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In journalism, a source is a person, publication or other record or document that gives information. Journalism is the profession of writing or communicating formally employed by publications and broadcasters for the benefit of a particular Community of people

Contents

Overview

Examples of sources include: official records, publications or broadcasts, officials in government or business, organizations or corporations, witnesses of crime, accidents or other events, and people involved with or affected by a news event or issue. According to Shoemaker (1996) and McQuail (1994) there are a multitude of factors that tend to condition the acceptance of sources as bona fide by investigative journalists. Reporters are expected to develop and cultivate sources. A reporter is a type of Journalist who Researches and presents information in certain types of Mass media. This applies especially if they regularly cover a specific topic, known as a "beat". However, beat reporters must be cautious of becoming too close to their sources. Reporters often, but not always, give greater leeway to sources with little experience. For example, sometimes a person will say they don't want to talk, and then proceed to talk. If that person is not a public figure, reporters are less likely to use that information. Journalists are also encouraged to be skeptical without being cynical ("If your mother says she loves you, check it out. "). As a rule of thumb, but especially when reporting on controversy, reporters are expected to use multiple sources. Outside journalism, sources are sometimes known as a "news source".

Embargo

Main article: news embargo

In journalism and public relations, an embargo (sometimes called a press embargo) is an agreement or request that a news organization refrain from reporting certain information until a specified date and/or time, in exchange for advance access to the information. In Journalism and Public relations, a news embargo or press embargo is a request by a source that the Information or News Journalism is the profession of writing or communicating formally employed by publications and broadcasters for the benefit of a particular Community of people Public relations (PR is the practice of managing the flow of Information between an Organization and its Publics Public relations - often referred For example, if a government official is preparing to make a short speech announcing a policy initiative at 1:00 pm, the official's staff might transmit expanded details of the initiative to news organizations several hours ahead of the scheduled announcement, with a notice indicating that the contents are embargoed until 1:00. This gives the news organizations time to research and prepare complete stories that are ready to be disseminated when the embargo is lifted. In theory, press embargoes reduce inaccuracy in the reporting of breaking stories by reducing the incentive for journalists to cut corners in hopes of "scooping" the competition.

Embargoes are typically used by government or corporate representatives working in publicity or public relations, and are often arranged in advance as part of a formal or informal agreement. A corporation is a separate legal entity usually used to conduct business Publicity is the deliberate attempt to manage the public's perception of a subject Sometimes publishers will release advance copies of a book to reviewers with the agreement that reviews of it will not appear before the official release date of the publication. Complex scientific news might also require advance notice with an embargo. Governments also have legitimate reasons for imposing embargoes, often so as to prevent news reports being an unfair or undue influence over votes in legislative bodies. Artists' names and locations of performances are sometimes embargoed pending the official announcement of the scheduled performance tour. Sometimes publicists will send embargoed press releases to newsrooms unsolicited in hopes that they will respect the embargo date without having first agreed to do so. A news release, media release, press release or press statement is a written or recorded Communication directed at members of the News

News organizations sometimes break embargoes and report information before the embargo expires, either accidentally (due to miscommunication in the newsroom) or intentionally (to get the jump on their competitors). Breaking an embargo is typically considered a serious breach of trust and can result in the source barring the offending news outlet from receiving advance information in the future.

Using confidential information

Off-the-record material is often valuable and reporters may be eager to use it, so sources wishing to ensure the confidentiality of certain information are generally advised to discuss the "terms of use" before actually disclosing the information, if possible. Some journalists and news organizations have policies against accepting information "off the record" because they believe it interferes with their ability to report truthfully, or because they suspect it may be intended to mislead them or the public.

Even if they cannot report certain information directly, journalists can use "off the record" information to uncover related facts, or to find other sources that are willing to speak on the record. This is especially useful in investigative reporting. Investigative journalism is a type of reporting in which reporters deeply investigate a topic of interest often involving crime Political corruption, or some other Scandal Information about a surprise event or breaking news, whether on or off the record is known as a "tip-off". News is any new information or information on Current events which is presented by print, broadcast, Internet, or Word of mouth Information that leads to the uncovering of more interesting information is called a "lead".

Anonymous Sources

The identity of anonymous sources is sometimes revealed to senior editors or a news organization's lawyers, who would be considered bound by the same confidentiality. (Lawyers are generally protected from subpoena in these cases by attorney/client privilege. A subpoena (səˈpiːnə is commonly defined as a written command to a person to Testify before a Court or be punished Attorney-client privilege is a legal concept that protects communications between a client and his or her Attorney and keeps those communications confidential ) Legal staff may need to give counsel about whether it is advisable to publish certain information, or about court proceedings that may attempt to learn confidential information. Senior editors are in the loop to prevent reporters from fabricating non-existent, anonymous sources, and to provide a second opinion about how to use the information obtained, how or how not to identify sources, and whether other options should be pursued.

