Kakapo
Conservation status
Critically Endangered (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Psittaciformes Family: Psittacidae Subfamily: Psittacinae Tribe: Strigopini Genus: Strigops Gray, 1845 Species: S. The conservation status of a Species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species remaining extant either in the present day or the near future Organisms with a conservation status of critically endangered have an extremely high risk of becoming extinct The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List) created in 1963 is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global Chordates ( Phylum Chordata) are a group of Animals that includes the Vertebrates together with several closely related Invertebrates Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. Parrots are birds of the roughly 350 Species in 85 genera comprising the order Psittaciformes, found in most warm and tropical regions The true parrots are about 330 species of bird belonging to the Psittacidae family, one of the two "traditional" families in the biological order The Psittacinae (Latin psittacinus, from psittacus parrot from Greek psittakosis) a subfamily in the parrot family habroptilus
Binomial name
Strigops habroptilus Gray, 1845

The Kakapo (Māori: kākāpō, meaning night parrot), Strigops habroptilus (from the Greek strix, genitive strigos: owl and opsis: face; and habros: soft, and ptilon: feather), also called owl parrot, is a species of nocturnal parrot with finely blotched yellow-green plumage endemic to New Zealand. George Robert Gray FRS ( July 8, 1808 - May 6, 1872) was an English zoologist and Author and Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. As an Animal behavior, nocturnality describes sleeping during the Daytime and being active at Night - the opposite of the diurnal Parrots are birds of the roughly 350 Species in 85 genera comprising the order Psittaciformes, found in most warm and tropical regions This article is a parent page for a series of articles providing information about Endemism among birds in the World's various zoogeographic zones New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island ^[2] It has a distinct facial disc of sensory, vibrissa-like feathers, a large grey beak, short legs, large feet, and wings and a tail of relatively short length. A certain combination of traits makes it unique among its kind—it is the world's only flightless parrot, the heaviest parrot, nocturnal, herbivorous, it sports visible sexual dimorphism in body size, has a low basal metabolic rate, no male parental care, and is the only parrot to have a polygynous lek breeding system. Sexual dimorphism is the systematic difference in form between individuals of different Sex in the same Species. Basal metabolic rate ( BMR) is the amount of energy expended while at rest in a neutrally temperate environment in the post-absorptive state (meaning that the digestive system Polygyny (which comes from neo- Greek: πολύ poly "many" + γυνή gyny "woman" is a specific form of Polygamy, A lek is a gathering of Males of certain animal species for the purposes of competitive Mating display It is also possibly one of the world's longest-living birds. ^[3] Its anatomy typifies the tendency of bird evolution on oceanic islands with few predators and abundant food: accretion of thermodynamic efficiency at the expense of flight abilities, reduced wing muscles, a diminished keel on the sternum, a generally robust physique. In Physics, thermodynamics (from the Greek θερμη therme meaning " Heat " and δυναμις dynamis meaning " A keel in Bird anatomy is an extension of the Sternum which runs axially along the midline of the sternum and extends outward perpendicular to the plane of the The sternum (from Greek στέρνον sternon, "chest" or breastbone) is a long flat Bone located in the center of the thorax (chest ^[3]

Kakapo are critically endangered; only 91 living individuals are known,^[4] all of which have been given names. Every known Kakapo has been given a name by Kakapo Recovery Programme officials ^[5] The ancestral Kakapo migrated to the islands of New Zealand in prehistory; in the absence of mammalian predators, it lost the ability to fly. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands Because of Polynesian and European colonisation and the introduction of predators such as cats, rats, and stoats, most of the Kakapo were wiped out. WikipediaManual of Style (spelling, articles should conform to one overall spelling style of English typically the one most linked to the article topic (if it is geographic Rats are various medium sized long-tailed Rodents of the superfamily Muroidea Conservation efforts began in the 1890s, but they were not very successful until the implementation of the Kakapo Recovery Plan in the 1980s. As of November 2005, surviving Kakapo are kept on four predator-free islands, Maud, Chalky (Te Kakahu), Codfish (Whenua Hou) and Anchor islands, where they are closely monitored. Maud Island, originally called Te Hoiere in the Māori language, is the second-largest island in the Marlborough Sounds on the northern tip of the Chalky Island may refer to Chalky Island (New Zealand Chalky Island (Tasmania Little Chalky Island, Tasmania Codfish island or Whenua Hou is a small island (14 km² located to the west of Stewart Island/Rakiura in southern New Zealand. Anchor Island or "Pukenui" (1380 ha is an Island in Dusky Sound, Fiordland National Park in the Southland District of ^[3] Two large Fiordland islands, Resolution and Secretary, have been the subject of large-scale ecological restoration activities to prepare self-sustaining ecosystems with suitable habitat for the Kakapo. Resolution Island is the largest (uninhabited island in Fiordland, in the southwest of New Zealand. Secretary Island is an island in southwestern New Zealand. it lies entirely within Fiordland National Park. The ecological restoration of islands, or island restoration, is the application of the principles of Ecological restoration to Islands and island groups An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical (

The conservation of the Kakapo has made the species well known. Many books and documentaries detailing the plight of the Kakapo have been produced in recent years, one of the earliest being Two in the Bush, made by Gerald Durrell for the BBC in 1962. Gerald ('Gerry' Malcolm Durrell OBE ( January 7, 1925 &ndash January 30, 1995) was a naturalist, Zookeeper ^[6] Two of the most significant documentaries, both made by NHNZ, are Kakapo - Night Parrot (1982) and To Save the Kakapo (1997). Natural History New Zealand Ltd ( NHNZ) is a small New Zealand -based documentary production company that creates more than 60 hours of television programming each year The BBC's Natural History Unit also featured the Kakapo, including a sequence with Sir David Attenborough in The Life of Birds. Sir David Frederick Attenborough OM, CH, CVO, CBE, FRS (born 8 May 1926 in London, England The Life of Birds is a BBC Nature documentary series written and presented by David Attenborough, first transmitted in the UK from It was also one of the endangered animals that Douglas Adams and Mark Carwardine set out to find for the radio series and book Last Chance to See. Douglas Noël Adams (11 March 1952 &ndash 11 May 2001 was an English author comic Radio dramatist Mark Carwardine (born 1959-03-09) is a Zoologist, who at one time was affiliated with the World Wildlife Fund, and has been a freelance writer photographer The book Last Chance to See by Douglas Adams and Mark Carwardine was first published in 1990, as a companion to the BBC

The Kakapo, like many other bird species, has historically been important to the Māori, the indigenous people of New Zealand, appearing in many of the traditional legends and folklore.

