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Karl Barth
Karl Barth

Karl Barth (May 10, 1886 – December 10, 1968) (pronounced "bart") a Swiss Reformed theologian, was one of the most important Christian thinkers of the 20th century; Pope Pius XII described him as the most important theologian since Thomas Aquinas. Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England. Year 1886 ( MDCCCLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V Year 1968 ( MCMLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation The Reformed churches are a group of Christian Protestant Denominations formally characterized by a similar Calvinist system of doctrine historically The twentieth century of the Common Era began on [1] Beginning with his experience as a pastor, he rejected the predominant liberal theology typical of 19th-century Protestantism, especially German, and instead embarked on a unique theological path, often called neo-orthodoxy by critics (a label emphatically rejected by Barth himself) that emphasized the sovereignty of God particularly through his innovative doctrine of election. For liberal political views within Christianity see Christian left. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Neo-Orthodoxy can also refer to a form of Orthodox Judaism following the philosophy of " Torah im Derech Eretz " and can additionally refer to the Predestination (also linked with Foreknowledge) is a religious concept which involves the relationship between God and His creation Barth's theology swept through Europe and Britain.

Contents

Early life and education

Born in Basel, Barth spent his childhood years in Bern. "Basilia" redirects here For the Fly Genus, see Basilia (fly. The city of Berne or Bern (, Berne, Berna, Romansh: Berna, Bernese German: Bärn) is the Bundesstadt ( Federal From 1911 to 1921 he served as a Reformed pastor in the village of Safenwil in the canton Aargau. Year 1911 ( MCMXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar The Reformed churches are a group of Christian Protestant Denominations formally characterized by a similar Calvinist system of doctrine historically Safenwil is a municipality in the district of Zofingen in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. The 26 cantons of Switzerland are the states of the Federal state of Switzerland. Aargau ( German; rarely anglicized Argovia) is one of the more northerly cantons of Switzerland. In 1913 he married Nelly Hoffmann, a talented violinist. They would have four sons and a daughter. Later he was professor of theology in Göttingen (1921–1925), Münster (1925–1930) and Bonn (1930–1935) (Germany). Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Göttingen ( ˈgœtɪŋən, Low German: Chöttingen is a College town in Lower Saxony, Germany. Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar Year 1925 ( MCMXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Münster ( is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located in the northern part of the state and is considered to be the cultural centre of the Year 1925 ( MCMXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1930 ( MCMXXX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Bonn is the 19th largest city in Germany. Located about 20 kilometres south of Cologne on the river Rhine in the Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia Year 1930 ( MCMXXX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1935 ( MCMXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. While serving at Göttingen he met Charlotte von Kirschbaum, who became his long-time secretary and assistant and played a large role in the writing of his epic the Church Dogmatics. Charlotte von Kirschbaum ( June 25, 1899 - July 24, 1975) was a German Theologian and a pupil of Karl Barth. He had to leave Germany in 1935 after he refused to swear allegiance to Adolf Hitler. Year 1935 ( MCMXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately Barth went back to Switzerland and became professor in Basel (1935–1962). Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Year 1935 ( MCMXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

Barth was originally trained in German Protestant Liberalism under such teachers as Wilhelm Herrmann, but reacted against this theology at the time of the First World War. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. For liberal political views within Christianity see Christian left. Johann Wilhelm Herrmann (1846-1922 was a Reformed German Theologian. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All His reaction was fed by several factors, including his commitment to the German and Swiss Religious Socialist movement surrounding men like Hermann Kutter, the influence of the Biblical Realism movement surrounding men like Christoph Blumhardt and Søren Kierkegaard, and the impact of the skeptical philosophy of Franz Overbeck. The International League of Religious Socialists is an umbrella organization of religious socialist movements in political parties throughout the world Hermann Kutter ( September 12, 1863 - March 31, 1931) was a Swiss Lutheran Theologian. Christoph Blumhardt (1842-1919 was a German Lutheran Theologian and one of the founders of Christian Socialism in Germany and Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;) In ordinary usage skepticism or scepticism ( Greek 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to look about to consider see also spelling differences Franz Camille Overbeck ( 16 November 1837 - 26 June 1905) was a German Protestant theologian.

