The Jurchens (traditional Chinese: 女眞; simplified Chinese: 女真; pinyin: nǚzhēn) were a Tungus people who inhabited the region of Manchuria (Northeast China) until the 17th century, when they became known as the Manchus. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use The term Tungusic peoples is used to describe peoples speaking a Tungusic language. Manchuria ( Romanized Manchu: Manju,, Маньчжурия Mongolian: Манж is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast Northeast China ( is a geographical region of China. It is separated from Russia largely by the Amur, Argun, and Ussuri rivers from The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in They established the Jin Dynasty (1115–1234) (ancun gurun in ancient Jurchen and aisin gurun in Standard Manchu) between 1115 and 1122; it lasted until 1234 when the Mongols arrived. This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty
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Etymology
The name Jurchen dates back to at least the beginning of the tenth century, when the Balhae kingdom was destroyed by the Khitans. Alternate meaning Bohai Sea Balhae (698 - 926 ( Bohai in Chinese, Пархэ in Russian) was an The Khitan (or Khitai,) were a Nomadic people, located in Mongolia and modern Manchuria (Northeast China from the 4th century dominating much of it However, cognate ethnonyms like Sushen have been recorded in pre-Christian Era geographical works like the Shan Hai Jing and Book of Wei. Sushen was an ancient ethnic group or people who dwelt in the northeastern part of China and the Russian Maritime Province. Shan Hai Jing ( is a Chinese classic text that is at least 2000 years old The Book of Wei ( is a classic Chinese historical writing compiled by Wei Shou from 551 to 554, and serves as an important historical It comes from the Jurchen word jušen, the original meaning of which is unclear. It is a curious fact that in Manchu, the linear descendant of Jurchen, jušen occurs in many compounds denoting "slaves" and "serfs", such as jušen halangga niyalma "a serf of the Manchus" (literally, "a person of the Jušen clan"). Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin [1] The standard English version of the name, "Jurchen," is an Anglicized transliteration of the Mongolian equivalent of the Jurchen term jušen (Mongolian: Jürchen, plural form Jürched), and may have made it to the West via Mongolian texts. The Mongolian language (mn [[ImageMonggol kelesvg 17px]] Mongɣol kele, Cyrillic: Монгол хэл Mongol khel) is the best-known member of [2] A less common English transliteration is "Jurched".
Jin Dynasty
The 11th century Jurchen tribes of northern Manchuria descended from the Tungusic Mohe, or Malgal tribes who were subjects of the ethnically Goguryeo, Balhae state during the Tang era. This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. The term Tungusic peoples is used to describe peoples speaking a Tungusic language. The Mohe (or Malgal, Mogher) were a Tungusic people in ancient Manchuria. The Mohe (or Malgal, Mogher) were a Tungusic people in ancient Manchuria. Goguryeo or Koguryo was an ancient Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean peninsula, southern Manchuria, and Alternate meaning Bohai Sea Balhae (698 - 926 ( Bohai in Chinese, Пархэ in Russian) was an The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by By the 11th century, the Jurchens had become vassals of the Khitans (see also Liao Dynasty). The Khitan (or Khitai,) were a Nomadic people, located in Mongolia and modern Manchuria (Northeast China from the 4th century dominating much of it The Liao Dynasty ( 907 - 1125, also known as the Khitan Empire (契丹國 was an empire in northern China that ruled over the regions of Manchuria
They rose to power after their leader Wanyan Aguda unified them in 1115, declared himself Emperor, and quickly seized Shangjing, also known as Huanglongfu, the Northern Capital of Liao. Wanyan Aguda (完颜阿骨打 Han name 完颜旻 (1068-1123 r The Jurchens then invaded territories under the Han Chinese Northern Song Dynasty and overran most of northern China, first setting up puppet regimes like Qi and Chu, later directly ruling as a dynastic state in Northern China named Jin ("Gold", not to be confused with the several Jin Dynasties named after the region around Shanxi and Henan). Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms In traditional Chinese culture, qi (zh [[wikt氣 氣]] Pinyin qì, Wade-Giles ch'i Jyutping This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty ( Postal map spelling: Shansi) is a province in the northern part of the People's Republic of China. Henan ( is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country Jin captured the Song capital of Kaifeng in 1127. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Kaifeng ( formerly known as Bianliang ( Bianjing ( Daliang ( or simply Liang ( is a Prefecture-level city in eastern Their armies pushed all the way south to the Yangtze but through continued warfare and treaties of diplomacy this boundary with the Han Chinese Southern Song Dynasty was eventually stabilised along the Huai River. The Huai River ( is a major river in China. The Huai River is located about mid-way between the Yellow River and Yangtze River, the two largest rivers