Contents 1 Description 1.1 Classification 2 Ecology and behaviour 2.1 Diet 2.2 Reproduction 3 Conservation 3.1 Human impact 3.2 Early protection efforts 3.3 1950–1989 conservation efforts 3.4 Kakapo recovery plan 4 In Māori culture 4.1 Use for food and clothing 5 Media 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links

Description

Kakapo are large, rotund parrots; males measure up to 60 centimetres (24 in) and weigh between 2 and 4 kilograms (4. Codfish island or Whenua Hou is a small island (14 km² located to the west of Stewart Island/Rakiura in southern New Zealand. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International 5–9 lb) at maturity. ^[7] Kakapo are unable to fly, having short wings for their size and lacking the pronounced keel bone (sternum) that anchors the flight muscles of other birds. WING "ESPN 1410" is a commercial AM radio station in Dayton Ohio operating with 5000 watts at 1410 kHz with studios offices and transmitter located on David The sternum (from Greek στέρνον sternon, "chest" or breastbone) is a long flat Bone located in the center of the thorax (chest They use their wings for balance, support, and to break their falls when leaping from trees. Unlike other land birds, Kakapo can accumulate large amounts of body fat to store energy making them the heaviest parrot. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water ^[3]

The upper parts of the Kakapo have yellowish moss-green feathers barred or mottled with black or dark brownish grey, blending well with native vegetation. Feathers are one of the epidermal growths that form the distinctive outer covering or Plumage, on Birds They are considered the most complex integumentary structures Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region it refers to the Ground cover provided by plants Individuals may have strongly varying degrees of mottling and colour tone and intensity — museum specimens have shown that some birds had completely yellow colouring. The breast and flanks are yellowish-green streaked with yellow. Their bellies, undertail, necks and faces are predominantly yellowish, streaked with pale green and weakly mottled with brownish-grey. Because the feathers do not need the strength and stiffness required for flight, they are exceptionally soft, giving rise to the specific epithet habroptilus. In zoological nomenclature a specific name or specific epithet is the second part (second name in the name of a Species (a Binomen) Kakapo have a conspicuous facial disc of fine feathers, resembling the face of an owl; thus, early European settlers called it the "owl parrot". The Owls are an order of birds of prey. Most are Solitary, and nocturnal, with some exceptions (e Their beaks are surrounded by delicate vibrissa or "whiskers", which they use to sense the ground for navigation as they walk with their heads lowered. The mandible is mostly ivory-colored, with part of the upper mandible being bluish-grey. The eyes are dark brown. Kakapo feet are large, scaly, and, as in all parrots, zygodactyl (two toes face forward and two backward). In Biology, dactyly is the arrangement of digits ( Fingers and Toes on the Hands feet, or sometimes Wings of a They have pronounced claws particularly useful for climbing. The ends of their tail feathers often become worn from being continually dragged on the ground. ^[3]

Females are easily distinguished from males due to some notable differences: they have a more narrow and less domed head, their beaks are narrower and proportionally longer, their ceres and nostrils smaller, their legs and feet more slender and pinkish grey, and their tails are proportionally longer. While their plumage color is not very different to that of males, the toning is more subtle, with less yellow and mottling. They tend to be more resistant and aggressive than males when handled. Nesting females are also distinguished by a brood patch on the bare skin of the belly. brood patch is a patch of featherless skin that is visible on the underside of Birds during the nesting season ^[3]

Like many parrots, Kakapo have a variety of calls. In addition to the booms (see below for a recording) and chings of their mating calls, they often skraark to announce their location to other birds. The Kakapo ( Māori: kākāpō, meaning night parrot) Strigops habroptilus (from the Greek strix, genitive

Kakapo have a well-developed sense of smell, which complements their nocturnal lifestyle. ^[8] They can discriminate among odours while foraging; a behaviour reported for only one other parrot species. ^[8] One of the most striking characteristics of Kakapo is their pleasant and powerful odour, which has been variously described as musky, honey-like or fruity^[9][10]. Given the Kakapo's well-developed sense of smell, this scent may be a social chemosignal. Olfaction (also known as olfactics or smell) refers to the Sense of smell. The smell often alerts predators to the largely defenseless Kakapo. ^[11]

Classification

The Kakapo has so many unusual features that it was initially placed in its own family, Strigopidae. However, it is now recognised as a member of the parrot family, Psittacidae. The true parrots are about 330 species of bird belonging to the Psittacidae family, one of the two "traditional" families in the biological order Its distinctiveness is highlighted by its classification in its own genus, Strigops; and tribe, Strigopini, in the subfamily Psittacinae. A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic In Biology, a tribe &mdashor infrafamily&mdashis a Taxonomic rank between family and Genus. In Biological classification, family ( Latin The Psittacinae (Latin psittacinus, from psittacus parrot from Greek psittakosis) a subfamily in the parrot family Some maintain the Kakapo in a subfamily of its own, Strigopinae. ^[12]