The most important catalyst was, however, his reaction to the support most of his liberal teachers had for German war aims. The 1914 "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three German Intellectuals to the Civilized World"[2] carried the signature of his former teacher Adolf von Harnack. Year 1914 ( MCMXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Adolf von Harnack ( May 7, 1851 &ndash June 10, 1930) was a German theologian and prominent church historian Barth believed that his teachers had been misled by a theology which tied God too closely to the finest, deepest expressions and experiences of cultured human beings, into claiming divine support for a war which they believed was waged in support of that culture, the initial experience of which appeared to increase people's love of and commitment to that culture. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Much of Barth's thinking is also a direct response to the philosophy of G.W.F. Hegel and the theology of Friedrich Schleiermacher. Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (ˈʃlaɪɐmaxɐ ( November 21, 1768 &ndash February 12, 1834) was a German theologian

The Epistle to the Romans

In his commentary The Epistle to the Romans (Ger. The Epistle to the Romans is a commentary by Karl Barth on the New Testament Epistle to the Romans. Der Römerbrief; particularly in the thoroughly re-written second edition of 1922) Barth argued that the God who is revealed in the cross of Jesus challenges and overthrows any attempt to ally God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions. Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Many theologians believe this work to be the most important theological treatise since Friedrich Schleiermacher's On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers. Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (ˈʃlaɪɐmaxɐ ( November 21, 1768 &ndash February 12, 1834) was a German theologian

In the decade following the First World War, Barth was linked with a number of other theologians, actually very diverse in outlook, who had reacted against their teachers' liberalism, in a movement known as "Dialectical Theology" (Ger. Neo-Orthodoxy can also refer to a form of Orthodox Judaism following the philosophy of " Torah im Derech Eretz " and can additionally refer to the Dialektische Theologie). Other members of the movement included Rudolf Bultmann, Eduard Thurneysen, Emil Brunner, and Friedrich Gogarten. Rudolf Karl Bultmann ( August 20, 1884 – July 30, 1976) was a German theologian of Lutheran background who Emil Brunner ( December 23, 1889 &ndash April 6, 1966) was an eminent and highly influential Swiss Theologian.

Barmen Declaration

In 1934, as the Protestant Church attempted to come to terms with the Third Reich, Barth was largely responsible for the writing of the Barmen declaration (Ger. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The Barmen Declaration or The Theological Declaration of Barmen 1934 is a statement of the Confessing Church opposing the Nazi-supported "German-Christian" Barmer Erklärung) which rejected the influence of Nazism on German Christianity—arguing that the Church's allegiance to the God of Jesus Christ should give it the impetus and resources to resist the influence of other 'lords'—such as the German Führer, Adolf Hitler. Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately Barth mailed this declaration to Hitler personally. This was one of the founding documents of the Confessing Church and Barth was elected a member of its leadership council, the Bruderrat. The Confessing Church (Bekennende Kirche was a Christian Resistance movement in Nazi Germany. He was forced to resign from his professorship at the University of Bonn for refusing to swear an oath to Hitler. Barth was praised by U.S. theologian and newspaper writer S. Parkes Cadman in a New York Times article for his refusal to sign the oath of allegiance to Hitler. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Samuel Parkes Cadman ( December 18, 1864 - July 12, 1936) better known as S [3] Barth then returned to his native Switzerland, where he assumed a chair in systematic theology at the University of Basel. In the course of his appointment he was required to answer a routine question asked of all Swiss civil servants, whether he supported the national defense. His answer was, "Yes, especially on the northern border!" In 1938 he wrote a letter to a Czech colleague, Josef Hromádka, in which he declared that soldiers who fought against the Third Reich were serving a Christian cause.

