| Joseph Stalin იოსებ სტალინი Иосиф Сталин (Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili) |
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| In office April 3, 1922 – March 5, 1953 |
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| Preceded by | None (position created in 1922) |
| Succeeded by | Nikita Khrushchev |
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| In office May 6, 1941 – March 5, 1953 |
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| Preceded by | Vyacheslav Molotov |
| Succeeded by | Georgy Malenkov |
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| Born | December 18, 1878[1] Gori, Georgia, Russian Empire |
| Died | March 5, 1953 (aged 74) Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union |
| Nationality | Georgian |
| Political party | Communist Party of the Soviet Union |
| Religion | Atheist |
Joseph Stalin (born as Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili ) (December 18, 1878 – March 5, 1953) (Russian: Иосиф Сталин; Georgian: იოსებ სტალინი) was General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. The General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( First Secretary in 1953-1966 was the title synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union after Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following Premier of the Soviet Union is the commonly used English term for the offices of Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR (Председатель Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Molotov redirects here For other uses see Molotov (disambiguation. Georgy Maximilianovich Malenkov (Гео́ргий Максимилиа́нович Маленко́в Georgij Maksimilianovič Malenkov; January 8, Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the Year 1878 ( MDCCCLXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Gori (გორი is a city in eastern Georgia, which serves as the regional Capital of Shida Kartli and the centre of the Eponymous Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Georgians (ქართველები kartvelebi) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus, the oldest group of the Atheism Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the Year 1878 ( MDCCCLXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Georgian (ka ქართული ენა kartuli ena) is the Official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus. The General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( First Secretary in 1953-1966 was the title synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union after The Central Committee, abbreviated in Russian as ЦК, "Tse-ka" was the highest body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU During that time he established the regime now known as Stalinism. Stalinism is the political regime named after Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union from 1929–1953 As one of several Central Committee Secretariats, Stalin's formal position was originally limited in scope, but he gradually consolidated power and became the de facto party leader and dictator[2] of the Soviet Union. A dictator is an Authoritarian ruler (eg Absolutist or autocratic) who assumes sole and absolute power without hereditary ascension such as an Absolute The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991
Stalin launched a command economy in the Soviet Union, forced rapid industrialization of the largely rural country and collectivization of its agriculture. A planned economy or directed economy is an Economic system in which the Government or Workers' councils manages the Economy. is a process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a Pre-industrial society into an industrial one Collective farming is an organization of agricultural production in which the holdings of several farmers are run as a joint enterprise While the Soviet Union transformed from an agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time, millions of people died from hardships and famine that occurred as a result of the severe economic upheaval and party policies. At the end of 1930s, Stalin launched the Great Purge, a major campaign of political repression. Great Purge (Большая чистка transliterated Bolshaya chistka) was a series of campaigns of Political repression and Persecution Political repression is the Persecution of an individual or group for political reasons particularly for the purpose of restricting or preventing their ability to take part During the continued repressions in the country under Stalin millions of people who were a threat to the Soviet politics or suspected of being such a threat were executed or exiled to Gulag labor camps in remote areas of Siberia or Central Asia. Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. A labor camp is a simplified detention facility where inmates are engaged in Penal labor. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south A number of ethnic groups in Russia were forcibly resettled for political reasons. Russian Federation is a multi-national state with over 170 ethnic groups designated as nationalities population of these groups varying enormously from millions in case of e Population transfer in the Soviet Union may be classified into the following broad categories deportations of " Anti-Soviet " categories of population often classified
During Stalin's rule, the Soviet Union played a major role in the defeat of Nazi Germany in the Second World War (1939–1945). Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Under Stalin's leadership, the Soviet Union went on to achieve recognition as one of just two superpowers in the post-war era, a status that lasted for nearly four decades after his death until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. A superpower is a State with a leading position in the international system and the ability to Influence events and project power on a worldwide scale The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985
Introduction
Born Iosef Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili (Georgian: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი, Iosef Besarionis Dze Jughashvili; Russian: Ио́сиф Виссарио́нович Джугашви́ли (help·info), Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili) (December 18 [O.S. December 6] 1878[1] – March 5, 1953), better known by his assumed name, Josef Stalin (Иосиф Сталин, Iosif Stalin; stalin meaning "made of steel"[3]) became General Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party in 1922. Georgian (ka ქართული ენა kartuli ena) is the Official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the Old Style (or OS) and New Style (or NS) are used in English language historical studies either to indicate that the start of the Julian year Year 1878 ( MDCCCLXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( First Secretary in 1953-1966 was the title synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union after Following the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924, he prevailed in a power struggle over Leon Trotsky, who was expelled from the Communist Party and deported from the Soviet Union. Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij
In the 1930s Stalin initiated a Purge of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which has become known as the Great Purge, an unprecedented campaign of political repression, persecution and executions that reached its peak in 1937. The first major purge of the Communist Party ranks (or simply purges "чистка" – "cleansing" was performed by Bolsheviks as early as Great Purge (Большая чистка transliterated Bolshaya chistka) was a series of campaigns of Political repression and Persecution
Stalin's rule had long-lasting effects on the features that characterized the Soviet state from the era of his rule to its collapse in 1991. Stalin claimed his policies were based on Marxism-Leninism. Marxism-Leninism is a Communist ideological stream that emerged as the mainstream tendency amongst the Communist parties in the 1920s as it was adopted Now his political and economic system is referred to as Stalinism. Stalinism is the political regime named after Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union from 1929–1953 Maoists, anti-revisionists and some others say he was actually the last legitimate Socialist leader in the Soviet Union's history. Maoism, variably and officially known as Mao Zedong Thought ( is a variant of Marxism derived from the teachings of the late Chinese leader In the Marxist-Leninist movement an anti-revisionist is one who favors the line of theory and practice associated with Marx - Engels - Lenin
Stalin replaced the New Economic Policy (NEP) of the 1920s with Five-Year Plans in 1928 and collective farming at roughly the same time. For the Malaysian New Economic Policy see Malaysian New Economic Policy. Collective farming is an organization of agricultural production in which the holdings of several farmers are run as a joint enterprise The Soviet Union was transformed from a predominantly peasant society to a major world industrial power by the end of the 1930s. [5][6][7]