Earlier ornithologists felt the Kakapo may be related to the Ground Parrot and Night Parrot of Australia; others pointed to the Nestorini tribe. The Ground Parrot ( Pezoporus wallicus) is one of only four ground-dwelling parrots in the world the others being its closest relative the extremely rare Night Parrot The Night Parrot ( Pezoporus occidentalis) is (or was a small Broad-tailed parrot endemic to the continent of Australia. The Genus Nestor, the only genus of the Nestorini tribe contains two parrot species from New Zealand and one extinct species from Norfolk ^[13] A 2005 sex chromosome spindlin DNA sequence study confirmed affinities with the genus Nestor, which contains the Kākā and the Kea. The ZW sex-determination system is a system that determines the sex of offspring in Birds, some Fish, and some Insects (including Butterflies A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the Primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA Molecule The Kākā, Nestor meridionalis, is a Parrot endemic to the forests of New Zealand. The Kea ( Nestor notabilis) is a species of Parrot (family Psittacidae) found in forested and alpine regions of the South Island of New Zealand The molecular data further suggests that the two Nestor species, and the Kakapo in its own genus, comprise an ancient group that split off from all other Psittacidae before their radiation,^[14] but fossil evidence seems to contradict this; given the violent geological history of New Zealand (see, for example, Taupo Volcanic Zone), other explanations such as episodes of genetic drift seem better supported by evidence. The true parrots are about 330 species of bird belonging to the Psittacidae family, one of the two "traditional" families in the biological order FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. The Taupo Volcanic Zone is a highly active volcanic area in the North Island of New Zealand. In Population genetics, genetic drift is the accumulation of random events that change the makeup of a gene pool slightly but often compound over time

Ecology and behaviour

The only mammals native to New Zealand are three species of small bats (one extinct). It seems that the Kakapo — like many of New Zealand's bird species — has evolved to occupy an ecological niche normally filled by various species of mammal. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 In Ecology, a niche (pronounced nich nēsh or nish A shorthand definition of niche is how an organism makes a living Before the arrival of humans, Kakapo were largely distributed throughout the three main islands of New Zealand. They lived in a variety of habitats, including tussocklands, scrublands and coastal areas. Tussock, referred to as " Bunch grass " in some countries is the common name for a number of Grass species They also inhabited forests, including those dominated by podocarps (rimu, matai, kahikatea, totara), beeches, tawa, and rata. Podocarpaceae is a large family of mainly Southern Hemisphere Conifers with 18-19 genera and about 170-200 species of Evergreen Trees and Dacrydium cupressinum is a large Evergreen coniferous Tree endemic to the forests of New Zealand. Prumnopitys taxifolia ( Matai or Black pine) is an endemic New Zealand Coniferous tree that grows on the North Dacrycarpus dacrydioides ( kahikatea in the Māori language) is a coniferous Tree endemic to New Zealand Podocarpus totara ( tōtara) is a species of podocarp endemic to New Zealand. Nothofagus, also known as the southern beeches, is a genus of about 35 Species of Trees and shrubs native to the temperate oceanic Southern rātā ( Metrosideros umbellata) is a tree endemic to New Zealand. They particularly favored forest margins and areas of regenerating forest for the wider variety of vegetation in a compact area . In Fiordland, areas of avalanche and slip debris with regenerating and heavily fruiting vegetation — such as five finger, wineberry, bush lawyer, tutu, hebes, and coprosmas — became known as "Kakapo gardens"^[15] . Fiordland is a geographic region of New Zealand that is situated on the south-western corner of the South Island. Wineberry ( Aristotelia serrata) is a tree endemic to New Zealand. Bush lawyer is the common name of a number of climbing plants of the Rubus species that are found in New Zealand, many of them rampant forest vines Tutu is a common name of Māori origin for plants in the genus Coriaria ( Coriariaceae found in New Zealand. Hebe is a Genus of plants native to New Zealand, Rapa in French Polynesia, the Falkland Islands, and South America Coprosma is a genus of about 90 species that are found in New Zealand (45 spp Hawaii (c

Kakapo are primarily nocturnal; they roost under cover in trees or on the ground during the day and rove their territories at night. ^[2] Though the Kakapo cannot fly, they are excellent climbers, ascending to the crowns of the tallest trees. They can also "parachute" from heights by spreading their wings, floating gently to the forest floor. Having lost the ability to fly, they have developed strong legs. Movement is often by way of a rapid "jog-like" gait by which they can move many kilometres. ^[7] Females make two return trips each night during nesting from their nest to the food source up to 1 km (0. 5 miles) away^[16] and males walk from their home ranges to the mating arena up to 5 km (3 miles) away during the mating season (October–January). ^[17]

Kakapo are a curious species and have been known to interact with humans. Conservation staff and volunteers have engaged extensively with some Kakapo, and they are known to have distinct personalities.

The Kakapo were a very successful species in pre-human New Zealand^[18] and one of the reasons for this was their set of adaptations to effectively avoid predation from native birds of prey - which were their only predators in the past. However, these same behaviours have been of no use to them when faced with the mammalian predators which have been introduced to New Zealand following human settlement, as these hunt in different ways. As hunters, birds behave very differently to mammals, relying on their incredible powers of vision to find prey and thus,they usually, (with the exception of Owl's) hunt by day^[18]. The Owls are an order of birds of prey. Most are Solitary, and nocturnal, with some exceptions (e We know that apart from the 2 surviving NZ raptors, the New Zealand Falcon and Australasian Harrier, there were two additional birds of prey in New Zealand in pre-human times; Haast's Eagle and Eyles' Harrier. RAPTOR ( R econnaissance A irborne P od TOR nado is a reconnaissance pod used by the Royal Air Force on its fleet of Tornado GR The Kārearea, or New Zealand Falcon, Falco novaeseelandiae, is New Zealand 's only endemic Falcon and indeed the only remaining Haast's Eagle ( Harpagornis moorei) was a massive now extinct Eagle that once lived on the South Island of New Zealand. The Eyles' Harrier is an Extinct Bird of prey which lived in New Zealand. ^[18] All 4 species soared overhead searching for prey in daylight and to avoid these avian predators, the kakapo's ancestors adopted camouflaged plumage and became nocturnal. In addition, when Kakapo feel threatened, they freeze, so that they are more effectively camouflaged in the forest vegetation which their plumage resembles. It was not entirely safe at night however as the Laughing Owl was active at this time and it is apparent from their nest deposits on Canterbury limestone cliff's, that Kakapo were among their victims. The Laughing Owl ( Sceloglaux albifacies) also known as Whēkau or the White-faced Owl, was an endemic Owl found in New Zealand ^[19]