The Jurchen named their Dynasty the Jin ("Golden") after the Anchuhu River (anchuhu is the Jurchen equivalent of Manchu aisin "gold, golden") in their homeland. Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin At first, the Jurchen tribesmen were kept in readiness for warfare but decades of urban and settled life in China eroded their original hunting-gathering lifestyle in Manchurian tundra and marshes. A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting Eventually intermarriage with other ethnicities in China was permitted and peace with the Southern Song confirmed. The Jin rulers themselves came to follow Confucian norms. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B
After 1189, the Jin became involved in exhausting wars on two fronts: against the Mongols and the Southern Song dynasty. By 1215, under Mongol pressure, they were forced to move their capital south from Zhongdu (modern day Beijing) to Kaifeng, where the Mongol hordes extinguished the Jin Dynasty in 1234. Kaifeng ( formerly known as Bianliang ( Bianjing ( Daliang ( or simply Liang ( is a Prefecture-level city in eastern
Culture, language and society
The Jurchens generally lived by traditions that reflected the hunting-gathering culture of Siberian-Manchurian tundra and coastal peoples. Like the Khitans and Mongols, they took pride in feats of strength, horsemanship, archery, and hunting. The Khitan (or Khitai,) were a Nomadic people, located in Mongolia and modern Manchuria (Northeast China from the 4th century dominating much of it They engaged in shamanic rituals and believed in a supreme sky god (abka-i enduri, abka-i han). After conquering China, during the Jin Dynasty, the Jurchen adopted Tibetan Buddhism as the state religion and Daoism was assimilated as well. Tibetan Buddhism is the body of Buddhist religious doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet and certain regions of the Himalayas, including A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions [1]
The Jurchen made the Han, within the conquered territories, shave the tops of their heads and adopt Jurchen dress. Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. [2] This "bald-Head" fashion was known as 禿髮 tūfǎ (“Bald-Hair or Stripped-Hair”) to the Chinese. [3]. The later Manchus (who were also Jurchens) similarly made the Han shave their heads and adopt the queue (ponytail), or soncoho (Chinese: 辮子 biànzi), which was the traditional Manchurian hairstyle. The queue or cue is a hairstyle in which the hair is worn long and gathered up into a pigtail
The early Jurchen script was invented in 1120 by Wanyan Xiyin, acting on the orders of Wanyan Aguda. Wanyan Xiyin was a Manchurian scribe ordered by the Jurchen chieftain Wanyan Aguda (later the Emperor Taizu to create the Jurchen script for administrative Wanyan Aguda (完颜阿骨打 Han name 完颜旻 (1068-1123 r It was based on the Khitan script, that was inspired in turn by Chinese characters. Khitan script was the writing system of Khitan people. Afraid that the popularity of Chinese language and writing would blur their distinct identity the Khitan people A Chinese character, also known as a Han character ( is a Logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi Japanese ( However, because Chinese is an isolating language and the Jurchen and Khitan languages are agglutinative, the script proved to be cumbersome. In morphological typology (in linguistics an isolating language (also analytic language) is any Language in which words are composed of An agglutinative language is a Language that uses Agglutination extensively most Words are formed by joining Morphemes together The written Jurchen language died out soon after the fall of the Jin Dynasty, though its spoken form survived. Until the end of the sixteenth century, when Manchu became the new literary language, the Jurchens used a combination of Mongolian and Chinese. Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin
The cultural conceptualisation of Jurchen society owes a great deal to the Mongols. Both Mongols and Jurchens used the title Khan for the leaders of a political entity, whether "emperor" or "chief". A particularly powerful chief was called beile ("prince, nobleman"), corresponding with the Mongolian beki and Turkish beg or bey. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family Bey is a Turkish title for "chieftain" traditionally applied to the leaders of small tribal groups Also like the Mongols and the Turks, the Jurchens did not observe a law of primogeniture. Primogeniture is the Common law right of the Firstborn son to inherit the entire estate, to the exclusion of younger siblings According to tradition, any capable son or nephew could be chosen to become leader.