Confiscations of grain and other food by the Soviet authorities under his orders contributed to a famine between 1932 and 1934, especially in the key agricultural regions of the Soviet Union, Ukraine (see Holodomor), Kazakhstan and North Caucasus that resulted in millions of deaths. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. The Holodomor (Голодомор is the famine that took place in Soviet Ukraine during the 1932-1933 agricultural season Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the The North Caucasus, also Ciscaucasus, Ciscaucasia or Forecaucasia, is the northern part of the Caucasus region between Europe Many peasants resisted collectivization and grain confiscations, but were repressed, most notably well-off peasants deemed "kulaks". Kulaks ( Russian: кула́к kulak " Fist ", by extension "tight-fisted" were a category of rich Peasants in later [8]
Bearing the brunt of the Nazis' attacks (around 75% of the Wehrmacht's forces), the Soviet Union under Stalin made the largest and most decisive contribution to the defeat of Nazi Germany during World War II (known in the USSR as the Great Patriotic War, 1941–1945). Wehrmacht (literally "defense force" was the name of the unified Armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945 World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The term Great Patriotic War (Великая Отечественная война Velikaya Otechestvennaya Vojna) is used in Russia and some other After the war, Stalin established the USSR as one of the two major superpowers in the world, a position it maintained for nearly four decades following his death in 1953. A superpower is a State with a leading position in the international system and the ability to Influence events and project power on a worldwide scale
Stalin's rule, reinforced by a cult of personality, fought real and alleged opponents mainly through the security apparatus, such as the NKVD. A cult of personality or personality cult arises when a country's leader uses Mass media to create a heroic public image through unquestioning flattery and praise The NKVD ( НКВД, ru Народный Комиссариат Внутренних Дел ''Narodnyy Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del'') or People's Commissariat Millions of people were killed through famines, executions, deportations, and in the Gulag. A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation Population transfer in the Soviet Union may be classified into the following broad categories deportations of " Anti-Soviet " categories of population often classified The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin's eventual successor, denounced Stalin's rule and the cult of personality in 1956, initiating the process of "de-Stalinization" which later became part of the Sino-Soviet Split. Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following The Cold War ensued as the USSR and the United States struggled indirectly for influence around the world The Sino-Soviet split was a gradual divergence of diplomatic ties between the People's Republic of China (PRC and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR
Childhood and education, 1878–1899
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| Stalin's father. | Stalin's mother. |
Josef Stalin was born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili in Gori, Georgia to Vissarion Jughashvili and Ekaterina Geladze (he adopted the name Stalin, which is derived from the Russian stal’ (Russian: сталь) for "steel", in 1913). Gori (გორი is a city in eastern Georgia, which serves as the regional Capital of Shida Kartli and the centre of the Eponymous Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Gori (გორი is a city in eastern Georgia, which serves as the regional Capital of Shida Kartli and the centre of the Eponymous Between 1801 and 1918 the country of Georgia was part of the Russian Empire. Vissarion (Beso Ivanovich Jughashvili (also transliterated as Dzhugashvili) ( Виссарион (Бесо Иванович Джугашвили in Russian Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Stalin's mother was born a serf. His father was a cobbler and owned his own shop. He was their third child; their two previous sons died in infancy. The second and third toes of his left foot were webbed. [9][10]
Initially, the Dzhugashvilis' lives were prosperous and happy, but Stalin's father became an alcoholic[11] , which gradually led to his business failing and him becoming violently abusive to his wife and child. As their financial situation grew worse, Stalin's family moved homes frequently; at least nine times in Stalin's first ten years of life. [12]
The town where Stalin grew up was a violent and lawless place. It had only a small police force and a culture of violence that included gang-warfare, organized street brawls and wrestling tournaments (some of these were traditions inherited from Georgia's war-torn past). [12] Stalin took ample part in streetfighting as a child; he was not afraid to challenge opponents that were much stronger than him, getting severely beaten up on numerous occasions. [12]
At the age of 7, Stalin fell ill with smallpox and his face was badly scarred by the disease. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. He later had photographs retouched to make his pockmarks less apparent.
Stalin's native tongue was Georgian. He only started learning Russian when he was eight or nine years old, and he never lost his strong Georgian accent.
At the age of 10, Stalin began his education at the Gori Church School. His peers were mostly the sons of affluent priests, officials, and merchants. He and most of his classmates at Gori were Georgians and spoke mostly Georgian. The Georgians (ქართველები kartvelebi) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus, the oldest group of the Georgian (ka ქართული ენა kartuli ena) is the Official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus. However, at school they were forced to speak Russian (this was the policy of Tsar Alexander III). Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Alexander III Alexandrovich ( 10 March 1845 – 1 November 1894) (Александр III Александрович reigned as Emperor Their Russian teachers mocked the accents of their Georgian students, and regarded their language and culture as inferior. The Russian people (Русские— Russkie) are an East Slavic Ethnic group, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries Nevertheless, he earned the respect and admiration of his teachers by being the best student in the class, earning top marks across the board. He developed a passion for learning that would stay with him for the rest of his life. He became a very good choir singer, and was often hired to sing at weddings. He also began to write poetry, something he would become very talented at in later years. [12]
Stalin's father, who had always wanted the boy to be trained as a cobbler rather than be educated, was infuriated when he was accepted into the school. In his anger he smashed the windows of the local tavern, and later attacked the town police chief. Out of compassion for Stalin's mother, the police chief did not arrest him, but ordered him to leave town. Vissarion moved to Tiflis where he found work in a shoe factory, leaving his family behind in Gori. Tbilisi (ˌtbiˈliːsi in Georgian: თბილისი is the capital and the largest city of the Republic of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Mt'k'vari [12]
At around the time he started school, Stalin was struck by a horse-drawn carriage. The accident permanently damaged his left arm; this injury would later exempt him from military service in World War I.
At the age of 12, Stalin was struck yet again by a horse-drawn carriage, and much more badly this time. He was taken to hospital in Tbilisi where he spent months in care. Tbilisi (ˌtbiˈliːsi in Georgian: თბილისი is the capital and the largest city of the Republic of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Mt'k'vari After he recovered, his father seized the opportunity to kidnap the boy and enroll him as an apprentice cobbler at the shoe factory where he worked. When his mother, through the aid of contacts in the clergy and school staff, recovered him, his father cut off all financial support to his wife and son, leaving them to fend for themselves. Stalin returned to his school in Gori where he continued to excel. [12]
He graduated first in his class and in 1894, at the age of 16, he enrolled at the Georgian Orthodox Seminary of Tiflis (Tbilisi, Georgia), to which he had been awarded a scholarship. Christianity in ancient and feudal Georgia According to tradition when the Apostles were sent out to preach the Gospel to the nations of the world the Apostle Tbilisi (ˌtbiˈliːsi in Georgian: თბილისი is the capital and the largest city of the Republic of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Mt'k'vari The teachers at Tiflis Seminary were even more determined to impose Russian language and culture on the Georgian students. [12] Like many of his comrades, young Stalin reacted by being drawn to Georgian patriotism. During this time he gained fame as a poet; his poems were published in several local newspapers. However, his interest for poetry began to fade as he was drawn to rebellion and revolution.