Mammalian predators, in contrast to birds, rely on their sense of smell and hearing to find prey and often hunt by night. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; refs with no content must have a name The Kakapo's adaptations to avoid avian predation have thus been quite useless against their new enemies - this is one of the reasons for their massive decline since the introduction of dogs, cats and mustelids following human settlement - see Conservation: Human impact. A typical way for humans to hunt down Kakapo is by releasing trained dogs. ^[1]

Diet

The beak of the Kakapo is specially adapted for grinding food finely. For this reason, Kakapo have very small gizzards compared to other birds of their size. The gizzard, also referred to as the ventriculus, gastric mill, and gigerium, is an organ in the digestive tract found in Birds Reptiles They are generally herbivorous, eating native plants, seeds, fruits, pollens and even the sapwood of trees. Herbivory is a form of Predation in which an Organism, known as a herbivore, consumes principally Autotrophs ref name=Campbell>Campbell Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. A seed (in some plants referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic Plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat usually with some stored The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of A study in 1984 identified 25 plant species as Kakapo food. ^[2] They are particularly fond of the fruit of the rimu tree, and will feed on it exclusively during seasons when it is abundant. Dacrydium cupressinum is a large Evergreen coniferous Tree endemic to the forests of New Zealand. Kakapo have a distinctive habit of grabbing a leaf or frond with a foot and stripping the nutritious parts of the plant out with their beaks, leaving a ball of indigestible fiber. These little clumps of plant fibers are a distinctive sign of the presence of Kakapo. ^[3][4] Kakapos are believed to employ bacteria in the foregut to ferment and help digest plant matter. ^[5]

Kakapo diet changes seasonally. The plants eaten most frequently during the year include some species of Lycopodium ramulosum, Lycopodium fastigium, Schizaea fistulosa, Blechnum minus, Blechnum procerum, Cyathodes juniperina, Dracophyllum longifolium, Olearia colensoi and Thelymitra venosa. Individual plants of the same species are often treated differently. Kakapo leave conspicuous evidence of their feeding activities, from 10×10 m to 50×100 m feeding ground areas. ^[2] Manuka and yellow silver pine scrubs are obvious signs of their center of feeding activities. Leptospermum scoparium ( Manuka or Tea tree or just Leptospermum) is a Shrub or small Tree native to New Zealand

Reproduction

The Kakapo is the only species of parrot in the world,^[6] the only bird in New Zealand, and the only flightless bird anywhere that has a lek breeding system. A lek is a gathering of Males of certain animal species for the purposes of competitive Mating display ^[7] Males loosely gather in an arena and compete with each other to attract females. Females watch the males display, or "lek". ^[8] They choose a mate based on the quality of his display; they are not pursued by the males in any overt way. No pair bond is formed; males and females meet only to mate.

During the courting season, males leave their home ranges for hilltops and ridges where they establish their own mating courts. A ridge is a geological feature that features a continuous elevational crest for some distance These leks can be up to 7 kilometres (4 mi) from a Kakapo's usual territory and are an average of 50 metres (160 ft) apart within the lek arena. Males remain in the region of their court throughout the courting season. At the start of the breeding season, males will fight to try to secure the best courts. They confront each other with raised feathers, spread wings, open beaks, raised claws and loud screeching and growling. Fighting may leave birds with injuries.

Each court consists of one or more saucer-shaped depressions or "bowls" dug in the ground by the male, up to 10 centimetres (4 in) deep and long enough to fit the half-metre length of the bird. Kakapo are one of only a handful of birds in the world which actually construct their leks. ^[7] Bowls are often created next to rock faces, banks, or tree trunks to help reflect sound -^[6] the bowls themselves function as amplifiers to enhance the projection of the males booming mating calls. ^[7] Each male’s bowls are connected by a network of trails or tracks which may extend 50 metres (160 ft) along a ridge or 20 metres (60 ft) in diameter around a hilltop. A trail is a Path or Road used for Walking, Cycling, Cross-country skiing, or other activities ^[6] Males meticulously clear their bowls and tracks of debris. One way researchers check whether bowls are visited at night is to place a few twigs in the bowl; if the male visits overnight, he will pick them up in his beak and toss them away.

To attract females, males make loud, low-frequency (below 100 Hz) booming calls from their bowls by inflating a thoracic sac. The hertz (symbol Hz) is a measure of Frequency, informally defined as the number of events occurring per Second. The thorax is a division of an Animal 's body that lies between the head and the Abdomen. ^[9][10] They start with low grunts, which increase in volume as the sac inflates. After a sequence of about 20 loud booms, the volume drops off. The male Kakapo then stands up for a short while before again lowering his head, inflating his chest and starting another sequence of booms. The booms can be heard at least one kilometre (0. 6 mi) away on a still night; wind can carry the sound at least five kilometres (3 mi). ^[6] Males boom for an average of eight hours a night; each male may produce thousands of booms in this time. This may continue every night for three or four months during which time the male may lose half his body weight. Each male moves around the bowls in his court so that the booms are sent out in different directions. These booms are also notorious for attracting predators, due to the long range at which they can be heard. The large number of Kakapo concentrated in a lek, combined with the inability to readily escape from mammalian predators, means that a single assailant, such as a feral cat, can easily kill many of the birds.

Females are attracted by the booms of the competing males; they too may need to walk several kilometres from their territories to the arena. Once a female enters the court of one of the males, the male performs a display in which he rocks from side to side and makes clicking noises with his beak. ^[11] He turns his back to the female, spreads his wings in display and walks backwards towards her. The duration of attempted copulation is between 2 to 14 minutes. ^[11] Once the birds have mated, the female returns to her home territory to lay eggs and raise the chicks. The male continues booming in the hope of attracting another female.

Female Kakapo lay up to three eggs per breeding cycle. An ovum (plural ova) is a Haploid Female reproductive cell or Gamete. ^[10] They nest on the ground under the cover of plants or in cavities such as hollow tree trunks. They incubate the eggs faithfully, but are forced to leave them every night in search of food. Predators are known to eat the eggs and the embryos inside can also freeze to death in the mother's absence. Kakapo eggs usually hatch within 30 days,^[12] bearing fluffy gray chicks that are quite helpless. After the eggs hatch, the female feeds the chicks for three months, and the chicks continue to remain with the female for some months after fledging. Fledge is the stage in a young Bird 's life when the feathers and wing muscles are sufficiently developed for flight ^[10] The young chicks are just as vulnerable to predators as the eggs, and young have been killed by many of the same predators that attack adults. Chicks leave the nest at approximately 10 to 12 weeks of age. As they gain greater independence, their mothers may feed the chicks sporadically for up to 6 months.