Church Dogmatics

Barth's theology found its most sustained and compelling expression through his thirteen-volume magnum opus, the Church Dogmatics (Ger. "Kirchliche Dogmatik"). Widely regarded as an important theological work, the Church Dogmatics represents the pinnacle of Barth's achievement as a theologian. Barth published the first part-volume of the Dogmatics in 1932 and continued working on it until his death in 1968, by which time it was 6 million words long in thirteen part-volumes. Highly contextual, the volumes are written chronologically, beginning with Vol. I/1, and address political issues (generally quite subtly) as well as questions raised by his students after lectures. (The material published as the Church Dogmatics was originally delivered in lecture format to students at Bonn and then Basel. ) Barth explores the whole of Christian doctrine, where necessary challenging and reinterpreting it so that every part of it points to the radical challenge of Jesus Christ, and the impossibility of tying God to human cultures, achievements or possessions. Doctrine (Latin doctrina) is a codification of beliefs or "a body of teachings quot or "instructions" taught principles or positions as the It was translated into English under the editorial leadership of T. F. Torrance and G. Thomas Forsyth Torrance ( 30 August 1913 &ndash 2 December 2007) was a 20th century Protestant Christian Theologian W. Bromiley.

Later life

After the end of the Second World War, Barth became an important voice in support both of German penitence and of reconciliation with churches abroad. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Together with Hans-Joachim Iwand, he authored the Darmstadt Statement in 1947, which was a more concrete statement of German guilt and responsibility for the Third Reich and Second World War than the Stuttgart Declaration of 1945. In it, he made the point that the Church's willingness to side with anti-socialist and conservative forces had led to its susceptibility for National Socialist ideology. In the context of the developing Cold War, this controversial statement was rejected by anti-Communists in the West, who supported the CDU course of re-militarization, as well as by East German dissidents who believed that it did not sufficiently depict the dangers of Communism. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands) is the largest Political party in Germany. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based In the 1950s, Barth sympathized with the peace movement and opposed German rearmament. A peace movement is a Social movement that seeks to achieve ideals such as the ending of a particular war (or all wars minimize inter-human violence in a particular place or

Barth wrote a 1960 article for The Christian Century regarding the "East-West question", in which he denied any inclination toward Eastern communism, and stated he did not wish to live under Communism nor did he wish anyone to be forced to do so, but acknowledged a fundamental disagreement with most of those around him and wrote: "I do not comprehend how either politics or Christianity require or even permit such a disinclination to lead to the conclusions which the West has drawn with increasing sharpness in the past 15 years. The Christian Century is a Christian Magazine based in Chicago, Illinois. I regard anticommunism as a matter of principle an evil even greater than communism itself. "[4]

In 1962, Barth visited the USA, where he lectured at Princeton Theological Seminary, University of Chicago, Union Theological Seminary, and San Francisco Theological Seminary. Princeton Theological Seminary (PTS is a theological seminary of the Presbyterian Church located in the Borough of Princeton The University of Chicago is a Private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. Union Theological Seminary & Presbyterian School of Christian Education ( Union-PSCE) located on the near north side of the city of Richmond Virginia, is a Theological He was invited to be a guest at the Second Vatican Council, after which he wrote a small volume, Ad Limina Apostolorum [At the Threshold of the Apostles] (Karl Barth, a Theological Legacy, page 26). The Second Ecumenical Council of the Vatican, or Vatican II, was the twentieth century Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. Also in 1962, Barth was featured on the cover of the April 20 issue of TIME magazine, showing that his influence reached out of academic and ecclesiastical circles and into the popular press. Time (trademarked in capitals as TIME) is a weekly American Newsmagazine, similar to Newsweek and

Theology

Barth tries to recover the Doctrine of the Trinity in theology from its putative loss in liberalism. For liberal political views within Christianity see Christian left. His argument follows from the idea that God is the object of God’s own self-knowledge, and revelation in the Bible means the self-unveiling to humanity of the God who cannot be discovered by humanity simply through its own efforts. Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Human nature is the concept that there are a set of logical characteristics including ways of thinking feeling and acting that all 'normal' human beings have in common