During his time at the seminary, he along with numerous other students would read forbidden literature that included Victor Hugo novels and revolutionary (including Marxist) literature. He was caught and punished numerous times for this. One teacher in particular - Father Abashidze, whom Stalin nicknamed "the Black Spot" - intensely harassed the rebel students through student informers, nightly patrols and surprise dormitory raids. This personal experience of "surveillance, spying, invasion of inner life, violation of feelings", in Stalin's own words, influenced the design of his future terror state. [12] He became an atheist in his first year. [12] He insisted his peers call him "Koba", after the Robin Hood-like protagonist of the novel The Patricide by Alexander Kazbegi; he would continue to use this pseudonym as a revolutionary. The Patricide (მამის მკვლელი is a Novel by Alexander Kazbegi, first published in 1882 In August 1898, he joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (from which the Bolsheviks would later form). The Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party, or RSDLP ( Росси́йская Социа́л-Демократи́ческая Рабо́чая
Shortly before the final exams, the Seminary abruptly raised school fees. Unable to pay, Stalin quit the seminary in 1899 and missed his exams, for which he was officially expelled. [12] Twenty of his fellow-classmates were expelled for revolutionary activities in 1899, and forty more would be expelled in 1901. [13] Shortly after leaving school, he discovered the writings of Vladimir Lenin and decided to become a revolutionary.
Early years as a Marxist revolutionary, 1899–1917
After abandoning his priestly education, Stalin took a job as a weatherman at the Tiflis Meteorological Observatory. Although the pay was relatively low (20 roubles a month), his workload was light, giving him plenty of time for revolutionary activities. He would organise strikes, lead demonstrations and give speeches. He soon caught the attention of the Tsar's secret police, the Okhrana. The Otdeleniye po Okhraneniyu Obshchestvennoy Bezopasnosti i Poryadka ( Отделение по Охранению Общественной Безопасности и Порядка During this time he met and charmed Simon Ter-Petrossian, a violent psychopath[14] whom he bred to be his long-time henchman and enforcer. Kamo, real name Simon Ter-Petrossian (1882-1922 was a Georgian Bolshevik of Armenian descent an early companion to Stalin.
On the night of April 3 1901 the Okhrana arrested a number of Party leaders in Tiflis, but Stalin spotted their agents waiting in ambush at the Observatory and avoided capture. Tbilisi (ˌtbiˈliːsi in Georgian: თბილისი is the capital and the largest city of the Republic of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Mt'k'vari He went underground, becoming a full-time revolutionary. In November, Stalin fled to Batumi and got work at an oil refinery owned by the Rothschild family. Batumi (ბათუმი formerly Batum or Batoum) is a seaside city on the Black Sea coast and Capital of Adjara, an Autonomous The Rothschild family (often referred to simply as the Rothschilds) is an international Banking and Finance Dynasty of German Organizing the workers there, Stalin was almost certainly involved in a 1902 fire at the refinery designed to trick the management into giving the workers a bonus for putting out the fire. However, the manager suspected arson and refused to pay. This lead to a series of strikes, all organized by Stalin, which in turn led to arrests and clashes with the Cossacks in the streets. In one attempt to break their comrades out of prison, thirteen strikers were killed when Cossacks intervened. Stalin distributed incendiary pamphlets portraying the dead as martyrs. On April 18 1902, the authorities finally arrested Stalin at one of his secret meetings. At his trial, Stalin was acquitted of leading the riots due to lack of evidence, but was kept in custody whilst the authorities investigated his activities in Tiflis. In 1903, the authorities decided to exile Stalin to Siberia for three years. [12]
Stalin ended up in the Siberian town of Novaya Uda on December 9 1903. During this time, he heard that two rival factions within the Social-Democrats had formed: the Bolsheviks under Lenin and the Mensheviks under Julius Martov. The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction The Mensheviks (Minority (Меньшевик) were a faction of the Russian Revolutionary movement that emerged in 1903 after a dispute between Vladimir Julius Martov or L Martov ( Ма́ртов, real name Yuli Osipovich Zederbaum ( Russian Ю́лий О́сипович Цедерба́ум Stalin, already an admirer, decided to become a Leninist. Stalin managed to obtain false papers and, on January 17 1904, escaped Siberia by train, arriving back in Tiflis ten days later. [12]
With no income, Stalin lived off his circle of friends. One of them introduced him to Lev Kamenev (then known as Lev Rosenfeld), his future co-ruler of the USSR after Lenin's death. ( Russian: Лев Борисович Каменев born Rosenfeld, Розенфельд ( – August 25, 1936) was a Bolshevik At this time, Stalin favored a Georgian Social-Democratic party, which caused a rift with the majority who favored international Marxism. Threatened with expulsion, he was forced to write Credo, a paper renouncing his views (because this paper distanced himself from Lenin, when Stalin became ruler of the USSR, he tried to destroy all copies of this Credo, and many of those who had read it were shot). [12]
In February 1904, the Russo-Japanese War broke out between Japan and Russia. The Russo-Japanese War (日露戦争 Romaji: Nichi-Ro Sensō Русско-японская война Russko-Yaponskaya Voyna;, 10 February 1904 – 5 September For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The war, which would eventually end in Russia's defeat, severely strained the Russian economy and caused a great deal of restlessness in Georgia. Stalin travelled across Georgia conducting political activity for his party. He also worked to undermine the Mensheviks through a campaign of slander and intrigue; his efforts brought him to Lenin's attention for the first time.
