sources, was on an island in the Volga River. He was reported to have 25 wives, each the daughter of a client ruler; this may, however, have been an exaggeration.
In the Khazar Correspondence, King Joseph identifies himself as the ruler of the Khazars and makes no reference to a colleague. The Khazar Correspondence was an exchange of letters in the 950s or 960s between Hasdai ibn Shaprut, foreign secretary to the Caliph of Cordoba, and Joseph ben Aaron was king of the Khazars during the 950s and 960s It has been disputed whether Joseph was a Khagan or a Bek; his description of his military campaigns make the latter probable. A third option is that by the time of the Correspondence (c. 950-960) the Khazars had merged the two positions into a single ruler, or that the Beks had somehow supplanted the Khagans or vice versa. Events By Place Europe Edgar the Peaceable is crowned King of England.
The Khazar dual kingship may have influenced other people; power was similarly divided among the early Hungarian people between the sacral king, or kende, and the military king, or gyula. Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. The kende (or kündü) was one of the kings of the dual-monarchy of the early Magyars, along with the Gyula or war-chief Gyula is a Hungarian male given name It was adopted as a Given name sometime after the establishment of the Kingdom of Hungary. Similarly, according to Ibn Fadlan, the early Oghuz Turks had a warlord, the Kudarkin, who was subordinate to the reigning yabghu. Ahmad Ibn Fadlān ibn al-Abbās ibn Rašīd ibn Hammād (أحمد بن فضلان بن العباس بن رشيد بن حماد was a 10th century Arab Muslim The Oghuz (variously known as Ghuzz, Guozz, Kuz, Oguz, Oğuz, Okuz, Oufoi, Ouz, Ouzoi, Kudarkin was the title of a high-ranking official among the Oghuz Turks. Yabgu (literally "pioneer" "guide" was a state office in the early Turkic states roughly equivalent to Viceroy.
Army
Khazar armies were led by the Khagan Bek and commanded by subordinate officers known as tarkhans. Khagan Bek is the title used by the Bek (generalissimo of the Khazars. An officer is a member of an armed force who holds a position of authority This article is about Tarkhan an ancient Turkic title For other uses see Tarkan (disambiguation Tarkhan, Tarkhaan, or Tarqan A famous tarkhan referred to in Arab sources as Ras or As Tarkhan led an invasion of Armenia in 758. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Khazar general of the mid 700s sometimes referred to as As Tarkhan, who led an invasion of Abbasid territories in Armenia, Azerbaijan and northwestern Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Events By Place Asia Emperor Junnin succeeds Empress Kōken on the throne of Japan. The army included regiments of Muslim auxiliaries known as Arsiyah, of Khwarezmian or Alan extraction, who were quite influential. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Arsiyah, sometimes referred to as al-Arsiyya or As-yah was the name used for a group of Muslim mercenaries in the service of the Khwarezm were a series of States centered on the Amu Darya River delta of the The Alans or Alani (occasionally but more rarely termed Alauni or Halani) were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people These regiments were exempt from campaigning against their fellow Muslims. Early Russian sources sometimes referred to the city of Khazaran (across the Volga River from Atil) as Khvalisy and the Khazar (Caspian) sea as Khvaliskoye. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Khazaran was a city in the Khazar kingdom, located on the eastern bank of the lower Volga River. For the small town and municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora see Atil Sonora Atil, also spelled Itil The Khvalisy were a tribe mentioned in old Russian chronicles The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. The Old Russian name for the Caspian Sea. Some scholars believe that it refers to Khwarazmians who formed a part of the Khazar army (the Arsiyah) According to some scholars such as Omeljan Pritsak, these terms were East Slavic versions of "Khwarezmian" and referred to these mercenaries. Omeljan Pritsak ( 7 April 1919, Luka Sambir County eastern Galicia – May 29, 2006, Boston MA) was the first Mykhailo The East Slavic languages constitute one of three regional subgroups of Slavic languages, currently spoken in Eastern Europe. A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by
In addition to the Bek's standing army, the Khazars could call upon tribal levies in times of danger and were often joined by auxiliaries from subject nations. The term auxiliaries comes from the Latin auxilia (help It is generally used to describe people employed in an organisation often pre-existing as a Reserve
Other officials
Settlements were governed by administrative officials known as tuduns. A tudun was a governor resident in a town or other settlement in Ancient Bulgarian/Avar/Gokturk empires particularly those of the Bulgars and the Khazars. In some cases (such as the Byzantine settlements in southern Crimea), a tudun would be appointed for a town nominally within another polity's sphere of influence. Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым A sphere of influence ( SOI) is an area or region over which an organization or state exerts some kind of indirect cultural economic military or political domination
Other officials in the Khazar government included dignitaries referred to by ibn Fadlan as Jawyshyghr and Kundur, but their responsibilities are unknown. Ahmad Ibn Fadlān ibn al-Abbās ibn Rašīd ibn Hammād (أحمد بن فضلان بن العباس بن رشيد بن حماد was a 10th century Arab Muslim According to Ibn Fadlan, the Jawyshyghr was an official in the Khazar government under the command of the Khagan Bek. According to Ibn Fadlan, the Kündür was an official in the Khazar government under the command of the Khagan Bek.
Judiciary
Muslim sources report that the Khazar supreme court consisted of two Jews, two Christians, two Muslims, and a "heathen" (whether this is a Turkic shaman or a priest of Slavic or Norse religion is unclear), and a citizen had the right to be judged according to the laws of his religion. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Some have argued that this configuration is unlikely, as a Beit Din, or rabbinical court, requires three members. It is therefore possible that as practitioners of the state religion, the Jews had three judges on the Supreme Court rather than two, and that the Muslim sources were attempting to downplay their influence. A Muslim or Christian court can function with only one or two judges. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth
Economic position
Trade
The Khazars occupied a prime trade nexus. Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. Goods from western Europe travelled east to Central Asia and China and vice versa, and the Muslim world could only interact with northern Europe via Khazar intermediaries. The Radhanites, a guild of medieval Jewish merchants, had a trade route that ran through Khazaria, and may have been instrumental in the Khazars' conversion to Judaism. The Radhanites (also Radanites, Hebrew sing רדהני Radhani, pl
No Khazar paid taxes to the central government. Revenue came from a 10% levy on goods transiting through the region, and from tribute paid by subject nations. The Khazars exported honey, furs, wool, millet and other cereals, fish, and slaves. Honey is a sweet and Viscous fluid produced by Honey bees (and some other species and derived from the nectar of Flowers According to the Fur is a body hair of any non-human Mammal, also known as the Pelage. Wool is the fiber derived from the specialized skin cells called follicles of animals in the Caprinae family principally sheep, but the hair of certain species The millets are a group of small- Seeded Species of Cereal crops or grains widely grown around the world for Food and Fodder Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two Slavery is a social-economic system under which certain persons — known as slaves — are deprived of personal freedom and compelled to perform labour or services D. M. Dunlop and Artamanov asserted that the Khazars produced no material goods themselves, living solely on trade. This theory has been refuted by discoveries over the last half-century, which include pottery and glass factories.
Khazar coinage
- See also: Numismatics
The Khazars are known to have minted silver coins, called Yarmaqs. Numismatics (numisma nomisma "coin" from the νομίζειν nomízein, "to use according to law" is the study or collection of Currency Yarmaqs were Silver Coins minted in the Khazar Khaganate and other Turkic polities in medieval Eurasia. Many of these were imitations of Arab dirhems with corrupted Arabic letters. Dirham or dirhem (درهم is a unit of currency in several Arab nations and formerly the related unit of mass (the Ottoman dram) in the Ottoman Empire Coins of the Caliphate were in widespread use due to their reliable silver content. Merchants from as far away as China, England, and Scandinavia accepted them regardless of their inability to read the Arab writing. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well Thus issuing imitation dirhems was a way to ensure acceptance of Khazar coinage in foreign lands.