During Ming times, the Jurchen people lived in social units that were sub-clans (mukun or hala mukun) of ancient clans (hala). The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led Members of Jurchen clans shared a consciousness of a common ancestor and were led by a head man (mukunda). Mukunda Goswami ( मुकुन्द गोस्वामी) is an acting spiritual leader ( Guru) within the International Society for Krishna Consciousness Not all clan members were blood related and division and integration of different clans was common. Jurchen households (boo) lived as families (booigon), consisting of five to seven blood-related family members and a number of slaves. Households formed squads (tatan) to engage in tasks related to hunting and food gathering; and formed companies (niru) for larger activities, such as war.
Jurchens during the Ming Dynasty
Chinese chroniclers of the Ming Dynasty distinguished three groups of Jurchens: the Wild Jurchens of northernmost Manchuria, the Haixi Jurchens of modern Heilongjiang and the Jianzhou Jurchens of modern Jilin province. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led The Wild Jurchens (野人女真 were a grouping of the Jurchens as identified by the Chinese of the Ming Dynasty. The Haixi Jurchens (海西女真 were a grouping of the Jurchens as identified by the Chinese of the Ming Dynasty. ( Postal map spelling: Heilungkiang Manchu: Sahaliyan ula is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern The Jianzhou Jurchens were a grouping of the Jurchens as identified by the Chinese of the Ming Dynasty. ( Postal map spelling: Kirin; Manchu: Girin ula is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern They led a pastoral-agrarian lifestyle, hunting, fishing, and engaging in limited agriculture. In 1388, the Hongwu Emperor dispatched a mission to establish contact with the tribes of Odoli, Huligai and T'owen, beginning the sinicisation of the Jurchen people. Early life Zhu Yuanzhang was born in 1328 in Pei County Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province as the youngest of four sons Sinicization, Sinicisation or Sinification, (in Mandarin: 中国化 Zhōngguóhuà) is the linguistic assimilation or
Yongle Emperor found allies among the various Jurchen tribes against the Mongols. The Yongle Emperor ( Wade-Giles: Yung-lo May 2, 1360 &ndash August 12, 1424) born Zhu Di ( Chu Ti He bestowed titles and surnames to various Jurchen chiefs and expected them to send periodic tribute. Chinese commanderies were established over tribal military units under their own hereditary tribal leaders. In the Yongle period alone 178 commanderies were set up in Manchuria, an index of the Chinese divide-and-rule tactics. Later on, horse markets were also established in the northern border towns of Liaodong for trade. The increasing sinification of the Jurchens ultimately gave them the organisation structures to extend their power beyond the steppe. Sinicization, Sinicisation or Sinification, (in Mandarin: 中国化 Zhōngguóhuà) is the linguistic assimilation or Later, a Korean army led by Yi-Il,and Yi Sun-sin would expel them from Korea. Yi Sun-sin (April 28 1545 – December 16 1598 also commonly transliterated Yi Soon-shin or Lee Sun-shin, Korean:이순신 was a Korean
Over a period of thirty years from 1586, Nurhaci, a chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens, united the Jurchen tribes, which was later renamed Manchu by his son Hung Taiji. Nurhaci ( Chinese: 努爾哈赤 or 努爾哈齊; Manchu:) is considered to be the founding father of the Manchu The Jianzhou Jurchens were a grouping of the Jurchens as identified by the Chinese of the Ming Dynasty. The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in Huang Taiji ( November 28 1592 &ndash September 21 1643; reigned 1626 &ndash 1643 also transliterated as Hung Taiji He created a formidable synthesis of nomadic institutions, providing the basis of the Manchu state and later the conquest of China by the Qing dynasty. Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China
The Nuzhen tribe 女真族 (Jurchen) was the predecessor of the Manchu nationality. For a long period of time, it inhabited the areas north and south of the Songhua River and around the Heilong River. During the late Ming and early Qing eras, the Nuzhen tribe in the northeast was divided into 3 parts called Haixi (海西, "west of the sea"), Jianzhou (建洲, "establishing a state") and Yeren (野人, "wild people").