On January 22 1905, Stalin was in Baku when Cossacks attacked a mass demonstration of workers, killing two hundred. Baku (Bakı sometimes known as Baqy, Baky, Baki or Bakü, is the capital the largest city and the largest port of Azerbaijan This sparked off the Russian Revolution of 1905. See also Russian Revolution (1917 The 1905 Russian Revolution also known as the Failed Russian Revolution of 1905 was an empire-wide struggle of Riots, peasant uprisings and ethnic massacres swept the Russian Empire. In February, ethnic Azeris and Armenians were slaughtering each other in the streets of Baku. The Azerbaijanis are an Ethnic group mainly in the Republic of Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large Commanding a squad of armed Bolsheviks, Stalin ran protection rackets to raise Party funds and stole printing equipment. Afterwards, he headed west, where continued to campaign against the Mensheviks, who enjoyed overwhelming support in Georgia. In the mining town of Chiatura, both Stalin and the Mensheviks competed for the support of the miners; they chose Stalin, being more swayed by his plain and concise manner of speaking than the flamboyant oratory of the Menshevik speaker. Chiatura (ჭიათურა is a city in the Imereti region of Western Georgia. [12] From Chiatura, Stalin organized and armed Bolshevik militias across Georgia. With them, he ran protection rackets among the wealthy and waged geurilla warfare on Cossacks, policemen and the Okhrana. [12] Later that year in Tiflis, he met Ekaterina Svanidze, who would become his first wife. Ekaterina Semyonovna Svanidze ( April 2, 1880 &ndash December 5, 1907) was the Georgian first wife of Joseph Stalin.
In December 1905, Stalin and two other were elected to represent the Caucusus at the next Bolshevik conference, which took place in Tammerfors, Finland. Tampere ( ˈtɑmpɛrɛ Swedish: Tammerfors or) is a city in southern Finland located between two lakes Näsijärvi and Pyhäjärvi Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. There, on January 7 1906, Stalin met Lenin in person for the first time. Although Stalin was impressed by Lenin's personality and intellect, he was not afraid to contradict him. [12] He objected to Lenin's proposal that they take part in elections to the recently-formed Duma; Lenin conceded to Stalin. A Duma (Ду́ма is any of various representative assemblies in modern Russia and Russian history At the conference he also met Emelian Yaroslavsky, his future propaganda chief, and Solomon Lozovsky, his future Deputy Foreign Commissar. Solomon Lozovsky (Соломон Лозовский 1878-1952 was a Russian Jewish revolutionary a colleague of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin and a prominent
After the conference, Stalin returned to Georgia, where Cossack armies were brutally working to reconquer the rebellious region for the Tsar. In Tiflis, Stalin and the Mensheviks plotted the assassination of General Fyodo Griiazanov, which was carried out on March 1 1906. Tbilisi (ˌtbiˈliːsi in Georgian: თბილისი is the capital and the largest city of the Republic of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Mt'k'vari Stalin continued to raise money for the Bolsheviks through extortion, bank robberies and hold-ups.
In April 1906, Stalin attended the Fourth Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. The Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party, or RSDLP ( Росси́йская Социа́л-Демократи́ческая Рабо́чая At the conference, he met Klimenti Voroshilov, his future Defence Commissar and First Marshal; Felix Dzerzhinsky, future founder of the Cheka; and Grigory Zinoviev, with whom he would share power after Lenin's death. Felix Edmundovich Dzerzhinsky ( Polish: Feliks Edmundowicz Dzierżyński, Russian: Феликс Эдмундович Дзержинский Belarusian The Cheka ( ЧК - чрезвычайная комиссия Chrezvychaynaya Komissiya,) was the first of a succession of Soviet State security Gregory Yevseevich Zinoviev (Григо́рий Евс́еевич Зин́овьев alternative transliteration Grigorii Ovseyevish Zinoviev born Ovsei-Gershon Aronovich The Congress - in which the Bolsheviks were outnumbered - voted to ban bank robberies. This upset Lenin, who needed the bank robberies to raise money. [12]
Stalin married Ekaterina Svanidze on the night of July 28 1906. Ekaterina Semyonovna Svanidze ( April 2, 1880 &ndash December 5, 1907) was the Georgian first wife of Joseph Stalin. On March 31 1907, she gave birth to Stalin's first child, Yakov. Yakov Iosifovich Dzhugashvili (იაკობ ჯუღაშვილი Russian: Яков Иосифович Джугашвили ( March 18, 1907
Stalin and Lenin both attended the Fifth Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in London in 1907. The Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party, or RSDLP ( Росси́йская Социа́л-Демократи́ческая Рабо́чая London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. [15] This Congress consolidated the supremacy of Lenin's Bolshevik faction and debated strategy for communist revolution in Russia. Here, Stalin first met Leon Trotsky in person; Stalin immediately came to hate him, calling him "pretty but useless". Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij [12] After the conference, Stalin began switching his focus away from Georgia, which was rife with feuding and dominated by the Mensheviks, to Russia; he began writing in Russian.
Upon his return to Tiflis, Stalin readied himself for a major bank robbery. Tbilisi (ˌtbiˈliːsi in Georgian: თბილისი is the capital and the largest city of the Republic of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Mt'k'vari Through contacts in the banking business, he had learned a major shipment of money was due to be delivered in June to the Imperial Bank at the centre of town. Because his party banned bank robberies, Stalin temporarily resigned. On June 26 1907, Stalin's gang ambushed the armed convoy when it entered Yerevan Square with gunfire and homemade bombs. Around forty people were killed, but all of Stalin's gang managed to escape alive with 250,000 roubles (around US$3. 4 million in today's terms). [12] Stalin and his family left Tiflis two days later. His henchman Kamo delivered the money to Lenin in Finland, who then fled with it to Geneva. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Geneva (Genève is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and is the most populous city of Romandy (the French -speaking The Mensheviks, who had banned bank robberies (and didn't get to share in the loot), were outraged and investigated the suspects. Stalin escaped expulsion, though the affair would cause him trouble for years to come.
Stalin's family moved to Baku. Baku (Bakı sometimes known as Baqy, Baky, Baki or Bakü, is the capital the largest city and the largest port of Azerbaijan Whilst Stalin continued his revolutionary activities, his wife fell ill from Baku's pollution, heat, stress and malnourishment. She eventually contracted typhus (though many historians believe it to have been tuberculosis) and died on December 5 1907. Typhus is any of several similar diseases caused by Louse -borne bacteria Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common Stalin was overcome with grief and retreated into mourning for several months. The loss also hardened him; he told a friend: "with her died my last warm feelings for humanity". [12] He abandoned his son, Yakov, who was raised by his deceased wife's family.