Because Kakapo are quite long-lived, they tend to have an adolescence before beginning breeding. Males do not start to boom until about 5 years of age. ^[9] It was previously thought that female Kakapo's reached sexual maturity at 9 years of age, however in the 2008 breeding season this idea was debunked when two 6 year old females named Apirama and Rakiura laid eggs. Sexual maturity is the age or stage when an Organism can reproduce. ^[13] Generally females do not seek out males until they are between 9 and 11 years old. ^[12] This long delay before they start to reproduce leaves plenty of time to perpetuate the species. Kakapo do not breed every year and have one of the lowest rates of reproduction among birds. Breeding occurs only in years when trees mast (fruit heavily), providing a plentiful food supply. Rimu mast occurs only every three to five years, so in rimu-dominant forests such as those on Codfish Island, Kakapo breeding occurs as infrequently. Dacrydium cupressinum is a large Evergreen coniferous Tree endemic to the forests of New Zealand. ^[14]

Another interesting aspect of the Kakapo's breeding system is that the females can alter the sex ratio of their offspring in relation to maternal condition. Females that eat protein-rich foods produce more male-biased offspring (males have 30–40% more body weight than females). Females produce bias offsprings towards the dispersive sex when competition for resources (such as food) is high and to the non-dispersive sex when food is plentiful; a female Kakapo will likely be able to produce eggs, even when there are few resources, while a male Kakapo will be more capable of perpetuating the species when there are plenty, by mating with several females. ^[15] This is in support of the Trivers-Willard hypothesis. In Evolutionary biology, the Trivers-Willard hypothesis proposes that parents will invest more in the sex that gives them the greatest reproductive payoff ('grand-offspring' The relationship between clutch sex ratio and maternal diet has conservation implications, as a captive population maintained on a high quality diet will produce less females and therefore less individuals valuable to recovery of the species. ^[16]

Conservation

The fossil record indicates that in pre-polynesian times, the Kakapo was New Zealand's third most common bird^[17] and it was widespread on all 3 main islands. However, the population of Kakapo in New Zealand has declined massively since human settlement of the country. Since 1891, conservation efforts have been made to prevent extinction. The most successful scheme has been the Kakapo Recovery Plan; this was implemented in 1989 and is still ongoing.

Human impact

The first factor in the decline of the Kakapo was the arrival of humans. According to Māori folklore, Kakapo were found throughout the country when the Polynesians first arrived in Aotearoa 1,000 years ago;^[18] subfossil and midden deposits show that they were present throughout the North island, South island and Stewart island before and during early Māori times. This article discusses the Māori people of New Zealand For their language see Māori language, and for other meanings see Māori (disambiguation. Polynesia (from Greek: πολύς many, νῆσος island) is a Subregion of Oceania, comprising a large grouping of over Subfossil refers to remains whose Fossilization process is not complete either for lack of time or because the condition in which they were buried were not optimal for fossilization A midden, also known as a kitchen midden, or a shell heap, is a dump for domestic waste. ^[19] Māori settlers from Polynesia hunted the Kakapo for food and for their skins and feathers, which were made into luxurious capes. Polynesia (from Greek: πολύς many, νῆσος island) is a Subregion of Oceania, comprising a large grouping of over A cape is a type of Clothing, and can be used to describe any sleeveless outer garment such as a Poncho, but usually it is a long garment that covers only the back ^[18] They used the dried heads as ear ornaments. Due to its flightlessness, strong scent and habit of freezing when threatened, the Kakapo were easy prey for the Māori and their dogs. Their eggs and chicks were also predated by the Polynesian Rat or kiore, which the Māori brought to New Zealand. The Polynesian Rat, or Pacific Rat ( Rattus exulans) known to the Māori as kiore, is the third most widespread species of Rat in ^[8] Furthermore, the deliberate clearing of vegetation by Māori reduced the habitable range for Kakapo. Although the Kakapo were extinct in many parts of the islands by the time Europeans arrived,^[20] including the Tararua and Aorangi Ranges,^[21] they were still present in the central part of North island and forested parts of South island. The Tararua Range (often referred to as the Tararua Ranges) is one of several mountain ranges in the North Island of New Zealand which form ^[19]

From the 1840s, European settlers cleared vast tracts of land for farming and grazing, further jeopardising the Kakapo and their habitat. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Grazing generally describes a type of Predation in which an Herbivore feeds on Plants (such as Grasses, or more broadly on a multicellular They brought more dogs and other mammalian predators, including domestic cats, black rats and stoats. ^[22] Europeans knew little of the Kakapo until George Gray of the British Museum described it from a skin in 1845. George Robert Gray FRS ( July 8, 1808 - May 6, 1872) was an English zoologist and Author and The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. As the Māori had done, early European explorers and their dogs fed on Kakapo. In the late 1800s, Kakapo became well-known as a scientific curiosity, and thousands were captured or killed for zoos, museums and collectors. Most captured specimens died within months. From at least the 1870s, collectors knew the Kakapo population was declining; their prime concern was to collect as many as possible before they became extinct.