The use of anonymous sources has been a controversial subject for many years. Some news outlets insist that anonymous sources are required to get certain information while others hold strict prohibitions against the use of unnamed sources at all times. [1] News outlets are often embarrassed by a report from an anonymous source that turns out to be wrong. For instance, much of the O. J. Simpson reporting from unnamed sources was later deemed inaccurate. [2] Newsweek retracted a story about a Qur'an being flushed down a toilet that led to riots in the Middle East. The Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005 was based upon one unnamed military source. The Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005 began when Newsweek's April 30 issue contained a report about U [3] The L. A. Times retracted an article that implicated Sean "Diddy" Combs in the beating of Tupac Shakur. [4] The original article was based on documents and a large assortment of unnamed sources. When reporting on the original story, the Associated Press noted that "[n]one of the sources was named. "[5]

After the embarrassment, a news organization will often "clamp down" on the guidelines for using unnamed sources, but those guidelines are often forgotten after the scandal dies down. One study found that large newspapers' use of anonymous sources dropped dramatically between 2003 and 2004. The Project for Excellence in Journalism, a research group found use of anonymous sources dropped from 29 percent of all articles in 2003 to just 7 percent in 2004. [6]

Not on tape

Whether in a formal, sit-down interview setting or an improptu meeting on the street, some sources request that all or part of the encounter not be captured in an audio or video recording ("tape"), but continue speaking to the reporter. As long as the interview is not confidential, the reporter may report the information given by the source, even repeating direct quotes (perhaps scribbled on a notepad or recalled from memory). This often shows up in broadcasts as "John Brown declined to be interviewed on camera, but said. . . " or simply "a spokesman said. . . ".

Some interview subjects are simply uncomfortable being recorded. Some are afraid that they will be inarticulate and make fools of themselves when the interview is broadcast. Others might be uncooperative or distrust the motives or competence of the journalist, and wish to prevent them from being able to broadcast an unflattering soundbite or part of the interview out of context. A sound bite is an audiolinguistic and social communications phenomenon whose nature was recognized in the late 20th century helped by people such as Marshall McLuhan. Professional public relations officers know that having the reporter repeat their words, rather than being on the air themselves, will blunt the impact of their words. Public relations (PR is the practice of managing the flow of Information between an Organization and its Publics Public relations - often referred The audience need not see or hear them being uncomfortable (if they have unpleasant news), and not being on air also allows them to be anonymous or identified only by title.

Attribution

In journalism Attribution is the identification of the source of reported information. Journalists' ethical codes normally address the issue of attribution, which is sensitive because in the course of their work journalists may receive information from sources who wish to remain anonymous. Journalism ethics and standards comprise principles of Ethics and of good practice as applicable to the specific challenges faced by professional Journalists Historically In investigative journalism important news stories often depend on such information. Investigative journalism is a type of reporting in which reporters deeply investigate a topic of interest often involving crime Political corruption, or some other Scandal For example, the Watergate scandal that lead to the downfall of U. The Watergate scandals were a series of Political scandals during the presidency of Richard Nixon that resulted in the Indictment of several of Nixon's S. President Richard Nixon was in part exposed by information revealed by an anonymous source ("Deep Throat") to investigative reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein. Deep Throat is the Pseudonym given to the secret source who provided information to the Washington Post about the involvement of U Robert "Bob" Upshur Woodward (born March 26, 1943) is an assistant managing editor of The Washington Post. Carl Bernstein (pronounced BERN-steen ˈbɜrnstiːn (born February 14, 1944) is an American journalist who as a reporter for The

Ethics

Divulging the identity of a confidential source is frowned upon by groups representing journalists in many democracies [1] [2] [3]. In some jurisdictions journalists can be compelled by law to identify their sources, and journalists can and have been jailed for upholding this principle.

There are several reasons to protect confidential sources:

"Speaking terms"

There are several categories of "speaking terms" (agreements concerning attribution) that cover information conveyed in conversations with journalists. In the UK the following conventions are generally accepted:

However, confusion over the precise meaning of "unattributable" and "off-the-record" has led to more detailed formulations:

Neologisms

Double Super Secret Background

Double Super Secret Background is a neologism, often used humorously, referring to the journalistic concept of keeping a background source secret. A neologism (from Greek neo = "new" + logos = "word" is a word that although devised relatively recently in a specific time period has been

The phrase, coined by Time Magazine reporter Matthew Cooper, gained notoriety in July 2005 during the Plame affair. Time (trademarked in capitals as TIME) is a weekly American Newsmagazine, similar to Newsweek and Matthew Cooper (born 1962 is a former reporter for Time who along with New York Times reporter Judith Miller was held in Contempt Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The phrase Plame Affair (also known as the CIA leak scandal, the CIA leak case, the CIA leak grand jury investigation, and Plamegate) refers The phrase originally appeared in an e-mail of July 11, 2003 from Cooper to his Time bureau chief, referring to a conversation with Karl Rove. Events 911 - Signing of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between Charles the Simple and Rollo of Normandy. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Karl Christian Rove (born December 25, 1950) was Deputy Chief of Staff to President George W In compliance with a court order, the magazine released Mr. Cooper's notes, thus breaking the anonymity of Mr. Anonymity is derived from the Greek word ανωνυμία, meaning "without a Name " or "namelessness" Rove.

Cooper stated[7] the phrase was "a play on a reference to the film Animal House, in which John Belushi's wild Delta House fraternity is placed on Double Secret Probation. John Adam Belushi ( January 24, 1949 – March 5, 1982) was an American Comedian, Actor and Musician "

References

  1. ^ http://www.poynter.org/column.asp?id=49&aid=64013
  2. ^ http://www.ajr.org/Article.asp?id=1596
  3. ^ http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/16/AR2005051601262.html
  4. ^ http://www.latimes.com/la-naw-quad17mar17,0,7227999.story
  5. ^ http://www.2theadvocate.com/entertainment/music/16786106.html
  6. ^ http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/14/business/media/14reporter.html
  7. ^ Reporter: Rove Told Him of Plame's CIA Tie

External links

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