When Stalin resumed his activities, he organized more strikes and agitation, this time focusing on the Muslim Azeri and Persian workers in Baku. The Azerbaijanis are an Ethnic group mainly in the Republic of Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. Baku (Bakı sometimes known as Baqy, Baky, Baki or Bakü, is the capital the largest city and the largest port of Azerbaijan He helped found a Muslim Bolshevik group called Himmat, and also supported Persian Constitutional Revolution with manpower and weapons, and even visited Persia to organize partisans. The Iranian Constitutional Revolution (also known as the Persian Constitutional Revolution or Constitutional Revolution of Iran) took place between 1905 and 1911 Stalin ordered the murders of many Black Hundreds (right-wing supporters of the Tsar), and conducted protection rackets and ransom kidnappings against the oil tycoons of Baku . The Black Hundreds (sometimes The Black Hundreds) also known as the black-hundredists (Чёрная сотня черносотенцы in Russian He also operated counterfeiting operations, robberies and protection rackets. He befriend the criminal gangs, and used them to obstruct Mensheviks. Stalin's gangsterism upset the Bolshevik intelligentsia, but he was too influential and indsipensable to oppose. [12]
The Okhrana tracked down and arrested Stalin on April 7 1908. The Otdeleniye po Okhraneniyu Obshchestvennoy Bezopasnosti i Poryadka ( Отделение по Охранению Общественной Безопасности и Порядка After seven months in prison, he was sentenced to two years exile in Siberia. He arrived in the village of Solvychegodsk in early March 1909. Solvychegodsk (Сольвычегодск lit "salt on the Vychegda River" is a town in the southern part of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia After seven months in exile, he disguised himself as a woman and escaped on a train to St Petersburg. He returned to Baku in late July. [12]
The Bolsheviks were on the verge of collapse due to Okhrana oppression within the Empire and infighting among the intelligentsia abroad. In desperation, he advocated a reconciliation with the Mensheviks (which Lenin opposed). He demanded the creation of a Russian Bureau to run the Social-Democratic Party from within the Empire, to which he was appointed.
Stalin soon realised the Bolsheviks had been heavily infiltrated by Tsarist spies. The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction He initiated a witch-hunt for traitors. However, he failed to root out any real traitors (as revealed by Okhrana records[12]), and his efforts caused much disarray in the Party.
On April 5 1910 Stalin was yet again arrested by the Okhrana. The Otdeleniye po Okhraneniyu Obshchestvennoy Bezopasnosti i Poryadka ( Отделение по Охранению Общественной Безопасности и Порядка He was sentenced to complete his previous exile in Solvychegodsk and banned from the Caucasus for five years. Solvychegodsk (Сольвычегодск lit "salt on the Vychegda River" is a town in the southern part of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East He was deported back there in September. He briefly escaped in early 1911, but another exile who was supposed to pass much-needed money to him instead ran off with it (Stalin would have him shot for this in 1937), and he was forced to return to Solvychegodsk. Solvychegodsk (Сольвычегодск lit "salt on the Vychegda River" is a town in the southern part of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia During his exile, he fell in love with a local girl, Maria Kuzakova, with whom he fathered a child. He was released on July 9 1911. Stalin moved to Vologda in late July, where he had been ordered to reside for two months. Vologda (Во́логда is a city in Russia and the administrative center of Vologda Oblast.
In January 1912, at the Prague Party Conference, Lenin led his Bolshevik faction out of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, founding the separate Bolshevik Party. The Prague Party Conference was a conference of Vladimir Lenin 's Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. Stalin was coopted as a member of the new Bolshevik Central Committee. When Stalin was informed of this, he left Vologda in late February. Vologda (Во́логда is a city in Russia and the administrative center of Vologda Oblast.
Stalin moved to Saint Petersburg in April 1912, where he took control of the Bolshevik weekly newspaper Zvezda. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River Stalin had been assigned to convert Zvezda into a daily and rename it Pravda. The first issue was published on May 5.
Shortly afterwards, the Okhrana caught up with him again, and in July 1912 he was exiled again to Siberia for three years, this time in the small village of Narym. Narym (Нарым Selkup for marsh) is a village ( selo) in Parabelsky District of Tomsk Oblast, He escaped just thirty-eight after arriving; this was his shortest exile. [12] He returned to Saint Petersburg in September. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River
Stalin made efforts to reconcile the Bolsheviks with the Mensheviks in hopes of salvaging the struggling Marxist movement. The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction The Mensheviks (Minority (Меньшевик) were a faction of the Russian Revolutionary movement that emerged in 1903 after a dispute between Vladimir He published editorials in Pravda advocating reconciliation, and secretly met with Menshevik leaders on several occassions. Pravda (Правда "The Truth" was a leading Newspaper of the Soviet Union and an official organ of the Central Committee of the This angered Lenin, who twice summoned Stalin to Cracow to argue policy. Kraków, in English also spelled Krakow or Cracow (ˈkrækaʊ M-W: krăk'ou krāk'ō is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland On the second visit at the end of 1912, Stalin was removed from his post as editor of Pravda, but was made a leader of the Russian Bureau of the Bolshevik Party. Pravda (Правда "The Truth" was a leading Newspaper of the Soviet Union and an official organ of the Central Committee of the Lenin also asked Stalin to write an essay laying out Bolshevik position on national minorities.
After Cracow, Stalin spent several weeks in Vienna with the Troyanovskys, a wealthy Bolshevik couple he met with Lenin in Cracow. Kraków, in English also spelled Krakow or Cracow (ˈkrækaʊ M-W: krăk'ou krāk'ō is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. Whilst there he met for the first time Nikolai Bukharin, who would become a leading politician in the future Soviet government. Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (Никола́й Ива́нович Буха́рин ( &ndash March 15, 1938) was a Bolshevik They continued to discuss the issue of nationalities. Stalin completed his essay on the topic, entitled "Marxism and the National Question", which was published in March 1913 under the pseudonym "K. Stalin" (this was the first time he used the name "Stalin" in a publishing; he began using this alias in 1912).