Some surviving examples bear the legend "Ard al-Khazar" (Arabic for "land of the Khazars"). In 1999 a hoard of silver coins was discovered on the property of the Spillings farm in the Swedish island of Gotland. Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. is a county, province and municipality of Sweden and the largest Island in the Baltic Sea. Among the coins were several dated 837/8 CE and bearing the legend, in Arabic script, "Moses is the Prophet of God" (a modification of the Muslim coin inscription "Muhammad is the Prophet of God"). The Arabic alphabet is the script used for writing several languages of Asia and Africa such as Arabic, Persian, and Urdu. Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics [24] In "Creating Khazar Identity through Coins", Roman Kovalev postulated that these dirhems were a special commemorative issue celebrating the adoption of Judaism by the Khazar ruler Bulan. Commemorative coins are coins that were issued to commemorate some particular event or issue [25]
Extent of influence
The Khazar Khaganate was, at its height, an immensely powerful state. The Khazar heartland was on the lower Volga and the Caspian coast as far south as Derbent. Derbent (Дербе́нт Azeri: Dərbənd; Lezgian: Дербент Avar: Дербенд; Persian: دربند Darband In addition, from the late 600s the Khazars controlled most of the Crimea and the northeast littoral of the Black Sea. Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey By 800 Khazar holdings included most of the Pontic steppe as far west as the Dneiper and as far east as the Aral Sea (some Turkic history atlases show the Khazar sphere of influence extending well east of the Aral). During the Khazar-Arab war of the early 700s, some Khazars evacuated to the Ural foothills, and some settlements may have remained. Riphean redirects here For the time period see Riphean stage The Ural Mountains (Ура́льские го́ры Uralskiye
Khazar towns
Khazar towns included:
- Along the Caspian coast and Volga delta:
- In the Caucasus:
- In Crimea and Taman region:
- Kerch (also called Bospor); Theodosia; Güzliev (modern Eupatoria); Samkarsh (also called Tmutarakan, Tamatarkha); Sudak (also called Sugdaia)
- In the Don valley:
- A number of Khazar settlements have been discovered in the Mayaki-Saltovo region. For the small town and municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora see Atil Sonora Atil, also spelled Itil Khazaran was a city in the Khazar kingdom, located on the eastern bank of the lower Volga River. Samandar (also Semender) was a city in Khazaria on the western shore of the Caspian Sea, south of the city of Atil, in the North Caucasus The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East Balanjar ( Baranjar, Belenjer, Belendzher) was a medieval city located in the North Caucasus region between the cities of Derbent Kazarki was a Khazar settlement It was located west of the Volga River and north of Sarkel, probably in the present-day Penza Oblast. Sambalut was a Khazar settlement in the north Caucasus (probably in modern Dagestan) from roughly the 7th through the 10th centuries CE Samiran was a Khazar settlement in the Caucasus from roughly the 7th through the 10th centuries CE Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым Kerch (Керч Керчь Keriç Old East Slavic: Кърчевъ Ancient Greek: Pantikapaion) is a city (2001 pop 157000 on the Kerch Peninsula For the lake Kerkinitis see Kerkini Eupatoria or Yevpatoria (Євпаторія Евпатория Kezlev Eupatoria Kerkinitis is a city in Crimea Tmutarakan (Тмутаракань is an ancient city that controlled the Cimmerian Bosporus, the passage from the Black Sea to the Sea of Azov. Tmutarakan (Тмутаракань is an ancient city that controlled the Cimmerian Bosporus, the passage from the Black Sea to the Sea of Azov. Sudak or Sudaq (Sudaq Судак is a small historic town located in Crimea, Ukraine situated to the west of Feodosiya (the nearest railway The Don (Дон is one of the major rivers of Russia. It rises in the town of Novomoskovsk 60 Kilometres southeast from Tula, southeast Sarkel (or Sharkil, literally white house in Khazar language) was a large limestone-and-brick fortress built by the Khazars with Byzantine Saltovo-Mayaki is the name given by Archaeologists to the early medieval culture of the Pontic steppe region roughly between the Don and the Dnieper On the Dnieper, the Khazars founded a settlement called Sambat, which was part of what would become the city of Kiev. For the rocket see Dnepr rocket. For other uses see Dnieper (disambiguation. Kiev, also known as Kyiv ( Ukrainian:, Kyiv, ˈkɪjiw Russian:, Kiyev; see also Cities' alternative names) is the Chernihiv is also thought to have started as a Khazar settlement. Chernihiv, also referred to as Chernigov (Чернігів Чернигов Чарнігаў is a historic city in northern Ukraine.
Tributary and subject nations
Many nations were tributaries of the Khazars. A client king subject to Khazar overlordship was called an "Elteber". Client state is one of several terms used to describe the subordination of one state to a more powerful state in international affairs In the hierarchy of the Göktürk and Khazar empires an Elteber was the Client king of an autonomous but tributary Tribe or At various times, Khazar vassals included:
Pontic steppes, Crimea and Turkestan
The Pechenegs ; the Oghuz; the Crimean Goths; the Crimean Huns (Onogurs?); the early Magyars
Caucasus
Georgia; Abkhazia; various Armenian principalities; Arran; the North Caucasian Huns; Lazica; the Caucasian Avars; the Kassogs; and the Lezgins. The Pechenegs or Patzinaks ( Turkish: Peçenekler, Hungarian: Besenyő, Greek: Patzinaki/Petsenegi or Πατζινάκοι/Πετσενέγοι/Πατζινακίται The Oghuz (variously known as Ghuzz, Guozz, Kuz, Oguz, Oğuz, Okuz, Oufoi, Ouz, Ouzoi, Crimean Goths were those Gothic tribes who remained in the lands around the Black Sea, especially in Crimea. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy The Onogurs were a horde of Equestrian nomads that wandered the Eurasian plains in the 5th – 8th centuries. Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Abkhazia (Аҧсны Apsny აფხაზეთი Apkhazeti or Abkhazeti Абха́зия Abhazia) is a De facto Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Arran ( also known as Aran, Ardhan (in Parthian) Al-Ran (in Arabic) including the highland and lowland Karabakh) The North Caucasian Huns were a branch of the Huns that established a Polity in Daghestan in the 500s and 600s CE Avars or Caucasian Avars are a modern people of Caucasus, mainly of Dagestan, in which they are the predominant group Circassians is a term derived from the Turkic Cherkess ( Çerkes) and is not the self-designation of any people The Lezgins (other spellings Lezgin, Lezgi, Lezgis, Lezgs, and Lezgians) ( Lezgian: лезгияр Russian
Upper Don and Dneiper
Various East Slavic tribes such as the Derevlians and the Vyatichs; various early Rus' polities
Volga
Volga Bulgaria; the Burtas; various Finno-Ugrian forest tribes such as the Mordvins and Ob-Ugrians; the Bashkir; the Barsils
Decline and fall
The ninth century is sometimes known as the Pax Khazarica, a period of Khazar hegemony over the Pontic steppe that allowed trade to flourish and facilitated trans-Eurasian contacts. The Drevlians ( Деревляни, Derevliany in Ukrainian; Древляне, Drevlyane in Russian) were a Tribe The Vyatichs or more properly Vyatichi or Viatichi (вя́тичи were a Tribe of Early East Slavs who inhabited a part of the Oka Rus’ (Русь rusʲ Русичи Русы are an ancient people whose name survives in the cognates Russians, Rusyns, and Ruthenians Volga Bulgaria or Volga-Kama Bolghar, is an historic state that existed between the 7th and 13th centuries around the confluence of Burtas or Bortas (plural Bortaslar) were a tribe of uncertain ethnolinguistic affiliation inhabiting the Steppe region north of the Caspian Sea Finno-Ugric (ˌfɪnoʊˈjuːgɹɪk is a grouping of languages in the Uralic language family comprising Finnish, Estonian, Hungarian and The Mordvins (also Mordva, Mordvinians) are a people who speak languages of the Volga-Finnic (Finno-Volgaic branch of the Finno-Ugric language The Baysi / Barsils were a semi- Nomadic Eurasian tribe probably of Turkic linguistic affiliation and possibly identical with the Bagrasik. Pax Khazarica ( Latin for "Khazar Peace" is a term used by historians to refer to the period (roughly 700-950 CE during which the Khazar Khaganate Hegemony (hɨˈdʒɛməni (Amer /hɨˈɡɛməni/ (Brit (ἡγεμονία hēgemonía) is a concept that has been used to describe and explain the dominance of one social The term Pontic-Caspian steppe summarizes the vast Steppelands stretching from north of the Black Sea as far as the east of the Caspian Sea, from central However, in the early 10th century the empire began to decline due to the attacks of both Vikings from Kievan Rus and various Turkic tribes. A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan It enjoyed a brief revival under the strong rulers Aaron II and Joseph, who subdued rebellious client states such as the Alans and led victorious wars against Rus invaders. A Khazar ruler during the early 10th century CE Aaron ben Benjamin was the son of the Khazar king Benjamin. Joseph ben Aaron was king of the Khazars during the 950s and 960s The Alans or Alani (occasionally but more rarely termed Alauni or Halani) were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people
Kabar rebellion and the departure of the Magyars
At some point in the ninth century (as reported by Constantine Porphyrogenitus) a group of three Khazar clans called the Kabars revolted against the Khazar government. The Kabars (Gr Kabaroi or Kavars were a Turkic tribal confederation who lived in the vicinity of Poltava in the 9th century. Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos or Porphyrogenitus, "the Purple-born" ( Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Ζ΄ Πορφυρογέννητος The Kabars (Gr Kabaroi or Kavars were a Turkic tribal confederation who lived in the vicinity of Poltava in the 9th century. Omeljan Pritsak and others have speculated that the revolt had something to do with a rejection of rabbinic Judaism; this is unlikely as it is believed that both the Kabars and mainstream Khazars had pagan, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim members. Omeljan Pritsak ( 7 April 1919, Luka Sambir County eastern Galicia – May 29, 2006, Boston MA) was the first Mykhailo Pritsak maintained that the Kabars were led by the Khagan Khan-Tuvan Dyggvi in a war against the Bek. In any event Pritsak cited no primary source for his propositions in this matter. The Kabars were defeated and joined a confederacy led by the Magyars. It has been speculated that "Hungarian" derives from the Turkic word "Onogur", or "Ten Arrows", referring to seven Finno-Ugric tribes and the three tribes of the Kabars.
In the closing years of the ninth century the Khazars and Oghuz allied to attack the Pechenegs, who had been attacking both nations. The Pechenegs were driven westward, where they forced out the Magyars (Hungarians) who had previously inhabited the Don-Dnieper basin in vassalage to Khazaria. Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. Under the leadership of the chieftain Lebedias and later Arpad, the Hungarians moved west into modern-day Hungary. Lebedias, also called Leved, Levedias, and Lebedi was a semi-legendary ninth-century chieftain of the Magyars Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic The departure of the Hungarians led to an unstable power vacuum and the loss of Khazar control over the steppes north of the Black Sea.
Diplomatic isolation and military threats
From Klavdiy Lebedev (1852–1916), Svyatoslav's meeting with Emperor John, as described by Leo the Deacon. John I Tzimiskes or Tzimisces, (Ιωάννης Α΄ Τζιμισκής Iōannēs I Tzimiskēs; Հովհաննես Ա Չմշկիկ Hovhannes Ayp Chmshgig
The alliance with the Byzantines began to collapse in the early 900s. Byzantine and Khazar forces may have clashed in the Crimea, and by the 940s Constantine VII Porphyrogentius was speculating in De Administrando Imperio about ways in which the Khazars could be isolated and attacked. Events and Trends Simple940s Zh-yue940年代 Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos or Porphyrogenitus, "the Purple-born" ( Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Ζ΄ Πορφυρογέννητος De Administrando Imperio is the commonly used Latin title of a scholarly work written in Greek, by the 10th-century Byzantine emperor The Byzantines during the same period began to attempt alliances with the Pechenegs and the Rus, with varying degrees of success.