The Yeren tribe was rather backward, without a fixed dwelling place. The Haixi and Jianzhou tribes were engaged in fishing, hunting, animal husbandry, and farming, and had relatively fixed abodes. A gap between the rich and the poor and the division of classes emerged. The three tribes were in the patriarchal-slavery stage of the late slavery clan system.
The Ming dynasty had set up a horse market at a Nuzhen dwelling-place to carry out trade with the Haixi and Jianzhou tribes, whose main commodities were horse, fur, ginseng, and other special local products. Commodities from the Han regions included iron farming tools, farm cattle, seeds, rice, salt, textiles, etc.
In 1409, the Ming government set up a post called Nurkal Command Post (NCP) at Telin in the vicinity of Heilong River. The three parts of the Nuzhen tribe came under the administration of the NCP. Leaders of the Haixi and Jianzhou tribes had accepted the Ming government's enfeoffments.
From 1411 to 1433, the Ming eunuch Yishiha 亦失哈 (a man of Jurchen origin) led ten large missions to win over the allegiance of the Jurchen tribes along the Sunggari and Amur rivers. The Songhua River (also known as the Sungari River in English a name which comes from the Manchu language meaning White River) is a River in His fleet sailed down the Sunggari into the Amur, and set up the Nurkal (Nu'ergan) Command (奴兒干都司) at Telin 特林 (now Nikolayevsk-na-Amur in the Russian Far East) near the mouth of the Amur. Russian Far East (Да́льний Восто́к Росси́и ˈdalʲnʲɪj vʌˈstok rʌˈsʲiɪ is a term that refers to the Russian part of the Far East, i
These missions are not well recorded in the Ming dynastic history, but an important source on them is two stone steles erected by Yishiha at the site of the Yongning Temple 永宁寺, a Guanyin temple commissioned by him at Telin. The inscriptions on the steles are in four languages: Chinese, Jurchen, Mongol, and Tibetan. There is probably quite a lot of propaganda in the inscriptions, but they give a detailed record of the Ming court's efforts to assert suzerainty over the Jurchen.
After the setting up of the NCP, Yishiha (亦失哈) and other Ming dynasty eunuchs, under orders from the Emperor, came several times to offer local minority nationalities blessings and consolidations. When Yishiha inspected Nuergan for the 3rd time in 1413, he built a temple called Yongning Temple at Telin and erected a stele in front of it. The stele bore an inscription written in 4 languages - Han, Jurchen, Mongolian, and Tibetan.
Yishiha paid his 10th visit to Nuergan in 1432, during which he re-built the titled Yongning Temple and re-erected a stele in front of it. The stele bore the heading "Record of Re-building Yongning Temple," The setting up of the NCP and the repeated declarations to offer blessings and consolidations to this region by Yishiha and others were all recorded in this and the first steles.
See also
References
- ^ Cf. The following are the Ethnic groups in Chinese history. Any non clear-cut connection is denoted by a question mark beside the equivalences List of Jurchen Chieftains during the Liao Dynasty (926 - 1115 "Tamed/Cooked " Jurchens or Shu Jurchen (熟女眞 "Wild" Jurchens or Sheng The Toi invasion (Japanese ja 刀伊の入寇 toi no nyūkō was the invasion of northern Kyūshū by Jurchen pirates in 1019. Jerry Norman, A Concise Manchu-English Lexicon (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1978)
- ^ Cf. William J. Peterson, The Cambridge History of China (Cambridge University Press, 2002)
External links
- Jurchen script
- Overview of Jurchen scripts from 1368 AD to 1636 AD
- (Chinese) The Jurchen language and Script Website(Chinese Traditional Big5 code page) via Internet Archive
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