Stalin returned to Saint Petersburg in February 1913. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River During this time, many Bolsheviks, including almost the entire Central Committee, had been arrested by the Okhrana, having been betrayed by Roman Malinovsky, a high-ranking Bolshevik who for years had been an Okhrana spy and agent provocateur. Roman Vaslavovich Malinovsky (1876-1918 was a Russian Bolshevik politician That month, an article had been published that outed Malinovsky as a spy, but the Bolsheviks dismissed it as Menshevik libel (ironically, Lenin and Stalin were his strongest defenders). The Mensheviks (Minority (Меньшевик) were a faction of the Russian Revolutionary movement that emerged in 1903 after a dispute between Vladimir On March 8 Malinovsky persuaded Stalin to attend a Bolshevik fundraising ball, which was raided by Okhrana.
Stalin was condemned to four years in the remote Siberian province of Turukhansk. Turukhansk (Туруха́нск is a village ( selo) in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia. He would eventually be joined by Kamenev and several other Bolshevik exiles. ( Russian: Лев Борисович Каменев born Rosenfeld, Розенфельд ( – August 25, 1936) was a Bolshevik He spent six months in the small hamlet of Kostino on the Yenisei River. Yenisei (Енисе́й is the greatest River system flowing to the Arctic Ocean, and at 5539 km (3445 mi is the fifth longest river in the world After learning that Stalin was planning an escape (he had received money and supplies from his comrades), the authorities moved him north to Kureika, a hamlet on the edge of the Arctic Circle. There, he lived the life of a hunter-gatherer, having learnt fishing and hunting from the local Siberian tribesmen. While there he began a 2-year affair with Lidia Pereprygina, then aged 13, with whom he fathered two children. The first died in infancy; the second, named Alexander, was born in April 1917.
In late 1916, Stalin was conscripted into the army. In February 1917, he was taken Krasnoyarsk, but the medical examiner there found him unfit for service due to his damaged left arm (a childhood injury). He spent his last four months of exile in the village of Achinsk.
Aliases
Among his friends he was sometimes known by his childhood nickname "Soso". During his education in Tiflis, he picked up the nickname "Koba" from the Robin Hood-like protagonist of The Patricide, a novel by Alexander Kazbegi; this became his favorite streetname throughout his revolutionary life.
Russian Revolution of 1917
In the wake of the February Revolution of 1917 (the first phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917), Stalin was released from exile. The February Revolution (Февральская революция in 1917 in Russia was the first stage of the Russian Revolution of 1917. See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them On March 25 he returned to Petrograd (Saint Petersburg) and, together with Lev Kamenev and Matvei Muranov, ousted Vyacheslav Molotov and Alexander Shlyapnikov as editors of Pravda, the official Bolshevik newspaper, while Lenin and much of the Bolshevik leadership were still in exile. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River ( Russian: Лев Борисович Каменев born Rosenfeld, Розенфельд ( – August 25, 1936) was a Bolshevik Matvei Konstantinovich Muranov ( 29 November 1873 — 9 December 1959) was a Ukrainian -born Bolshevik revolutionary and Molotov redirects here For other uses see Molotov (disambiguation. Alexander Gavrilovich Shliapnikov (also spelt Shlyapnikov (Александр Гаврилович Шляпников ( August 30, 1885, Murom - September 2 Pravda (Правда "The Truth" was a leading Newspaper of the Soviet Union and an official organ of the Central Committee of the Stalin and the new editorial board took a position in favor of supporting Alexander Kerensky's provisional government (Molotov and Shlyapnikov had wanted to overthrow it) and went to the extent of declining to publish Lenin's articles arguing for the provisional government to be overthrown. Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky (Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Ке́ренский Aleksandr Fjëdorovich Kerenskij) ( June 11, 1970) served The Russian Provisional Government was formed in Petrograd in 1917 after the February Revolution and the Abdication However, after Lenin prevailed at the April Party conference, Stalin and the rest of the Pravda staff came on board with Lenin's view and called for overthrowing the provisional government. At this April 1917 Party conference, Stalin was elected to the Bolshevik Central Committee with the third highest total votes in the party.
In mid-July, armed mobs led by Bolshevik militants took to the streets of Petrograd, killing army officers and bourgeois civilians. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River They demanded the overthrow of the government, but neither the Bolshevik leadership nor the Petrograd Soviet were willing to take power, having been totally surprised by this unplanned revolt. The Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, usually called the Petrograd Soviet, was the soviet (workers' council in Petrograd (Saint After the disappointed mobs dispersed, Kerensky's government struck back at the Bolsheviks. Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky (Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Ке́ренский Aleksandr Fjëdorovich Kerenskij) ( June 11, 1970) served Loyalist troops raided Pravda and surrounded the Bolshevik headquarters. Pravda (Правда "The Truth" was a leading Newspaper of the Soviet Union and an official organ of the Central Committee of the Stalin helped Lenin evade capture and, to avoid a bloodbath, ordered the beseiged Bolsheviks to surrender. [12]
Convinced Lenin would be killed if caught, Stalin smuggled Lenin to Finland. In Lenin's absence, Stalin assumed leadership of the Bolsheviks. At the Sixth Congress of the Bolshevik party, held secretly in Petrograd, Stalin was chosen to be the chief editor of the Party press and a member of the Constituent Assembly, and was re-elected to the Central Committee. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River [12]
In September 1917, Kerensky suspected his newly-appointed Commander-in-Chief, General Lavr Kornilov, of planning a coup and dismissed him. Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky (Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Ке́ренский Aleksandr Fjëdorovich Kerenskij) ( June 11, 1970) served Lavr Georgiyevich Kornilov ( Russian: Лавр Гео́ргиевич Корни́лов ( August 18, 1870 &ndash April 13, 1918 Believing Kerensky was being controlled by the Bolsheviks, Kornilov decided to march his army on Petrograd. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River In desperation, Kerensky turned to the Petrograd Soviet for help and released the Bolsheviks, who together raised a small army to defend the capital. The Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, usually called the Petrograd Soviet, was the soviet (workers' council in Petrograd (Saint In the end, Kerensky convinced Kornilov's army to stand down and disband without violence. However, the Bolsheviks were now free, rearmed and swelling with new recruits and under Stalin's firm control, whilst Kerensky had few troops loyal to him in the capital. Lenin decided the time for a coup had arrived. Kamenev and Zinoniev proposed a coalition with the Mensheviks, but Stalin and Trotsky backed Lenin's wish for an exclusively Bolshevik government. ( Russian: Лев Борисович Каменев born Rosenfeld, Розенфельд ( – August 25, 1936) was a Bolshevik Gregory Yevseevich Zinoviev (Григо́рий Евс́еевич Зин́овьев alternative transliteration Grigorii Ovseyevish Zinoviev born Ovsei-Gershon Aronovich Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij Lenin returned to Petrograd in October. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River On October 29, the Central Committee voted 10-2 in favor of an insurrection; Kamenev and Zinoniev voted in opposition. ( Russian: Лев Борисович Каменев born Rosenfeld, Розенфельд ( – August 25, 1936) was a Bolshevik Gregory Yevseevich Zinoviev (Григо́рий Евс́еевич Зин́овьев alternative transliteration Grigorii Ovseyevish Zinoviev born Ovsei-Gershon Aronovich [12]
On the morning of November 6, Kerensky's troops raided Stalin's press headquarters and smashed his printing presses. Whilst he worked to restore his presses, he missed a Central Committee meeting where assignments for the coup were being issued. Stalin instead spent the afternoon briefing Bolshevik delegates and passing communications to and from Lenin, who was in hiding. [12]
Early the next day, Stalin went to the Smolny Institute from where he, Lenin and the rest of the Central Committee coordinated the coup. The Smolny Institute (Смольный институт Smol'niy institut) is a Palladian edifice in St Petersburg, which has played a major part in the Kerensky left the capital to rally the Imperial troops at the German front. Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky (Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Ке́ренский Aleksandr Fjëdorovich Kerenskij) ( June 11, 1970) served By November 8, the Winter Palace had been stormed and Kerensky's Cabinet had been arrested.