Election

One of the most influential and controversial features of Barth's Dogmatics was his doctrine of election (Church Dogmatics II/2). An election is a Decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold formal office One thread of the Reformed tradition, following one interpretation of its most influential thinker, John Calvin, had long argued for so-called double predestination: that God chose some humans for salvation through Christ and others for damnation. John Calvin (or Jean Calvin) (10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564 was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and The Calvinistic doctrine of predestination is a Doctrine of Calvinism which deals with the question of the control God exercises over the world In Theology, salvation can mean three related things being saved from or Liberation from something such as Suffering or the punishment of Dammit redirects here to see the Opeth album see Damnation (album. These groups were sometimes called the "elect" and "reprobate. " This choice (or "election") was made by God and was the result of God's "absolute decree," a mysterious and fundamentally inscrutable decision which, though it was a decision of ultimate consequence for the individual human, was fundamentally inaccessible and unknowable to him or her. God chose each person to be saved or damned based on the divine will, and it was impossible to know why God chose some and not others or whether God had elected or rejected oneself.

Barth's doctrine of election involves a firm rejection of the notion of an absolute decree. In keeping with his Christo-centric methodology, Barth argues that to ascribe the salvation or damnation of humanity to an abstract absolute decree is to make some part of God more final and definitive than God's saving act in Jesus Christ. God's absolute decree, if one may speak of such a thing, is God's gracious decision to be for humanity in the person of Jesus Christ. With the earlier Reformed tradition, Barth retains the notion of double predestination but makes Jesus Himself the object of both divine election and reprobation simultaneously: Jesus embodies both God's election of humanity and God's rejection of human sin. Sin is a term used mainly in a religious context to describe an act that violates a moral Rule, or the state of having committed such a violation While some regard this revision of the doctrine of election as an improvement on the Calvinist doctrine of double predestination, critics have charged that Barth's view amounts to a lax universalism. Universalism can be classified as a Religion, Theology and Philosophy that generally holds all persons and creatures are related to God or the Divine and

Barth, Liberals and Conservatives

Although Barth's theology rejected German Protestant Liberalism, his theology has usually not found favour with those at the other end of the theological spectrum: confessionalists and fundamentalists. His doctrine of the Word of God, for instance, holds that Christ is the Word of God, and does not proceed by arguing or proclaiming that the Bible must be uniformly historically and scientifically accurate, and then establishing other theological claims on that foundation. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin

Some evangelical and fundamentalist critics have joined liberal counterparts in referring to Barth as "neo-orthodox" because, while his theology retains most or all of the tenets of their understanding of Christianity, he is seen as rejecting the belief which is a linchpin of their theological system: biblical inerrancy. Evangelicalism is a theological movement tradition and system of beliefs most closely associated with Protestant Christianity, which identifies with the Gospel Fundamentalism refers to a "deep and totalistic commitment" to a belief in and strict adherence to a set of basic principles (often Religious in nature a reaction For liberal political views within Christianity see Christian left. Neo-Orthodoxy can also refer to a form of Orthodox Judaism following the philosophy of " Torah im Derech Eretz " and can additionally refer to the Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Biblical inerrancy is the conservative evangelical doctrinal position that in its original form the Bible is totally without error and free from all contradiction Such critics believe the written text must be considered to be historically accurate and verifiable and see Barth's view as a separation of theological truth from historical truth. Barth could respond by saying that the claim that the foundation of theology is biblical inerrancy is to use a foundation other than Jesus Christ, and that our understanding of Scripture's accuracy and worth can only properly emerge from consideration of what it means for it to be a true witness to the incarnate Word, Jesus. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE)