From the beginning of the tenth century, the Khazars found themselves fighting on multiple fronts as nomadic incursions were exacerbated by uprisings by former clients and invasions from former allies. According to the Schechter Text, the Khazar ruler Benjamin ben Menahem fought a war against a coalition of "'SY, TWRQY, 'BM, and PYYNYL," who were instigated and aided by "MQDWN". The "Schechter Letter" (also called the "Cambridge Document") was discovered in the Cairo Geniza by Solomon Schechter. A Khazar ruler (probably the bek) mentioned in the Schechter Text and the Khazar Correspondence, Benjamin was the son of the Khazar ruler MQDWN or Macedon refers to the Byzantine Empire in many medieval Jewish writings; the other entities named have been tenuously identified by scholars including Omeljan Pritsak with the Burtas, Oghuz Turks, Volga Bulgars and Pechenegs, respectively. Macedon or Macedonia ( Greek grc Μακεδονία grc-Latn Makedonía) was the name of a kingdom centered in the northern-most Burtas or Bortas (plural Bortaslar) were a tribe of uncertain ethnolinguistic affiliation inhabiting the Steppe region north of the Caspian Sea The Oghuz (variously known as Ghuzz, Guozz, Kuz, Oguz, Oğuz, Okuz, Oufoi, Ouz, Ouzoi, Volga Bulgaria or Volga-Kama Bolghar, is an historic state that existed between the 7th and 13th centuries around the confluence of The Pechenegs or Patzinaks ( Turkish: Peçenekler, Hungarian: Besenyő, Greek: Patzinaki/Petsenegi or Πατζινάκοι/Πετσενέγοι/Πατζινακίται Though Benjamin was victorious, his son Aaron II had to face another invasion, this time led by the Alans. A Khazar ruler during the early 10th century CE Aaron ben Benjamin was the son of the Khazar king Benjamin. The Alans or Alani (occasionally but more rarely termed Alauni or Halani) were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people Aaron defeated the Alans with Oghuz help, yet within a few years the Oghuz and Khazars were enemies.
Ibn Fadlan reported Oghuz hostility to the Khazars during his journey c. Ahmad Ibn Fadlān ibn al-Abbās ibn Rašīd ibn Hammād (أحمد بن فضلان بن العباس بن رشيد بن حماد was a 10th century Arab Muslim 921. Some sources, discussed by Tamara Rice, claim that Seljuk, the eponymous progenitor of the Seljuk Turks, began his career as an Oghuz soldier in Khazar service in the early and mid-tenth century, rising to high rank before he fell out with the Khazar rulers and departed for Khwarazm. Seljuk ( Arabic: السلاجقة Turkish: Selçuk; also Seldjuk, Seldjuq, Seljuq) was the eponymous hero of the Seljuks The Seljuq (also Seljuq Turks, Seldjuks, Seldjuqs, Seljuks; in Turkish Selçuklular; in Ṣaljūqīyān; in Khwarezm were a series of States centered on the Amu Darya River delta of the
Rise of Rus
Originally the Khazars were probably allied with various Norse factions who controlled the region around Novgorod. Norsemen is used to refer to the group of people as a whole who speak one of the North Germanic languages as their native language Veliky Novgorod (Вели́кий Но́вгород is the foremost historic city of North-Western Russia and the administrative center of Novgorod The Rus' Khaganate, an early Rus polity in northwestern Russia, was probably heavily influenced by the Khazars. The Rus' Khaganate Volkhov Rus, Ilmen Rus, or Novgorod Rus --> was a Polity that flourished during a poorly documented The Rus' regularly travelled through Khazar-held territory to attack territories around the Black and Caspian Seas; in one such raid, the Khagan is said to have given his assent on the condition that the Rus' give him half of the booty. In addition, the Khazars allowed the Rus to use the trade route along the Volga River. In the Middle Ages, the Volga trade route connected Northern Europe and Northwestern Russia with the Caspian Sea, via the Volga River This alliance was apparently fostered by the hostility between the Khazars and Arabs. At a certain point, however, the Khazar connivance to the sacking of the Muslim lands by the Varangians led to a backlash against the Norsemen from the Muslim population of the Khaganate. The Varangians or Varyags ( Old Norse: Væringjar Greek: Βάραγγοι Βαριάγοι Váraggoi / Varyágoi, Ukrainian The Khazar rulers closed the passage down the Volga for the Rus', sparking a war. In the early 960s, Khazar ruler Joseph wrote to Hasdai ibn Shaprut about the deterioration of Khazar relations with the Rus: "I have to wage war with them, for if I would give them any chance at all they would lay waste the whole land of the Muslims as far as Baghdad. Joseph ben Aaron was king of the Khazars during the 950s and 960s Hasdai (Abu Yusuf ben Yitzhak ben Ezra ibn Shaprut ( Hebrew: חסדאי אבן שפרוט) born about 915 at Jaén; died 970 or 990 at Córdoba Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous "
The Rus warlords Oleg of Novgorod and Sviatoslav I of Kiev launched several wars against the Khazar khaganate, often with Byzantine connivance. Oleg of Novgorod ( Slavic: Олег Old Norse: Helgi, Khazarian, possibly Helgu) was a Varangian prince (or konung Sviatoslav I of Kiev ( Old East Slavic: С~тославъ (Свąтославъ Игорєвичь ( Sventoslavŭ Igorevichǐ) Russian: ru Святослав The Schechter Letter relates the story of a campaign against Khazaria by HLGW (Oleg) around 941 (in which Oleg was defeated by the Khazar general Pesakh; this calls into question the timeline of the Primary Chronicle and other related works on the history of the Eastern Slavs. Events By Place Asia The Rus'-Byzantine War (941 is fought By Topic Religion Oda A Khazar Jewish general mentioned in the Schechter Letter. Pesakh was military commander of the region around the Strait of Kerch who defeated The Primary Chronicle (ѣѣтъ Пóвесть временны́х лет Povest' vremennykh let; Пóвість врéм'яних літ Povist' vremjanykh
Sviatoslav finally succeeded in destroying Khazar imperial power in the 960s. Events and Trends Khazar kingdom is attacked and defeated by Kievan Rus ( 965) The Khazar fortresses of Sarkel and Tamatarkha fell to the Rus in 965, with the capital city of Atil following circa 967 or 969. Sarkel (or Sharkil, literally white house in Khazar language) was a large limestone-and-brick fortress built by the Khazars with Byzantine Tmutarakan (Тмутаракань is an ancient city that controlled the Cimmerian Bosporus, the passage from the Black Sea to the Sea of Azov. 965 was a year in the 10th century. Events By Place Europe The Khazar fortress of Sarkel falls For the small town and municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora see Atil Sonora Atil, also spelled Itil 967 was a year in the 10th century. Events By Place Europe The Bishopric of Merseburg is formed in Saxony 969 was a year in the 10th century. Events By Place Byzantine Empire December 11 — John I becomes A visitor to Atil wrote soon after the sacking of the city: "The Rus attacked, and no grape or raisin remained, not a leaf on a branch. "
Khazars outside Khazaria
Khazar communities existed outside those areas under Khazar overlordship. Many Khazar mercenaries served in the armies of the Caliphate and other Islamic states. A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Documents from medieval Constantinople attest to a Khazar community mingled with the Jews of the suburb of Pera. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Christian Khazars also lived in Constantinople, and some served in its armies. The Patriarch Photius I of Constantinople was once angrily referred to by the Emperor as "Khazar-face", though whether this refers to his actual lineage or is a generic insult is unclear. Originally a patriarch was a man who exercised autocratic authority as a Pater familias over an extended family
Abraham ibn Daud reported Khazar rabbinical students, or rabbinical students who were the descendants of Khazars, in 12th century Spain. Abraham ibn Daud ( Hebrew Avraham ben David ha-Levi; Arabic ابراهيم ابن داود) was a Spanish-Jewish astronomer Rabbi (pronunciation, although in English usually) in Judaism, means a religious ‘teacher’ or more literally ‘my great one’ when addressing any master Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Jews from Kiev and elsewhere in Russia, who may or may not have been Khazars, were reported in France, Germany and England.
The Kabars who settled in Hungary in the late ninth and early tenth centuries may have included Jews among their number. The Kabars (Gr Kabaroi or Kavars were a Turkic tribal confederation who lived in the vicinity of Poltava in the 9th century. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Many Khazar Jews probably fled foreign conquest into Hungary and elsewhere in Eastern Europe. Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. There they likely merged with local Jews and ensuing waves of Jewish immigration from Germany and Western Europe. They most likely did not constitute the dominant group within Eastern European Jewry, as Arthur Koestler maintained (see below). Arthur Koestler CBE ( September 5, 1905, Budapest &ndash March 3, 1983, London) was a
Polish legends speak of Jews being present in Poland before the establishment of the Polish monarchy. The Polish people, or Poles, (Polacy) are a Western Slavic Ethnic group of Central Europe, living predominantly in Poland. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Polish coins from the 12th and 13th centuries sometimes bore Slavic inscriptions written in the Hebrew alphabet[26][27] though connecting these coins to Khazar influence is purely a matter of speculation. The Hebrew alphabet (אָלֶף-בֵּית עִבְרִי alephbet ’ivri) consists of 22 letters used for writing the Hebrew language.