Rise to power, 1917–1927
- See also: Stalin in the Russian Civil War
Later, in 1924, Stalin himself created a myth around a so-called "Party Centre" which "directed" all practical work pertaining to the uprising, consisting of himself, Sverdlov, Dzerzhinsky, Uritsky, and Bubnov. From May 1918 to August 1920 the future leader of the Soviet Union Joseph Stalin was employed with only brief gaps as a military Political commissar The History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which evolved out of the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in The Congress of the CPSU (Russian съезд КПСС) was the gathering of the delegates of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and its predecessors The Central Committee, abbreviated in Russian as ЦК, "Tse-ka" was the highest body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU The Politburo ( in Russian: Политбюро, full Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, abbreviated The Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee was a key body within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and was responsible for the central administration of the party The Organizational Bureau (Orgburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union existed from 1919 to 1952 until the 19th Congress when the Party Control Committee ( PCC) of the CPSU Central Committee (Russian Komitet Partiynogo Kontrolya was a supreme disciplinary organ within the hierarchy of the Central Auditing Commission ( CAC) (Russian Центральная Контрольная Комиссия (ЦКК Centralnaya Kontrolnaya Komissiya was a supervisory Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov (Ю́рий Влади́мирович Андро́пов Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov) ( &ndash 9 February 1984 was a Soviet politician Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko (Константи́н Усти́нович Черне́нко Konstantin Ustinovič Černenko; 24 September 1911 &ndash 10 March 1985 was Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev ( Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov;; born 2 March 1931 in Privolnoye Stavropol Krai) is a Russian politician Pravda (Правда "The Truth" was a leading Newspaper of the Soviet Union and an official organ of the Central Committee of the Komsomol (Комсомол is a Syllabic abbreviation word from the Russian Kom munisticheskiy So yuz Mol odiozhi (Коммунистический Yakov Mikhaylovich Sverdlov ( Russian Я́ков Миха́йлович Свердло́в known under pseudonyms "Andrei" "Mikhalych" "Max" Felix Edmundovich Dzerzhinsky ( Polish: Feliks Edmundowicz Dzierżyński, Russian: Феликс Эдмундович Дзержинский Belarusian Moisei Solomonovich Uritsky (Моисей Соломонович Урицкий 1873&ndash August 30 1918) was a Bolshevik Revolutionary leader Andrei Sergeyevich Bubnov ( March 23, 1883 - January 12, 1940) was a Bolshevik Revolutionary leader in Russia No evidence was ever shown for the activity of this "centre", which would, in any case, have been subordinate to the Military Revolutionary Council, headed by Trotsky.
During the Russian Civil War and Polish-Soviet War Stalin was a political commissar in the Red Army at various fronts. The Russian Civil War (1917–1923 was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed A political commissar, or politruk, is an officer appointed by a government to oversee a unit of the military The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya Stalin's first government position was as People's Commissar of Nationalities Affairs (1917–1923). Council of Ministers of the USSR (Совет Министров СССР tr In that position he traveled to Finland in late 1917, and promised the socialists there that the RSFSR would aid their revolution. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. The Finnish Civil War was a part of the national and social turmoil caused by World War I (1914&ndash1918 in Europe However, this aid was never given and the revolution in Finland was defeated.