The relationship between Barth, liberalism and fundamentalism goes far beyond the issue of inerrancy, however. From Barth's perspective, liberalism, as understood in the sense of the 19th century with Friedrich Schleiermacher and Hegel as its leading exponents and not necessarily expressed in any particular political ideology, is the divinization of human thinking. Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (ˈʃlaɪɐmaxɐ ( November 21, 1768 &ndash February 12, 1834) was a German theologian This, to him, inevitably leads one or more philosophical concepts to become the false God, thus attempting to block the true voice of the living God. This, in turn, leads to the captivity of theology by human ideology. In Barth's theology, he emphasizes again and again that human concepts of any kind, breadth or narrowness quite beside the point, can never be considered as identical to God's revelation. In this aspect, Scripture is also written human language, which bears witness to the self-revelation of God in Jesus Christ. Scripture cannot be considered as identical to God's self-revelation, which is properly only Jesus Christ. However, in his freedom and love, God truly reveals himself through human language and concepts, with a view toward their necessity in reaching fallen humanity. Thus Barth claims that Christ is truly presented in Scripture and the preaching of the church, echoing a stand expressed in his native Swiss Reformed Church's Helvetic Confession of the 16th century. Helvetic Confessions, the name of two documents expressing the common belief of the Reformed churches of Switzerland.

In general, Barth stands in the heritage of the Reformation in his opposition against attempts to closely relate theology and philosophy. His approach in that respect is predominately Christo-centric, and is thus termed "kerygmatic," as opposed to "apologetic. Kerygma ( Greek: κήρυγμα kérugma, pronounced "kay-roog-ma" is the Greek word used in the New Testament for preaching (see Luke "

Relationship with Charlotte von Kirschbaum

Barth has also fallen victim to criticism for his relationship with his secretary and confidant, Charlotte von Kirschbaum. Charlotte von Kirschbaum ( June 25, 1899 - July 24, 1975) was a German Theologian and a pupil of Karl Barth. One critic has written: "Part of any realistic response to the subject of Barth and von Kirschbaum must be anger. "[5] When they first met in 1924, Barth had already been married for 12 years to his wife, Nelly, with whom he had also had five children. [6] The precise nature of their relationship is unclear (in particular whether the two were ever sexually involved), but scholars agree their relationship went far beyond the bounds of the simply professional. In 1929, von Kirschbaum, with Barth's consent, moved into the Barth family household. This arrangement--described by one scholar as "convoluted, extremely painful for all concerned, yet not without integrity and joys"--lasted for 35 years. [7] Hunsinger summarizes the influence of von Kirschbaum on Barth's work: "As his unique student, critic, researcher, adviser, collaborator, companion, assistant, spokesperson, and confidant, Charlotte von Kirschbaum was indispensable to him. He could not have been what he was, or have done what he did, without her. "

Quotations

See also

Writings

The Church Dogmatics in English translation

Audio

Secondary bibliography

References

  1. ^ [Church Dogmatics IV. 1, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2004). .
  2. ^ Manifesto of the Ninety-Three German Intellectuals, 1914.
  3. ^ S. Parkes Cadman. ""Barth is extolled for defying Nazis", The New York Times, December 2, 1934. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Year 1934 ( MCMXXXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2007-12-18. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the  
  4. ^ "No Angels of Darkness and Light", The Christian Century, 20 January 1960, pp. 72 ff.
  5. ^ S. Seliger, Charlotte von Kirschbaum and Karl Barth; quoted in K. Sonderegger's review.
  6. ^ George Hunsinger's review of S. Seliger, Charlotte von Kirschbaum and Karl Barth: A Study in Biography and the History of Theology.
  7. ^ Hunsinger

External links


Persondata
NAME Barth, Karl
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION Swiss Reformed theologian
DATE OF BIRTH May 10, 1886
PLACE OF BIRTH Basel
DATE OF DEATH December 10, 1968
PLACE OF DEATH
Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation The Reformed churches are a group of Christian Protestant Denominations formally characterized by a similar Calvinist system of doctrine historically Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England. Year 1886 ( MDCCCLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common "Basilia" redirects here For the Fly Genus, see Basilia (fly. Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V Year 1968 ( MCMLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
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