In the 1880s, large numbers of mustelids (stoats, ferrets and weasels) were released in New Zealand to reduce rabbit numbers,^[23] but they also preyed heavily on many native species including the Kakapo. Mustelidae or Mustelids (from Latin mustela, Weasel) commonly referred to as the weasel family, is a family of carnivorous Mammals The ferret is a domestic Mammal of the type Mustela putorius furo. Weasels are Mammals in the genus Mustela of the Mustelidae family. Rabbits are small Mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world Other browsing animals, such as introduced deer, competed with Kakapo for food, and caused the extinction of some of its preferred plant species. A deer is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. Kakapo were reportedly still present near the head of the Whanganui River as late as 1894, with one of the last records of a Kakapo in the North Island being a single bird caught in the Kaimanawa Ranges by one Te Kepa Puawheawhe in 1895. The Whanganui River is a major river in the North Island of New Zealand. The Kaimanawa Range of mountains (often known as the Kaimanawa Ranges) is located in the central North Island ^[21]

Early protection efforts

In 1891, the New Zealand government set aside Resolution Island in Fiordland as a nature reserve; in 1894, the government appointed Richard Henry as caretaker. Resolution Island is the largest (uninhabited island in Fiordland, in the southwest of New Zealand. Richard Treacy Henry (4 June 1845 – 13 November 1929 was a New Zealand Conservationist and reserve manager who became an expert on the Natural history A keen naturalist, Henry was aware that native birds were declining, and began catching and moving Kakapo and kiwi from the mainland to the predator-free Resolution Island. KIWI (1029 FM, "Radio Lobo" is a commercial Radio station located in McFarland California, broadcasting to the Bakersfield California In six years, he moved more than 200 Kakapo to Resolution Island. By 1900, however, stoats had swum to Resolution Island and colonised it; they wiped out this nascent Kakapo population within 6 years. ^[24]

In 1903, three Kakapo were moved from Resolution Island to the nature reserve of Hauturu/Little Barrier Island north-east of Auckland, but feral cats were present and the Kakapo were never seen again. Little Barrier Island or Hauturu lies off the northeastern coast of New Zealand 's North Island. The Auckland metropolitan area or Greater Auckland, in the North Island of New Zealand, is the largest and most populous urban area in the country A feral cat (or stray cat, alley cat) is a Cat which has been separated from Domestication through abandonment loss or running away and becomes In 1912, three Kakapo were moved to another reserve, Kapiti Island, north-west of Wellington. Kapiti Island is a small but conspicuous island about 8 km (5 miles off the west coast of the lower North Island of New Zealand. Wellington (ˈwælɪŋtən is the Capital of New Zealand, the country's second largest urban area, the One of them survived until at least 1936, despite the presence of feral cats for part of the intervening period. ^[24]

By the 1920s, the Kakapo were extinct on the North Island and their range and numbers on the South Island were declining. The North Island is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, the other being the South Island. The South Island is the larger of the two major islands of New Zealand, the other being the more populous North Island. ^[20] One of their last refuges was rugged Fiordland. There, during the 1930s, they were often seen or heard, and occasionally eaten, by hunters or roadworkers. By the 1940s, reports of Kakapo were becoming scarce.

1950–1989 conservation efforts

In the 1950s, the New Zealand Wildlife Service was established and began making regular expeditions to search for Kakapo, mostly in Fiordland and what is now the Kahurangi National Park in the northwest of the South Island. Kahurangi National Seven Fiordland expeditions between 1951 and 1956 found only a few recent signs. Finally, in 1958 a Kakapo was caught and released in the Milford Sound catchment area in Fiordland. Milford Sound ( Piopiotahi in Māori) is a Fiord in the south west of New Zealand 's South Island, within Fiordland Six more Kakapo were captured in 1961; one was released and the other five were transferred to the aviaries of the Mount Bruce Bird Reserve near Masterton in the North Island. An aviary is a large enclosure for confining Birds. Unlike cages ' aviaries allow birds a larger living space where they can fly hence aviaries are also Masterton is a town (and local government district in the Wellington region of New Zealand. Within months, four of the birds had died and the fifth died after about four years. In the next 12 years, regular expeditions found few signs of Kakapo, indicating that numbers were continuing to decline. Only one bird was captured in 1967; it died the following year.

By the early 1970s, it was uncertain whether Kakapo was still an extant species. At the end of 1974, scientists located several more male Kakapo and made the first scientific observations of Kakapo booming. These observations led Don Merton to speculate for the first time that Kakapo had a lek breeding system. Donald Merton (born February 1939 in Auckland) is a New Zealand Conservationist best known for saving the Black robin from extinction ^[8] From 1974 to 1976, 14 Kakapo were discovered but all appeared to be males. One male bird was captured in the Milford area in 1975, christened "Richard Henry", and transferred to Maud Island. Maud Island, originally called Te Hoiere in the Māori language, is the second-largest island in the Marlborough Sounds on the northern tip of the This raised the possibility that all the females had died and that the species was functionally extinct. In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa. All the birds the Wildlife Service discovered from 1951 to 1976 were in U-shaped glaciated valleys flanked by almost-vertical cliffs and surrounded by high mountains. In Geology, a valley (also called a vale, dale, glen or strath and near or in Appalachia, a draw) is Such extreme terrain had slowed colonisation by browsing mammals, leaving islands of virtually unmodified native vegetation. However, even here, stoats were present and by 1976 Kakapo were gone from the valley floors and only a few males survived high on the most inaccessible parts of the cliffs. ^[11]

Prior to 1977, no expedition had been to Stewart Island/Rakiura, despite government workers seeing a Kakapo there and snatching feathers from it in 1949. In 1977, sightings of Kakapo were reported on Stewart Island. ^[11] An expedition to the island found a track and bowl system on its first day; soon after, it located several dozen Kakapo. The finding in an 8,000 ha area of fire-modified scrubland and forest raised hope that the population would include females. Scrubland is a Plant community characterized by scrub Vegetation. The total population was estimated at 100 to 200 birds. ^[25]

Mustelids have never colonised Steward Island/Rakiura, but feral cats were present. Mustelidae or Mustelids (from Latin mustela, Weasel) commonly referred to as the weasel family, is a family of carnivorous Mammals A feral cat (or stray cat, alley cat) is a Cat which has been separated from Domestication through abandonment loss or running away and becomes During a survey, it was apparent that cats killed Kakapo with a predation rate of 56% per annum. ^[26] At this rate, the birds could not survive on the island and therefore an intensive cat control was introduced in 1982, after which no cat-killed Kakapo were found. ^[11] However, to ensure the survival of the remaining birds, scientists decided later that this population should be transferred to predator-free islands; this operation was carried between 1982 and 1997. ^[27]