Late references to the Khazars
There is debate as to the temporal and geographic extent of Khazar polities following Sviatoslav's sack of Atil in 967/9, or even whether any such states existed. Sviatoslav I of Kiev ( Old East Slavic: С~тославъ (Свąтославъ Игорєвичь ( Sventoslavŭ Igorevichǐ) Russian: ru Святослав The Khazars may have retained control over some areas in the Caucasus for another two centuries, but sparse historical records make this difficult to confirm.
The evidence of later Khazar polities includes the fact that Sviatoslav did not occupy the Volga basin after he destroyed Atil, and departed relatively quickly to embark on his campaign in Bulgaria. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian The permanent conquest of the Volga basin seems to have been left to later waves of steppe peoples like the Kipchaks.
Jewish sources
A letter in Hebrew dated AM 4746 (985–986) refers to "our lord David, the Khazar prince" who lived in Taman. la Anno Mundi (Latin "in the year of the World " abbreviated as AM or A The Hebrew calendar (הלוח העברי ha'luach ha'ivri) or Jewish calendar is a Lunisolar calendar used by Jews for predominantly religious Events By Place Europe Barcelona is sacked by Al-Mansur. Greenland is colonized by Icelandic Events By Place Europe March 2 — Louis V becomes King of the Franks. The letter said that this David was visited by envoys from Kievan Rus to ask about religious matters — this could be connected to the Vladimir conversion which took place during the same time period. Taman was a principality of Kievan Rus around 988, so this successor state (if that is what it was) may have been conquered altogether. Events By Place Africa Al-Azhar University is founded in Cairo, Egypt (the second oldest university in the world Succession of states is a theory in International relations regarding the recognition and acceptance of a newly created State by other states based on The authenticity of this letter, the Mandgelis Document, has however been questioned by such scholars as D. M. Dunlop. The Mandgelis Document or Mandgelis Letter was a letter in Hebrew dated AM 4746 (985–986 Douglas Morton Dunlop (1909 - 1987 was a renowned Orientalist and scholar of Islamic and Eurasian history
Abraham ibn Daud, a twelfth-century Spanish rabbi, reported meeting Khazar rabbinical students in Toledo, and that they informed him that the "remnant of them is of the rabbinic faith. Toledo Spain locationpng|thumb|right|200px|Location of Toledo in Spain " This reference indicates that some Khazars maintained ethnic, if not political, autonomy at least two centuries after the sack of Atil.
Petachiah of Ratisbon, a thirteenth-century rabbi and traveler, reported traveling through "Khazaria", though he gave few details of its inhabitants except to say that they lived amidst desolation in perpetual mourning. Petachiah of Ratisbon, also known as Petachiah ben Yakov, Moses Petachiah, and Petachiah of Regensburg, was a Bohemian Rabbi of the
He further related:
Whilst at Baghdad [I] saw ambassadors from the kings of Meshech, for Magog (medieval Christian writers said that the Khazars lived in the land of Gog and Magog) is about ten days' journey from thence. In the Bible Meshech, משך, [ me'ʃek ], "price" or "precious" literally "a drawing up (getting" is named as a son of The tradition of Gog and Magog ( Hebrew גוג ומגוג Arabic يأجوج و مأجوج begins in the Hebrew Bible with the reference to The land extends as far as the Mountains of Darkness (a term often used to describe the Caucasus). The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East Beyond the Mountains of Darkness are the sons of Jonadab, son of Rechab (an official in the court of King Josiah of Judah). Jonadab is the name of two men in the Hebrew Bible: see Jonadabs In 2 Samuel 133 Jonadab son of Shimeah is Josiah or Yoshiyahu ( was king of Judah, and son of Amon and Jedidah, the daughter of Adaiah of Bozkath. Judea is a term used for the mountainous southern part of the historic Land of Israel. To the seven kings of Meshech an angel appeared in a dream, bidding them to give up the laws and statutes, and to embrace the laws of Moses, son of Amram. Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ If not, he threatened to lay waste their country. However, they delayed until the angel commenced to lay waste their country, when the kings of Meshech and all the inhabitants of their countries became proselytes, and they sent to the head of the academy (i. An angel is a Spiritual Supernatural being found in many Religions Although the nature of angels and the tasks given to them vary from tradition to tradition e. , the Gaon of Sura or Pumbedita) a request to send them some disciples of the wise. Gaon ('Pride ' Late medieval and modern Hebrew for 'genius' may refer to One of the Geonim, that is to say the heads of the two major academies at Pumbedita Every disciple that is poor goes there to teach them the law and Babylonian Talmud. From the land of Egypt the disciples go there to study. He saw the ambassadors visit the grave of [the prophet] Ezekiel…
– [28]
The account of the conversion of the "seven kings of Meshech" is extremely similar to the accounts of the Khazar conversion given in the Kuzari, and in King Joseph's Reply. According to religious texts Ezekiel ((יְחֶזְקֵאל Yehezkel, jəx The Kuzari is one of most famous works of the medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet Rabbi Yehuda Halevi. The Khazar Correspondence was an exchange of letters in the 950s or 960s between Hasdai ibn Shaprut, foreign secretary to the Caliph of Cordoba, and It is possible that Meshech refers to the Khazars, or to some Judaized polity influenced by them. Arguments against this possibility include the reference to "seven kings" (though this, in turn, could refer to seven successor tribes or state micropolities).
Muslim sources
Ibn Hawqal and al-Muqaddasi refer to Atil after 969, indicating that it may have been rebuilt. Mohammed Abul-Kassem ibn Hawqal (محمد أبو القاسم بن حوقل born in Nisibis; travelled 943-969 CE was a 10th century Arab writer geographer and Muhammad ibn Ahmad Shams al-Din Al-Muqaddasi (محمد بن أحمد شمس الدين المقدسي also Transliterated as Al-Maqdisi and el-Mukaddasi Al-Biruni (mid-1000s) reported that Atil was in ruins, and did not mention the later city of Saqsin which was built nearby, so it is possible that this new Atil was only destroyed in the middle of the eleventh century. Saqsin (aka Saksin, Saksin-Bolgar) was a medieval city that flourished from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries Even assuming al-Biruni's report was not an anachronism, there is no evidence that this "new" Atil was populated by Khazars rather than by Pechenegs or a different tribe. The Pechenegs or Patzinaks ( Turkish: Peçenekler, Hungarian: Besenyő, Greek: Patzinaki/Petsenegi or Πατζινάκοι/Πετσενέγοι/Πατζινακίται
Ibn al-Athir, who wrote around 1200, described "the raid of Fadhlun the Kurd against the Khazars". TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad, better known as Ali 'izz al- Din Fadhlun the Kurd has been identified as al-Fadhl ibn Muhammad al-Shaddadi, who ruled Arran and other parts of Azerbaijan in the 1030s. Al-Fadhl ibn Muhammad al-Shaddadi (also al-Fadl ibn Muhammad, Fadl ibn Muhammad, Fadlun ibn Muhammad, Fadhlun ibn Muhammad, or Fadl The Shaddadids were a Kurdish dynasty who ruled in various parts of Armenia and Arran from 951 - 1199 A Arran ( also known as Aran, Ardhan (in Parthian) Al-Ran (in Arabic) including the highland and lowland Karabakh) Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South According to the account he attacked the Khazars but had to flee when they ambushed his army and killed 10,000 of his men. Two of the great early 20th century scholars on Eurasian nomads, Marquart and Barthold, disagreed about this account. Vasily Vladimirovich Bartold (Василий Владимирович Бартольд also known as Wilhelm Barthold; in Saint Petersburg &mdash 19 August Marquart believed that this incident refers to some Khazar remnant that had reverted to paganism and nomadic life. Barthold, (and more recently, Kevin Brook), took a much more skeptical approach and said that ibn al-Athir must have been referring to Georgians or Abkhazians. There is no evidence to decide the issue one way or the other.
Kievan Rus sources
According to the Primary Chronicle, in 986 Khazar Jews were present at Vladimir's disputation to decide on the prospective religion of the Kievian Rus. The Primary Chronicle (ѣѣтъ Пóвесть временны́х лет Povest' vremennykh let; Пóвість врéм'яних літ Povist' vremjanykh Saint Vladimir Svyatoslavich the Great ( Old Russian: Володимеръ Святославичь, c For the iconographic subject see Christ among the Doctors In the scholastic system of education Whether these were Jews who had settled in Kiev or emissaries from some Jewish Khazar remnant state is unclear. The whole incident is regarded by a few radical scholars as a fabrication, but the reference to Khazar Jews (after the destruction of the Khaganate) is still relevant. Heinrich Graetz alleged that these were Jewish missionaries from the Crimea, but provided no reference to primary sources for his allegation. Heinrich Graetz ( October 31, 1817 - September 7, 1891) was amongst the first historians to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish
In 1023 the Primary Chronicle reports that Mstislav (one of Vladimir's sons) marched against his brother Yaroslav with an army that included "Khazars and Kasogs". The Primary Chronicle (ѣѣтъ Пóвесть временны́х лет Povest' vremennykh let; Пóвість врéм'яних літ Povist' vremjanykh The name Mstislav ( Cyrillic: Мстислáв) is an Eastern Slavic male name borne by various rulers of early medieval Russia as well as by modern persons Kasogs were an early Circassian people. "Khazars" in this reference is considered by most to be intended in the generic sense, but some have questioned why the reference reads "Khazars and Kasogs", when "Khazars" as a generic would have been sufficient. Even if the reference is to Khazars, of course, it does not follow that there was a Khazar state in this period. They could have been Khazars under the rule of the Rus.