Kakapo recovery plan

In 1989, a Kakapo Recovery Plan was developed and a Kakapo Recovery Group established to implement it. ^[28] The New Zealand's Department of Conservation replaced the Wildlife Service for this task. The first action of the plan was to relocate all the remaining Kakapo to suitable islands for them to breed. None of the New Zealand islands were ideal to establish Kakapo without rehabilitation by extensive revegetation and the eradication of introduced mammalian predators and competitors. The ecological restoration of islands, or island restoration, is the application of the principles of Ecological restoration to Islands and island groups Four islands were finally chosen: Maud, Hauturu/Little Barrier, Codfish and Mana. Maud Island, originally called Te Hoiere in the Māori language, is the second-largest island in the Marlborough Sounds on the northern tip of the Little Barrier Island or Hauturu lies off the northeastern coast of New Zealand 's North Island. Codfish island or Whenua Hou is a small island (14 km² located to the west of Stewart Island/Rakiura in southern New Zealand. Mana Island is the smaller of two islands that lie off the southwest coast of the North Island of New Zealand (the larger is Kapiti Island) ^[27] Some islands had to be rehabilitated several times when feral cats, stoats and weka kept appearing. The Weka or woodhen ( Gallirallus australis) is a Flightless bird species of the rail family. Sixty-five Kakapo (43 males, 22 females) have been successfully transferred onto the four islands in five translocations. ^[27] As of November 2005, Hauturu/Little Barrier Island and Mana Island were replaced with Chalky Island (Te Kakahu) and Anchor Island as Kakapo sanctuaries. Chalky Island may refer to Chalky Island (New Zealand Chalky Island (Tasmania Little Chalky Island, Tasmania Anchor Island or "Pukenui" (1380 ha is an Island in Dusky Sound, Fiordland National Park in the Southland District of ^[11]

A key part of the Recovery Plan is the supplementary feeding of females. Kakapo breed only once every two to five years, when a certain type of plant species, primarily Dacrydium cupressinum (rimu), produces protein-rich fruit and seeds. Dacrydium cupressinum is a large Evergreen coniferous Tree endemic to the forests of New Zealand. Observations of the relationship between intermittent breeding and the plant's mast year help biologists choose which suitable supplementary foods to increase Kakapo breeding frequency. A mast year is a Year in which Vegetation produces a significant abundance of Fruit. ^[29] In 1989, six preferred foods (apples, sweet potatoes, almonds, brazil nuts, sunflower seeds and walnuts) were supplied ad libitum each night to 12 feeding stations. The apple is the pomaceous Fruit of the apple tree Species Malus domestica in the Rose family Rosaceae. The sweet potato ( Ipomoea batatas) is a Dicotyledonous plant which belongs to the family Convolvulaceae The Almond ( Prunus dulcis, syn Prunus amygdalus Batsch Amygdalus communis L The Brazil nut ( Bertholletia excelsa) is a South American Tree in the family Lecythidaceae, and also the name of the tree's commercially The sunflower seed is the Fruit of the Sunflower ( Helianthus annuus) Walnuts (genus Juglans) are Plants in the family Juglandaceae. Males and females ate the supplied foods, and females nested on Little Barrier Island in the summers of 1989–91 for the first time since 1982, although nesting success was low. ^[30]

Supplementary feeding not only increases the Kakapo breeding frequency, but also affects the sex ratio of Kakapo offspring, as maternal conditions influence this ratio. Sex ratio is the Ratio of Males to Females in a Population. The primary sex ratio is the ratio at the time of conception secondary sex ratio is ^[31] (See section "Reproduction" for more information on this topic. The Kakapo ( Māori: kākāpō, meaning night parrot) Strigops habroptilus (from the Greek strix, genitive ) This finding was subsequently used to increase the number of female chicks by deliberately manipulating maternal condition. ^[32] During the winter of 1981, only females below 1. 5 kg weight were given supplementary feeding to avoid raising their body condition, and the sex ratio results in 1982 were close to parity, eliminating the male-biased sex ratios in the unrestricted feeding.

Though breeding can be improved by supplementary feeding, the survival of young Kakapo is hampered by the presence of Polynesian rats. Of 21 chicks that hatched between 1981 and 1994, nine were either killed by rats or died and were subsequently eaten by rats. ^[29] Nest protection has been intensified since 1995 by using traps and poison stations as soon as a nest had been detected. A rat trap is a trap designed to catch Rats however it may also catch other similar sized animals A small video camera and infra-red light source watch the nest continuously, which will remotely scare approaching rats by small bang and flash lights. Infrared ( IR) radiation is Electromagnetic radiation whose Wavelength is longer than that of Visible light, but shorter than that of To increase the success rate of nesting, a nest watcher places a small thermostatically controlled electric blanket over the eggs or chicks, whenever the female leaves the nest for food. The survival rate of chicks has increased from 29% in unprotected nests to 75% in protected ones. ^[29]

To monitor the Kakapo population continuously, each bird is equipped with a radio transmitter. For biologic transmitters see Transmitter substance. A transmitter is an electronic device which usually with the aid of an antenna ^[29] Every known Kakapo has been given a name by Kakapo Recovery Programme officials. Every known Kakapo has been given a name by Kakapo Recovery Programme officials It is an affectionate way for conservation staff to refer to individual birds, and a stark reminder of how few remain. Artificial incubation of eggs and hand-raising of chicks interventions were often used to strengthen conditions of the eggs and the chicks. AIH redirects here For the indie rock band abbreviated AIH see Architecture in Helsinki Artificial insemination (AI is the process by which ^[33] As of November 2005, the population comprised 41 females and 45 males, including four fledging (3 females and 1 male) bred in 2005. ^[11] The oldest surviving Kakapo, "Richard Henry", is thought to be between 35 and 50 years old. ^[34]

In 2006, the Kakapo Recovery Programme presented a new management plan that would run from 2006 to 2016. ^[35] The key goals of this plan are to increase the female population to a minimum of 60 by 2016, increase genetic diversity, maintain or restore a sufficiently large habitat to accommodate the expected increase in the Kakapo population, and maintain public awareness and support.