A Kievian prince named Oleg (not to be confused with Oleg of Kiev) was reportedly kidnapped by "Khazars" in 1078 and shipped off to Constantinople, although most scholars believe that this is a reference to the Kipchaks or other steppe peoples then dominant in the Pontic region. Oleg Svyatoslavich of Chernigov (Олег Святославич sometimes also styled as of Tmutarakan, was a Rurikid prince whose equivocal adventures Oleg of Novgorod ( Slavic: Олег Old Norse: Helgi, Khazarian, possibly Helgu) was a Varangian prince (or konung Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Upon his conquest of Tmutarakan in the 1080s Oleg gave himself the title "Archon of Khazaria". Tmutarakan (Тмутаракань is an ancient city that controlled the Cimmerian Bosporus, the passage from the Black Sea to the Sea of Azov. Archon (Gr ἄρχων pl ἄρχοντες is a Greek word that means "ruler" frequently used as the title of a specific public office
Byzantine, Georgian and Armenian sources
Kedrenos documented a joint attack on the Khazar state in Kerch, ruled by Georgius Tzul, by the Byzantines and Russians in 1016. Georgios Kedrenos (fl 11th century also known as George Cedrenus, was a Byzantine historian Kerch (Керч Керчь Keriç Old East Slavic: Кърчевъ Ancient Greek: Pantikapaion) is a city (2001 pop 157000 on the Kerch Peninsula Georgius Tzul ( Georgeios or Georgios) was a Khazar warlord against whom the Byzantine Empire and Mstislav of Tmutarakan launched a Following 1016, there are more ambiguous references in Eastern Christian sources to Khazars that may or may not be using "Khazars" in a general sense (the Byzantines and Arabs, for example, called all steppe people "Turks"; before them the Romans had called them all "Scythians"). The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic Jewish Khazars were also mentioned in a Georgian chronicle as a group that inhabited Derbent in the late 1100s. Derbent (Дербе́нт Azeri: Dərbənd; Lezgian: Дербент Avar: Дербенд; Persian: دربند Darband
At least one 12th-century Byzantine source refers to tribes practicing Mosaic law and living in the Balkans; see Khalyzians. Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ The Chalyzians / Khalyzians (also called Khalis/Khwalis: Arabic /khwarezmian Khalisioi: Byzantine Greek and Kaliz: Magyar - pronounced The connection between this group and the Khazars is rejected by most modern Khazar scholars.
Western sources
Giovanni di Plano Carpini, a thirteenth century Papal legate to the court of the Mongol Khan Guyuk, gave a list of the nations the Mongols had conquered in his account. Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, or John of Plano Carpini or John of Pian de Carpine or Joannes de Plano (c Güyük ( cyrillic:Гүюг хаан c. 1206–1248 was the third Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. One of them, listed among tribes of the Caucasus, Pontic steppe and the Caspian region, was the "Brutakhi, who are Jews. The Brutakhi were a Jewish polity of uncertain location and origin during the early 13th century. " The identity of the Brutakhi is unclear. Giovanni later refers to the Brutakhi as shaving their heads. Though Giovanni refers to them as Kipchaks, they may have been a remnant of the Khazar people. Alternatively, they may have been Kipchak converts to Judaism (possibly connected to the Krymchaks or the Crimean Karaites). The Krymchaks ( Krymchak: sg кърымчах - qrymchakh, pl The Crimean Karaites (Crimean Karaim: sg къарай - qaray, pl
Khazar place names today
Today, various place names invoking Khazar persist. Indeed, the Caspian Sea, traditionally known as the Hyrcanian Sea and Mazandaran Sea in Persian, came to be known to Iranians as the Khazar Sea as an alternative name. The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. Hyrcania was the the name of a Satrapy located in the territories of present day Golestan, Mazandaran, Gilan and part of Turkmenistan Mazandaran is a Caspian For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Many other cultures still call the Caspian Sea "Khazar Sea"; e. g. "Xəzər dənizi" in Azerbaijani, "Hazar Denizi" in Turkish, "Bahr ul-Khazar" in Arabic, "Darya-ye Khazar" in Persian.
Debate
Date and extent of the conversion
The date of the conversion of the Khazars to Judaism, and whether it occurred as one event or as a sequence of events over time, is widely disputed. The issues surrounding this controversy are discussed above.
The number of Khazars who converted to Judaism is also hotly contested. D.M. Dunlop was of the opinion that only the upper class converted; this was the majority view until relatively recently. Douglas Morton Dunlop (1909 - 1987 was a renowned Orientalist and scholar of Islamic and Eurasian history Analysis of recent archaeological grave evidence by such scholars as Kevin A. Brook asserts that the sudden shift in burial customs, with the abandonment of pagan-style burial with grave goods and the adoption of simple shroud burials during the mid-800s suggests a more widespread conversion. Kevin Alan Brook is a major lay authority on the Khazars in the United States of America. [29]
Alleged Khazar ancestry of Ashkenazim
The theory that all or most Ashkenazi ("European") Jews might be descended from Khazars (rather than Semitic groups in the Middle East) dates back to the late nineteenth century, and is frequently cited to assert that most modern Jews aren't descended from Israelites and/or to refute Israeli claims to territory also sought by Palestinians. Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim ( Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, ˌaʃkəˈnazim sing It was first publicly proposed in lecture given by Ernest Renan on January 27, 1883, titled "Judaism as a Race and as Religion. Ernest Renan ( February 28, 1823 &ndash October 12, 1892) was a French Philosopher and writer deeply attached to his native "[30] It was repeated in articles in The Dearborn Independent in 1923 and 1925, and popularized by racial theorist Lothrop Stoddard in a 1926 article in the Forum titled "The Pedigree of Judah", where he argued that Ashkenazi Jews were a mix of people, of which the Khazars were a primary element. The Dearborn Independent, also dubbed The Ford International Weekly, was a newspaper established in 1901 but published by Henry Ford from 1919 Lothrop Stoddard ( June 29, 1883 &ndash May 1, 1950) born Theodore Lothrop Stoddard, was an American political theorist [15][31] Stoddard's views were "based on nineteenth and twentieth-century concepts of race, in which small variations on facial features as well as presumed accompanying character traits were deemed to pass from generation to generation, subject only to the corrupting effects of marriage with members of other groups, the result of which would lower the superior stock without raising the inferior partners. "[32] This theory was adopted by British Israelites, who saw it as a means of invalidating the claims of Jews (rather than themselves) to be the true descendants of the ancient Israelites, and was supported by early anti-Zionists. British Israelism (sometimes called Anglo-Israelism) is the belief that many early Britons, Europeans and/or their royal families were direct lineal descendants [15][33]
In 1951 Southern Methodist University professor John O. Southern Methodist University ("SMU" is a private, Coeducational University in University Park, Texas (an enclave Beaty published The Iron Curtain over America, a work which claimed that "Khazar Jews" were "responsible for all of America's - and the world's - ills beginning with World War I". The book repeated a number of familiar antisemitic claims, placing responsibility for U. S. involvement in World Wars I and II and the Bolshevik revolution on these Khazars, and insisting that Khazar Jews were attempting to subvert Western Christianity and establish communism throughout the world. The American millionaire J. Russell Maguire gave money towards its promotion, and it was met with enthusiasm by hate groups and the extreme right. [34][35] By the 1960s the Khazar theory had become a "firm article of faith" amongst Christian Identity groups. For the general identity of an individual with certain core essential religious doctrines see Christianity. [15][36] In 1971 Glubb Pasha also took up this theme, insisting that Palestinians were more closely related to the ancient Judeans than were Jews. Lieutenant-General Sir John Bagot Glubb KCB, CMG, DSO, OBE, better known as Glubb Pasha (born 16 April According to Benny Morris:
Of course an anti-Zionist (as well as an anti-Semitic) point is being made here: The Palestinians have a greater political right to Palestine than the Jews do, as they, not the modern-day Jews, are the true descendants of the land's Jewish inhabitants\owners. Benny Morris (born 1948 is an Israeli historian identified with the New Historians school a group of Historians who dispute the traditional Israeli [37]
The theory gained further support when the novelist Arthur Koestler devoted his popular book The Thirteenth Tribe (1976) to the topic. Arthur Koestler CBE ( September 5, 1905, Budapest &ndash March 3, 1983, London) was a The Thirteenth Tribe (1976 is a book by Arthur Koestler. It advances the controversial thesis that North/East European Jews and their descendants or Ashkenazim Koestler's historiography has been attacked as highly questionable by many historians; it has also been pointed out that his discussion of theories about Ashkenazi descent is largely unsupported; to the extent that Koestler referred to place-names and documentary evidence his analysis has been described as a mixture of flawed etymologies and misinterpreted primary sources. [38] Commentors have also noted that Koestler mischaracterized the sources he cited, particularly D.M. Dunlop's History of the Jewish Khazars (1954). Douglas Morton Dunlop (1909 - 1987 was a renowned Orientalist and scholar of Islamic and Eurasian history [39]
Koestler himself was pro-Zionist based on secular considerations, and did not see alleged Khazar ancestry as diminishing the claim of Jews to Israel, which he felt was based on the United Nations mandate, and not on Biblical covenants or genetic inheritance. History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the Secularity ( adjective form secular) is the state of being separate from Religion. In his view, "The problem of the Khazar infusion a thousand years ago . . . is irrelevant to modern Israel". In addition, he was apparently "either unaware of or oblivious to the use anti-Semites had made to the Khazar theory since its introduction at the turn of the century. "[40]
Nevertheless, in the Arab world the Khazar theory has been adopted by anti-Zionists[20] and antisemites;[41] such proponents argue that if Ashkenazi Jews are primarily Khazar and not Semitic in origin, they would have no historical claim to Israel, nor would they be the subject of God's Biblical promise of Canaan to the Israelites, thus undermining the theological basis of both Jewish religious Zionists and Christian Zionists. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Canaanites redirects here For the 1940s social and political movement in Israel, see Canaanites (movement. See also History of ancient Israel and Judah According to the Bible, the Israelites were the dominant group living in the Land of Israel. Religious Zionism, or the Religious Zionist Movement (a branch of which is also called Mizrachi) is an ideology that combines Zionism and religious for Christians who belong to Zionist denominations in southern Africa see Zionist Churches Christian Zionism or Restorationism, is a belief In the 1970s and 80s the Khazar theory was also advanced by some Russian chauvinist antisemites, particularly the historian Lev Gumilyov, who portrayed "Judeo-Khazars" as having repeatedly sabotaged Russia's development since the 7th century. Chauvinism (ˈʃoʊvɨnɪzəm is extreme and unreasoning Partisanship on behalf of a group to which one belongs especially when the partisanship includes malice and hatred Lev Nikolayevich Gumilyov (Лев Никола́евич Гумилёв ( October 1, 1912, St [42]
According to Bernard Lewis:
This theory… is supported by no evidence whatsoever. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American It has long since been abandoned by all serious scholars in the field, including those in Arab countries, where the Khazar theory is little used except in occasional political polemics. [20]
Recently however, the theory has been revived by Tel Aviv University Israeli historian Professor Shlomo Sand in his book "Matai ve'ech humtza ha'am hayehudi?" ("When and How the Jewish People Was Invented?").
DNA Evidence
Most Jews, including Ashkenazi Jews, do not exhibit the oriental features of the Khazars, who were likely of Central Asian Turkish origin. Modern DNA studies on the Y chromosome of Jews worldwide have also discredited the Khazar origin theory for the vast majority of Jews, including the Ashkenazi. The Y chromosome is the sex-determining Chromosome in most Mammals including Humans In mammals it contains the gene SRY, which triggers
A study published by the National Academy of Sciences found that "The results support the hypothesis that the paternal gene pools of Jewish communities from Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East descended from a common Middle Eastern ancestral population, and suggest that most Jewish communities have remained relatively isolated from neighboring non-Jewish communities during and after the Diaspora. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS is a corporation in the United States whose members serve Pro bono as "advisers to the nation on science " [2]. Researchers express surprise at the remarkable genetic uniformity they found among modern Jews, no matter where the diaspora has become dispersed around the world. The term Diaspora (in Greek, διασπορά &ndash " a scattering or sowing of seeds " refers any population sharing common ethnic Contradicting the "mongrel" theory, DNA demonstrated substantially less inter-marriage among Jews over the last 3000 years than found in other populations.
"The results accord with Jewish history and tradition and refute theories like those holding that Jewish communities consist mostly of converts from other faiths, or that they are descended from the Khazars, a medieval Turkish tribe that adopted Judaism. " [3] [43]
Morever, "The analysis provides genetic witness that these communities have, to a remarkable extent, retained their biological identity separate from their host populations, evidence of relatively little intermarriage or conversion into Judaism over the centuries. " Id. And another finding, paradoxical but unsurprising, is that by the yardstick of the Y chromosome, the world's Jewish communities are closely related to Syrians and Palestinians[44], suggesting that all are descended from a common ancestral population that inhabited the Middle East some four thousand years ago. Id.
This study found that "The extremely close affinity of Jewish and non-Jewish Middle Eastern populations observed . . . supports the hypothesis of a common Middle Eastern origin. ",[45] as does the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of at least 40% of the current Ashkenazi population. Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. [19] So although Khazars could possibly have been absorbed into the modern Jewish population as we know it today, it is unlikely that they formed a large percentage of the ancestors of modern Jews. [46]
DNA analysis further determined that modern Jews of the priesthood tribe -- or "Cohanim" -- share a common ancestor in Israel dating back about 3000 years, 1700 years older than the Khazar conversion to Judaism. This result is consistent for all Jewish populations around the world. [45] [4]
"Using a combination of molecular genetics and mathematical analysis, the scientists arrived at an estimated date for the most recent common ancestor of contemporary Cohanim. According to this analysis, the common ancestor lived between the Exodus (approx. 1000 B. C. E) and the destruction of the first Temple (586 B. C. E. ), consistent with the biblical account. Similar results were obtained based on analysis of either Sephardi or Ashkenzi communities, confirming the ancestral link of the two communities which had been separated for more than 500 years. " [47] [5] "To date the original high priest, the research team used a formula based on a commonly accepted mutation rate. This formula yieded some 106 generations for both Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews, or between 2,650 and 3,180 years, depending on whether a generation is counted as 25 or 30 years. "
Other claims of descent
Others have claimed Khazar origins for such groups as the Karaim, Krymchaks, Mountain Jews, and Georgian Jews. The Crimean Karaites (Crimean Karaim: sg къарай - qaray, pl The Krymchaks ( Krymchak: sg кърымчах - qrymchakh, pl Mountain Jews, Juvuro, Juhuro, are Jews of the eastern Caucasus, mainly of Azerbaijan and Dagestan. The Georgian Jews ( Georgian: ქართველი ებრაელები qartveli ebraelebi, Hebrew: יהודי גאורגיה Yehudei There is little evidence to support any of these theories, although it is possible that some Khazar descendants found their way into these communities. Non-Jewish groups who claim at least partial descent from the Khazars include the Kumyks and Crimean Tatars; as with the above-mentioned Jewish groups, these claims are subject to a great deal of controversy and debate. Kumyks ( Kumyk: къумукълар qumuqlar, Russian: кумыки are a Turkic people occupying the Kumyk plateau in north Dagestan Crimean Tatars (sg Qırımtatar, pl Qırımtatarlar) or Crimeans (sg
Fiction
The question of mass religious conversion is a central theme in Milorad Pavić's international bestselling novel Dictionary of the Khazars. This article discusses the Fiction relating to the Khazar people. Milorad Pavić (Милорад Павић (born October 15, 1929 in Belgrade) is a noted Serbian Poet, Prose writer Dictionary of the Khazars A Lexicon Novel is the first novel by Serbian writer Milorad Pavich (Milorad Pavić published in 1984 The novel, however, contained many invented elements and had little to do with actual Khazar history. More recently, several novels, including H.N. Turteltaub's Justinian (about the life of Justinian II) and Marek Halter's Book of Abraham and Wind of the Khazars have dealt either directly or indirectly with the topic of the Khazars and their role in history. Harry Norman Turtledove (born June 14 1949) is an American historian and novelist who has written Historical fiction, Fantasy, and Marek Halter is a French-Jewish Novelist He was born in Poland in 1936
In 2007, the New York Times Magazine serialized a novel by Michael Chabon entitled Gentlemen of the Road which features 10th century Khazar characters. The New York Times Magazine is a supplement to the Sunday The New York Times newspaper Michael Chabon (pron SHAY-bon (born May 24 1963 is an American author and "one of the most celebrated writers of his generation" according to the The Virginia Gentlemen of the Road is a 2007 Serial novel by American author Michael Chabon.
See also
- Conversion to Judaism
- The History of Turkish-Jewish Relations
- Kevin Alan Brook
- Kiev, History of
- Kievian Letter
- Khazar Correspondence
- Kuzari
- Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s
- Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union, History of the
- Lev Gumilev
- List of Khazar rulers
- Rus'-Byzantine War (860)
- Rus'-Byzantine War (907)
- Rus'-Byzantine War (941)
- Rus'-Byzantine War (968-971)
- Rus' Khaganate
- Schechter Letter
- Turkic peoples
Notes
- ^ Hebrew sing. A conversion to Judaism (גיור giyur) is a formal act undertaken by a non-Jewish person who wishes to be recognised as a full member of the Jewish community Jews {ref|name|§}} have lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) for more than 2400 years Kevin Alan Brook is a major lay authority on the Khazars in the United States of America. The History of Kiev (also spelled Kyiv as per Київ the largest city and the Capital of Ukraine The Kievian Letter is an early 10th century (or possibly 11th century letter written by a Khazarian Jewish community in Kiev. The Khazar Correspondence was an exchange of letters in the 950s or 960s between Hasdai ibn Shaprut, foreign secretary to the Caliph of Cordoba, and The Kuzari is one of most famous works of the medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet Rabbi Yehuda Halevi. Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s: Early period 966-1385 See also History of Poland (966-1385 Early history The first Jews Lev Nikolayevich Gumilyov (Лев Никола́евич Гумилёв ( October 1, 1912, St List of Khazar rulers Early Khazar rulers • Khozarig (Eponymous folk-ancestor of the Sviatoslav I of Kiev ( Old East Slavic: С~тославъ (Свąтославъ Игорєвичь ( Sventoslavŭ Igorevichǐ) Russian: ru Святослав The Rus' Khaganate Volkhov Rus, Ilmen Rus, or Novgorod Rus --> was a Polity that flourished during a poorly documented The "Schechter Letter" (also called the "Cambridge Document") was discovered in the Cairo Geniza by Solomon Schechter. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family "Kuzari" כוזרי plur. "Kuzarim" כוזרים; Turkish sing. Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. "Hazar" plur. Hazarlar; Russian sing. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Хазарин plur. Хазары; Tatar sing. The Tatar language (,, Татар теле, Татарча) is a Turkic Language spoken by the Tatars. Xäzär plur. Xäzärlär; Crimean Tatar sing. The Crimean Tatar language (Qırımtatar tili Qırımtatarca also known as Crimean (Qırım tili Qırımca and Crimean Turkish (Qırım Türkçesi is the language Hazar, plur. Hazarlar; Greek Χαζάροι/Χάζαροι; Persian خزر khazar; Latin "Gazari" or "Cosri"
- ^ cf. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Turkish adjective 'gezer' = "mobile", verb 'gezmek' = "to walk around", 'gez-' being the root for the idea of "stroll". Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages.
- ^ This Oghuric hypothesis has been disputed by recent scholarship; for a full discussion see Erdal 75-107.
- ^ Dunlop, History 96.
- ^ Brook 3-4.
- ^ Pletneva 15-16.