The Kakapo Recovery Plan has been a successful program as the numbers of Kakapo increase steadily. The adult survival rate and their productivity have both improved significantly since the programme's inception. However, the main goal is to establish at least one viable, self-sustaining, unmanaged population of Kakapo as a functional component of the ecosystem in a protected habitat. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( ^[36] To accept this conservation challenge, two large Fiordland islands, Resolution (20,860 ha) and Secretary (8,140 ha), have been prepared for re-introduction of Kakapo with large-scale ecological restoration activities. Resolution Island is the largest (uninhabited island in Fiordland, in the southwest of New Zealand. Secretary Island is an island in southwestern New Zealand. it lies entirely within Fiordland National Park. ^[11]

In Māori culture

The Kakapo has a rich tradition of Māori folklore and beliefs associated with it as a species. This article discusses the Māori people of New Zealand For their language see Māori language, and for other meanings see Māori (disambiguation. Their irregular breeding cycle was noted to be associated with heavy fruiting or "masting" events of particular plant species such as the Rimu which led the Māori to credit the bird with the ability to foretell the future. A mast year is a Year in which Vegetation produces a significant abundance of Fruit. Dacrydium cupressinum is a large Evergreen coniferous Tree endemic to the forests of New Zealand. ^[37] Used to substantiate this claim were reported observations of these birds dropping the berries of the Hinau and Tawa trees (when they were in season) into secluded pools of water to preserve them as a food supply for the summer ahead; the Māori practice of immersing food in water for the same purpose is believed to originate from these observations. ^[37]

Use for food and clothing

The meat of Kakapo made good eating and was considered by Māori to be a delicacy^[38] and they were hunted for food during the time they were still widespread. ^[39] One source states that its flesh "resembles lamb in taste and texture",^[37] although European settlers have described the bird as having a "strong and slightly stringent flavor". Lamb, hogget, and mutton are the meat of Domestic sheep. The meat of an animal in its first year is lamb; that of an older sheep is hogget ^[38]

In breeding years, the loud booming calls of the males at their mating arenas made it easy for Māori hunting parties to track them down, and they were also hunted while feeding or when having dust baths in dry weather. A lek is a gathering of Males of certain animal species for the purposes of competitive Mating display The birds were caught, generally at night, using snares, pitfall traps, or by groups of domesticated Polynesian dogs which accompanied the hunting parties — sometimes they would use fire sticks of various sorts to dazzle the birds in the darkness, stopping them in their tracks and making the capture easier. Kurī is the Māori language name for the Polynesian Dog. It was introduced to New Zealand by Māori during their migrations from East Polynesia ^[37] Cooking was either done in a Hāngi or in gourds of boiling oil. Hāngi ( is an ancient New Zealand Māori method of Cooking food using super heated rocks buried in the ground in a Pit oven. ^[39] The flesh of the birds could be preserved in their own fat and stored in containers for later consumption — hunters of the Ngāi Tahu tribe would pack the flesh in baskets made from the inner bark of Totara tree or in containers constructed from kelp. Ngāi Tahu, or Kāi Tahu, the principal Māori Iwi (tribe of the southern region of New Zealand, has its tribal authority (Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Podocarpus totara ( tōtara) is a species of podocarp endemic to New Zealand. Kelp are large Seaweeds ( Algae) belonging to the Brown algae and classified in the order Laminariales ^[40] Bundles of Kakapo tail feathers were attached to the sides of these containers to provide decoration and a way to identify their contents. ^[38][40]Also taken by the Māori were the bird's eggs, which are described as "white-ish but not pure white", and about the same size as a kererū egg. The kererū or New Zealand Pigeon ( Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) is a Bird endemic to New Zealand. ^[37]

As well as eating the meat of the Kakapo they killed, Māori would use Kakapo skins — with the feathers still attached — to create cloaks and capes. ^[39][40] Each one required up to 11,000 feathers to make. ^[41] Not only were these garments very beautiful, they also kept the wearer very warm. ^[41][39] They were highly valued, and the few still in existence today are considered Taonga (treasures) — indeed, the old Māori adage "You have a Kākāpō cape and you still complain of the cold" is used to describe someone who is never satisfied. A taonga in Māori culture is a treasured thing whether tangible or intangible ^[39] Kakapo feathers were also used to decorate the heads of taiaha, but were removed before actual use in combat. A Taiaha (pronounced as taiaha is a traditional weapon of the Māori of New Zealand. ^[38][40][41]

Despite all, the Kakapo was also regarded as an affectionate pet by the Māori. A pet is an Animal kept for companionship and enjoyment or a househeld animal as opposed to Livestock, Laboratory animals Working animals This was corroborated by European settlers in New Zealand in the 19th century, among them George Edward Grey, who once wrote in a letter to an associate that his pet Kakapo's behavior towards him and his friends was "more like that of a dog than a bird". For other men with a similar name see George Grey (disambiguation or George Gray Sir George Grey, KCB ( 14 April ^[37]

Media

References

Further reading

• Butler, David (1989). Quest for the kakapo. Auckland: Heinemann Reed. ISBN 0-7900-0065-2.  
• Climo, Gideon and Ballance, Alison (1997). Hoki: the story of a kakapo. Auckland: Godwit. ISBN 1-86962-009-7.  
• Jones, Jenny (2003). The Kakapo. Auckland: Reed. ISBN 1-86948-662-5.  
• BirdLife International (2004). Strigops habroptilus. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List) created in 1963 is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 9 May 2006. (Database entry includes justification for why this species is critically endangered. )

External links

• Kakapo Recovery Program
• TerraNature page on Kakapo
• New Zealand Department of Conservation Kakapo Page
• Rare parrot receives special care (article from BBC News)
• Saving Kakapo: an illustrated history by Murray Williams and Don Merton, in: 'Notornis (Journal), vol. 53/1, 2006' Abstract provided by the Ornithological Society of New Zealand.
• ARKive - images and movies of the Kakapo
• Start of the Breeding season 2008

ARKive is a global initiative to locate and gather Films, Photographs and Audio Recordings of the world's Species into one centralised

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