- ^ Golden, "conversion" 141-145, 161; Brook passim; Graetz 139; Rossman 82; Pinkus, Benjamin. The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority, Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 2. While anti-Jewish persecutions are known to have occurred in Byzantium, scholars differ on their specific extent, nature and consistency. E. g. , Angold, Michael. Church and Society in Byzantium Under the Comneni, 1081-1261, Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 508; Gil, Moshe. A History of Palestine, 634-1099, Cambridge University Press, 1992, p. 9; Haldon, John F. Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture, Cambridge University Press, 1990, 345. ISBN 052131917X. See also Scharf 97-99; Whittow, Mark. The Making of Byzantium, 600-1025, University of California Press, 1996, p. 44; Bowman, Stephen B. , Ankori, Zvi The Jews of Byzantium 1204-1453 Bloch Pub Co (December 2001); Starr, Joshua, The Jews in the Byzantine Empire 641-1204 Burt Franklin (1970); R. Jenkins "Byzantium"; Ostrogorski 161; Cohen 112; Norwich 89; Geanakoplos 268; The Oxford History of Byzantium 13. ; Browning 54; Cameron 272-274.
- ^ Levy ch. 4 passim; Rossman 82.
- ^ E. g. , Brook; Dunlop; Golden, Khazar Studies passim; Christian 282-300.
- ^ Dunlop; Pritsak, "Conversion"; and Barthold passim.
- ^ Harkavy, in Kohut Memorial Volume, p. Harkavy is surname which may refer to Abraham Harkavy (1839-1919 historian Alexander Harkavy (1863 -1939 writer 244.
- ^ Harkavy in "Ha-Maggid. " 1877, p. 357.
- ^ Harkavy, in Kohut Memorial Volume, p. 244.
- ^ Michael Barkun, Religion and the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement, UNC Press, ISBN 0807846384, pp. 137-139.
- ^ a b c d e Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, Black Sun: Aryan cults, esoteric nazism, and the politics of identity, NYU Press, 2002, ISBN 0814731554, p. 237.
- ^ Paul F. Boller, Memoirs of an Obscure Professor and Other Essays, TCU Press, 1992, pp. 5-6.
- ^ Barkun, pp. 140-141.
- ^ Barkun, p. 142.
- ^ a b Behar, Doron M. ; Ene Metspalu, Toomas Kivisild, Alessandro Achilli, Yarin Hadid, Shay Tzur, Luisa Pereira, Antonio Amorim, Lluı's Quintana-Murci, Kari Majamaa, Corinna Herrnstadt, Neil Howell, Oleg Balanovsky, Ildus Kutuev, Andrey Pshenichnov, David Gurwitz, Batsheva Bonne-Tamir, Antonio Torroni, Richard Villems, and Karl Skorecki (March 2006). "The Matrilineal Ancestry of Ashkenazi Jewry: Portrait of a Recent Founder Event". The American Journal of Human Genetics 78 (3): 487-97. PMID 16404693.
- ^ a b c Lewis, Bernard. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American "Semites and Anti-Semites", W. W. Norton and Company, ISBN 0-393-31839-7, p. 48.
- ^ Benny Morris, The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews, I. Benny Morris (born 1948 is an Israeli historian identified with the New Historians school a group of Historians who dispute the traditional Israeli B. Tauris, 2003, ISBN 1860649890, p. 22.
- ^ "Arab anti-Semitism might have been expected to be free from the idea of racial odium, since Jews and Arabs are both regarded by race theory as Semites, but the odium is directed, not against the Semitic race, but against the Jews as a historical group. The main idea is that the Jews, racially, are a mongrel community, most of them being not Semites, but of Khazar and European origin. " Yehoshafat Harkabi, "Contemporary Arab Anti-Semitism: its Causes and Roots", in Helen Fein, The Persisting Question: Sociological Perspectives and Social Contexts of Modern Antisemitism, Walter de Gruyter, 1987, ISBN 311010170X, p. 424.
- ^ The image is based on reconstruction by Norman Finkelshteyn of image from an 8th-century ewer found at Nagyszentmiklos in Transylvania (original at [1])
- ^ Brook ch. 5.
- ^ Kovalev, "Creating Khazar Identity" 220-253.
- ^ Jewish Encyclopædia.
- ^ Jewish Encyclopædia.
- ^ Benisch, Abraham; William Ainsworth (1856). Travels of Rabbi Petachia of Ratisbon: who in the later end of the twelfth century, visited Poland, Russia, Little Tartary, the Crimea, Armenia, Assyria, Syria, the Holy Land, and Greece. (PDF), London: Messrs. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Trubner & Co. , pg. 47. OCLC 122750941. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose Retrieved on 2008-03-16. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king
Note:See note #1 on page 69–70, note #3 on page 70–71, and note #77 on page 100 regarding the Khazars. - ^ Brook, ch. 4 passim.
- ^ Michael Barkun, Religion and the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement, UNC Press, ISBN 0807846384, p. 137.
- ^ Barkun, pp. 138-139.
- ^ Barkun, p. 139.
- ^ Barkun, pp. 138-139.
- ^ Paul F. Boller, Memoirs of an Obscure Professor and Other Essays, TCU Press, 1992, pp. 5-6.
- ^ Barkun, pp. 140-141.
- ^ Barkun, p. 142.
- ^ Benny Morris, The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews, I. Benny Morris (born 1948 is an Israeli historian identified with the New Historians school a group of Historians who dispute the traditional Israeli B. Tauris, 2003, ISBN 1860649890, p. 22.
- ^ E. g. , Abramsky, Chimen. "The Khazar Myth. " Jewish Chronicle (April 9, 1976): 19; Maccoby, Hyam. "Koestler's Racism. " Midstream 23 (March 1977).
- ^ McInnes, Neil. "Koestler and His Jewish Thesis." National Interest. Fall 1999.
- ^ Barkun, pp. 144-145.
- ^ "Arab anti-Semitism might have been expected to be free from the idea of racial odium, since Jews and Arabs are both regarded by race theory as Semites, but the odium is directed, not against the Semitic race, but against the Jews as a historical group. The main idea is that the Jews, racially, are a mongrel community, most of them being not Semites, but of Khazar and European origin. " Yehoshafat Harkabi, "Contemporary Arab Anti-Semitism: its Causes and Roots", in Helen Fein, The Persisting Question: Sociological Perspectives and Social Contexts of Modern Antisemitism, Walter de Gruyter, 1987, ISBN 311010170X, p. 424.
- ^ CDI.
- ^ "Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora" (May 9 2000). New York Times.
- ^ Plot of populations based on Y-chromosome haplotype data National Academy of Sciences
- ^ a b Hammer, M. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS is a corporation in the United States whose members serve Pro bono as "advisers to the nation on science F. ; A. J. Redd, E. T. Wood, M. R. Bonner, H. Jarjanazi, T. Karafet, S. Santachiara-Benerecetti, A. Oppenheim, M. A. Jobling, T. Jenkins, H. Ostrer, and B. Bonné-Tamir (May 9 2000). "Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
- ^ The Y Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Landscape of the Middle East, Almut Nebel, Dvora Filon, Bernd Brinkmann, Partha P. Majumder, Marina Faerman, Ariella Oppenheim (The American Journal of Human Genetics, Volume 69, number 5. pp. 1095–112).
- ^ "Priestly Gene Shared By Widely Dispersed Jews" (July 14 1998). American Society For Technion, Israel Institute Of Technology.
Resources
- Vasili Barthold. Vasily Vladimirovich Bartold (Василий Владимирович Бартольд also known as Wilhelm Barthold; in Saint Petersburg &mdash 19 August (1996). "Khazar". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Brill Online). The Encyclopaedia of Islam ( EI) is the standard Encyclopaedia of the Academic discipline of Islamic studies. Eds. : P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill.
- Doron M. Behar, Ene Metspalu, Toomas Kivisild, Alessandro Achilli, Yarin Hadid, Shay Tzur, Luisa Pereira, Antonio Amorim, Lluı´s Quintana-Murci, Kari Majamaa, Corinna Herrnstadt, Neil Howell, Oleg Balanovsky, Ildus Kutuev, Andrey Pshenichnov, David Gurwitz, Batsheva Bonne-Tamir, Antonio Torroni, Richard Villems, and Karl Skorecki. "The Matrilineal Ancestry of Ashkenazi Jewry: Portrait of a Recent Founder Event. " The American Journal of Human Genetics, March, 2006.
- Bowman, Stephen B. , Ankori, Zvi The Jews of Byzantium 1204-1453 Bloch Pub Co (December 2001).
- Kevin Alan Brook. Kevin Alan Brook is a major lay authority on the Khazars in the United States of America. The Jews of Khazaria. 2nd ed. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2006.
- Kevin Alan Brook. "Are Russian Jews Descended from the Khazars?" Khazaria.com
- Kevin Alan Brook. "Tales about Jewish Khazars in the Byzantine Empire Resolve an Old Debate". Los Muestros, No. 54, p. 27.
- Browning, Robert. The Byzantine Empire. Catholic University of America Press, 1992.
- Cameron, Averil, Byzantines and Jews: some recent work on early Byzantium, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 20 (1996): 249-274.
- Cohen, M. R. The Voice of the Poor in the Middle Ages: An Anthology of Documents from the Cairo Geniza, Princeton University Press (2005).
- Douglas M. Dunlop. Douglas Morton Dunlop (1909 - 1987 was a renowned Orientalist and scholar of Islamic and Eurasian history The History of the Jewish Khazars, Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press, 1954.
- Douglas M. Dunlop. "The Khazars. " The Dark Ages: Jews in Christian Europe, 711-1096. This article is about the phrase "Dark Age(s" as a characterization of the Early Middle Ages in Western Europe 1966.
- Geanakoplos, D. J. Byzantium: Church, Society, and Civilization Seen through Contemporary Eyes University Of Chicago Press; New Ed edition (1986).
- Peter B. Golden. Peter Benjamin Golden (born 1941 is Professor of History at Rutgers University. Khazar Studies: An Historio-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the Khazars. Budapest: Akademia Kiado, 1980.
- Peter B. Golden. "Khazar Turkic Ghulâms in Caliphal Service" (Journal Article in Journal Asiatique, 2004. )
- Peter B. Golden. "Khazar Turkic Ghulâms in Caliphal Service: Onomastic Notes" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi, 1993. )
- Peter B. Golden. "Khazars" (Book Chapter in Turkish-Jewish Encounters: Studies on Turkish-Jewish Relations through the Ages, 2001. )
- Peter B. Golden, et al. , eds. The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives: Selected Papers from the Jerusalem 1999 International Khazar Colloquium(Handbook of Oriental Studies/Handbuch Der Orientalistik). Brill: 2007; contains, inter alia,
- Peter B. Golden. "The Conversion of the Khazars to Judaism. " The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Brill, 2007. pp. 123-162.
- Marcel Erdal. "The Khazar Language". The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Brill, 2007. pp. 75-107.
- Norman Golb and Omeljan Pritsak, Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century. Norman Golb (1928-) is the Ludwig Rosenberger Professor in Jewish History and Civilization at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Omeljan Pritsak ( 7 April 1919, Luka Sambir County eastern Galicia – May 29, 2006, Boston MA) was the first Mykhailo Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1982.
- Heinrich Graetz. Heinrich Graetz ( October 31, 1817 - September 7, 1891) was amongst the first historians to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish History of the Jews, Vol. III. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1902.
- Arthur Koestler. Arthur Koestler CBE ( September 5, 1905, Budapest &ndash March 3, 1983, London) was a (1976): The Thirteenth Tribe: The Khazar Empire and Its Heritage. Random House. ISBN 0-394-40284-7
- Elli Kohen. History of the Byzantine Jews: A Microcosmos in the Thousand Year Empire. University Press of America, 2007.
- Roman K. Kovalev. Roman K Kovalev is an Assistant professor of history at the College of New Jersey where he teaches classes on Russian history and culture as well as seminars focused "What Does Historical Numismatics Suggest About the Monetary History of Khazaria in the Ninth Century? – Question Revisited. " Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 13 (2004): 97–129.
- Roman K. Kovalev. "Creating Khazar Identity through Coins: The Special Issue Dirhams of 837/8. " East Central and Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages, ed. Florin Curta, pp. 220–253. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2005.
- Habib Levy, et al. Comprehensive History of the Jews of Iran: The Outset of the Diaspora. George W. Maschke, trans. Mazda Publishers, 1999.
- Logan, Donald F. (1992). The Vikings in History 2nd ed. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-08396-6
- Mango, Cyril (Ed) The Oxford History of Byzantium Oxford University Press, USA (December 5, 2002).
- Timothy S. Miller, "The Legend of Saint Zotikos According to Constantine Akropolites. " Analecta Bollandiana vol. 112, 1994, pp. 339-376.
- Thomas S. Noonan. Thomas Schaub Noonan ( 20 January 1938 &ndash 15 June 2001) was an American historian Slavicist and anthropologist "Did the Khazars Possess a Monetary Economy? An Analysis of the Numismatic Evidence. " Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 2 (1982): 219-267.
- Thomas S. Noonan. "What Does Historical Numismatics Suggest About the History of Khazaria in the Ninth Century?" Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 3 (1983): 265-281.
- Thomas S. Noonan. "Why Dirhams First Reached Russia: The Role of Arab-Khazar Relations in the Development of the Earliest Islamic Trade with Eastern Europe. Dirham or dirhem (درهم is a unit of currency in several Arab nations and formerly the related unit of mass (the Ottoman dram) in the Ottoman Empire Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. " Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 4 (1984): 151-282.
- Thomas S. Noonan. "Khazaria as an Intermediary between Islam and Eastern Europe in the Second Half of the Ninth Century: The Numismatic Perspective. " Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 5 (1985): 179-204.
- Thomas S. Noonan. "Byzantium and the Khazars: a special relationship?" Byzantine Diplomacy: Papers from the Twenty-fourth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Cambridge, March 1990, ed. Jonathan Shepard and Simon Franklin, pp. Jonathan Shepard is a British historian specializing in early medieval Russia, the Caucasus, and the Byzantine Empire. 109-132. Aldershot, England: Variorium, 1992.
- Thomas S. Noonan. "What Can Archaeology Tell Us About the Economy of Khazaria?" The Archaeology of the Steppes: Methods and Strategies - Papers from the International Symposium held in Naples 9-12 November 1992, ed. Bruno Genito, pp. 331-345. Napoli, Italy: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1994.
- Thomas S. Noonan. "The Khazar Economy. " Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 9 (1995-1997): 253-318.
- Thomas S. Noonan. "The Khazar-Byzantine World of the Crimea in the Early Middle Ages: The Religious Dimension. " Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 10 (1998-1999): 207-230.
- Thomas S. Noonan. "Les Khazars et le commerce oriental. " Les Échanges au Moyen Age: Justinien, Mahomet, Charlemagne: trois empires dans l'économie médiévale, pp. 82-85. Dijon: Editions Faton S. A. , 2000.
- Thomas S. Noonan. "The Khazar Qaghanate and its Impact on the Early Rus' State: The translatio imperii from Itil to Kiev. " Nomads in the Sedentary World, eds. Anatoly Mikhailovich Khazanov and André Wink, pp. Anatoly Khazanov (born December 13, 1937) is an Anthropologist and Historian. 76-102. Richmond, England: Curzon Press, 2001.
- John Julius Norwich. A Short History of Byzantium. Vintage, 1998.
- George Ostrogorski. George Alexandrovič Ostrogorsky (Георгий Александрович Острогорский also known as George Ostrogorsky; 19 January 1902 History of the Byzantine State, Rutgers University Press (July 1986).
- Svetlana Pletneva. Svetlana Aleksandrovna Pletneva (also called Pletnyeva and Pletnyova Светлана Александровна Плетнева (born April 1, 1926 Khazary, 2nd ed. Moscow: Nauka, 1986.
- Omeljan Pritsak. "The Khazar Kingdom's Conversion to Judaism. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut " (Journal Article in Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 1978)
- Omeljan Pritsak. "The Pre-Ashkenazic Jews of Eastern Europe in Relation to the Khazars, the Rus', and the Lithuanians". Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in HIstorical Perspective, ed. Howard Aster and Peter J. Potichnyj. Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, 1990. p. 7.
- Rossman, Vadim. Russian Intellectual Antisemitism in the Post-Communist Era, University of Nebraska Press, 2002. ISBN 0803239483
- A. Scharf. Byzantine Jewry: From Justinian to the Fourth Crusade. London, 1971.
- Starr, Joshua, The Jews in the Byzantine Empire 641-1204 Burt Franklin (1970).
- Tamara Talbot Rice. The Seljuks in Asia Minor. The Great Seljuq Empire was a Medieval Sunni Muslim empire established by the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks that once controlled Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Thames and Hudson, London, 1961. pp. 18-19.
- Vital, David (1999): A People Apart: A History of the Jews in Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-821980-6
- Zolitor, Jeff, Wolfe, Peter "The Khazars" Philadelphia: Conference of the Congress of Secular Jewish Organizations, (2002), Canadian Jewish Outlook (Sept/Oct 2002) /www. csjo. org/pages/essays/essaykhazars. htm
Works written before 1915
- Blind, Karl. "A Forgotten Turkish Nation in Europe". The Gentleman's Quarterly. Vol. CCXLI, No. 19. London: Chatto & Windus, 1877. pp. 439-460.
- Itinéraires de la Terre Sainte, Carmody, (Brussels, 1847)
- Sur le Khazars. Vivien St. Martin. (Paris, 1851)
- Ibn Dasta, translated by Daniel Chwolson, (St. Ibn Rustah (in Persian احمد ابن رسته اصفهانی - Aḥmad ebn Roste Eṣfahānī was a 10th century Persian explorer and geographer born in Rosta Daniel Abramovich Chwolson (דניאל ארכדיביץ' חבולסון Даниил Авраамович (Абрамович Хвольсон;born at Vilna December Petersburg, 1869)
- Der khazarische Königsbrief, Cassel, (Berlin, 1877)
- Der Ursprung der Magyaren, Vambéry, (Leipzig, 1882)
- Das Buch se-Chazari, Hirschfield, (Breslau, 1885)
- Pre- and Proto-historic Finns, Abercromby, (London, 1898)
- Osteuropäische und Ostasiatische Streifzüge, Marquart, (Leipzig, 1903)
- Jewish Quarterly Review, Volume iii, Pages 181–219, "An Unknown Khazar Document," (n. s. , Philadelphia, 1913)
- Accounts of Oriental writers were published at St. Petersburg by Fraehn, (1821), and by Harkavy, (1874 et seq. )
External links
- Khazaria.com
- Resources > Medieval Jewish History > The Khazars The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
- The Khazars by Yair Davidiy
- German Wikipedia map showing expansion of the Khazar Khaganate
- Khazar enty on Regnal Chronologies
- Khazar Historic Maps
- Norman Finkelshteyn's Jewish Warriors – The Khazar Khaganate
- The Kitab al-Khazari of Judah Hallevi, full English translation at sacred-texts.com
- Khazar and West-Turkish dining habits
- Article on the Khazar military for wargamers
- The Khazar Myth and the New Anti-Semitism by Steven Plaut
- (Russian) 660 лет вместе и 50 лет лжи (660 Years Together and 50 Years of Lies) by Semyon Charny. Steven Plaut (born in 1951) is a Professor on the faculty of the Graduate School of Business Administration at the University of Haifa and a writer Lechaim magazine, March 2003.
- The Khazar Kingdom: A Jewish Empire in the Middle Ages
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