He was also People's Commissar of the Workers and Peasants Inspection (1919–1922), a member of the Revolutionary Military Council of the republic (1920–1923) and a member of the Central Executive Committee of the Congress of Soviets (from 1917). Workers and Peasants Inspection was a government organization that was part of the socialist economic planning apparatus of the state which began under the leadership of Lenin in the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic or Revvoyensoviet ( Революционный Военный Совет, Реввоенсовет; also The Supreme Soviet of the USSR (Верхо́вный Сове́т СССР Verkhóvnyj Sovét SSSR) was the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union in
Stalin played a decisive role in engineering the 1921 Red Army invasion of Georgia following which he adopted particularly hardline, centralist policies towards Soviet Georgia, which included severe repression of all opposition within the local Communist party (e. The Red Army invasion of Georgia also known as the Soviet-Georgian War ( February 15 – March 17 1921) was a military campaign by the Soviet The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (საქართველოს საბჭოთასოციალისტური რესპუბლიკა g. , the Georgian Affair of 1922), not to mention any manifestations of anti-Sovietism (the August Uprising of 1924). The Georgian Affair of 1922 (Грузинское дело was a political conflict within the Soviet leadership about the way in which social and political transformation was Anti-Sovietism and Anti-Soviet refer to persons and activities actually or allegedly aimed against the Soviet Union or the Soviet power within the Soviet The August Uprising (აგვისტოს აჯანყება agvistos adjank’eba) was an unsuccessful Insurrection against the Soviet rule [16] It was in the Georgian affairs that Stalin first began to play his own hand. [17]
Campaign against the left and right opposition
On April 3, 1922, Stalin was made general secretary of the Central Committee of the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), a post that he subsequently built up into the most powerful in the country. Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( First Secretary in 1953-1966 was the title synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union after The Central Committee, abbreviated in Russian as ЦК, "Tse-ka" was the highest body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU It has been claimed that he initially attempted to decline accepting the post, but was refused. This position was seen to be a minor one within the party (Stalin was sometimes referred to as "Comrade Card-Index" by fellow party members) but, when combined with personal leadership over the Orgburo and with an ally (Kaganovich) heading the organizational Registration and Distribution Department of the Central Committee, actually had potential as a power base as it allowed Stalin to fill the party with his allies. The Organizational Bureau (Orgburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union existed from 1919 to 1952 until the 19th Congress when the The Uchraspred ( Russian language: Учраспред) was the Registration and Distribution Department of the Central Committee in the Soviet Union
After Lenin's death in January 1924, Stalin, Kamenev, and Zinoviev together governed the party, placing themselves ideologically between Trotsky (on the left wing of the party) and Bukharin (on the right). Death is the termination of the biological functions that define living Organisms It refers both to a specific ( Russian: Лев Борисович Каменев born Rosenfeld, Розенфельд ( – August 25, 1936) was a Bolshevik Gregory Yevseevich Zinoviev (Григо́рий Евс́еевич Зин́овьев alternative transliteration Grigorii Ovseyevish Zinoviev born Ovsei-Gershon Aronovich An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (Никола́й Ива́нович Буха́рин ( &ndash March 15, 1938) was a Bolshevik During this period, Stalin abandoned the traditional Bolshevik emphasis on international revolution in favor of a policy of building "Socialism in One Country", in contrast to Trotsky's theory of Permanent Revolution. Socialism in One Country was a thesis developed by Nikolai Bukharin in 1925 and adopted as state policy by Joseph Stalin. This article is about the theory See Permanent Revolution (group for the group of the same name and Permanent Revolution (album for the Catch 22
In the struggle for leadership after Lenin's death one thing was evident; whoever ended up ruling the party had to demonstrate fealty to the memory of Lenin. Stalin did so by organizing the late leader's funeral, after which he made a speech professing an undying loyalty to Lenin that was almost religious in nature.
Stalin's actual relationship with Lenin, which was far more complex than Stalin's speeches alluded, has been illuminated by a number of sources that were made available after the fall of the Soviet Union, including some from Lenin's sister. [18][19]
Stalin first worked to undermine Trotsky, who was sick at the time, possibly by misleading him about the date of the funeral. Consequently, Trotsky, who was Lenin’s associate throughout the early days of the Soviet regime, lost considerable political support. Stalin made great deal of the fact that Trotsky had joined the Bolsheviks just before the revolution, and publicized Trotsky's pre-revolutionary disagreements with Lenin. Another event that helped Stalin's rise was the fact that Trotsky came out against publication of Lenin's Testament in which he pointed out the strengths and weaknesses of Stalin and Trotsky and the other main players, and suggested that he be succeeded by a small group of people. Lenin's Testament is the name given to a document written by Vladimir Lenin in the last weeks of 1922 and the first week of 1923
An important feature of Stalin’s rise to power is the way that he manipulated his opponents and played them off against each other. Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (Никола́й Ива́нович Буха́рин ( &ndash March 15, 1938) was a Bolshevik Stalin formed a "troika" of himself, Zinoviev, and Kamenev against Trotsky. When Trotsky had been eliminated, Stalin then joined Bukharin and Rykov against Zinoviev and Kamenev, emphasising their vote against the insurrection in 1917. Zinoviev and Kamenev then turned to Lenin's widow, Krupskaya; they formed the "United Opposition" in July 1926. The United Opposition (sometimes also called the Joint Opposition) was a group formed in the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks in 1926 by Leon Trotsky
In 1927 during the 15th Party Congress Trotsky and Zinoviev were expelled from the party and Kamenev lost his seat on the Central Committee. ( Russian: Лев Борисович Каменев born Rosenfeld, Розенфельд ( – August 25, 1936) was a Bolshevik Stalin soon turned against the "Right Opposition", represented by his erstwhile allies, Bukharin and Rykov. The Right Opposition was the name given to the tendency made up of Nikolai Bukharin, Alexei Rykov and their supporters within the Soviet Union in the late Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (Никола́й Ива́нович Буха́рин ( &ndash March 15, 1938) was a Bolshevik Alexei Ivanovich Rykov ( Russian: Алексей Иванович Рыков Aleksej Ivanovič Rykov; March 15 1938 was a Russian Marxist
Stalin gained popular appeal from his presentation as a 'man of the people' from the poorer classes. The Russian people were tired from the world war and the civil war, and Stalin's policy of concentrating in building "Socialism in One Country" was seen as an optimistic antidote to war.
Stalin took great advantage of the ban on factionalism which meant that no group could openly go against the policies of the leader of the party because that meant creation of an opposition. By 1928 (the first year of the Five-Year Plans) Stalin was supreme among the leadership, and the following year Trotsky was exiled because of his opposition. Having also outmaneuvered Bukharin's Right Opposition and now advocating collectivization and industrialization, Stalin can be said to have exercised control over the party and the country.
However, as the popularity of other leaders such as Sergei Kirov and the so-called Ryutin Affair were to demonstrate, Stalin did not achieve absolute power until the Great Purge of 1936–1938. Sergei Mironovich Kirov (Серге́й Миро́нович Ки́ров ( &ndash December 1, 1934) was a prominent early Bolshevik leader whose assassination The Ryutin Affair (1932 was one of the last attempts to oppose the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin within the Soviet Communist Party. Great Purge (Большая чистка transliterated Bolshaya chistka) was a series of campaigns of Political repression and Persecution
Soviet secret service and intelligence
Stalin vastly increased the scope and power of the state's secret police and intelligence agencies. The Soviet Union had a succession of Secret police agencies over the course of its existence Under his guiding hand, Soviet intelligence forces began to set up intelligence networks in most of the major nations of the world, including Germany (the famous Rote Kappelle spy ring), Great Britain, France, Japan, and the United States. Stalin saw no difference between espionage, communist political propaganda actions, and state-sanctioned violence, and he began to integrate all of these activities within the NKVD. The NKVD ( НКВД, ru Народный Комиссариат Внутренних Дел ''Narodnyy Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del'') or People's Commissariat Stalin made considerable use of the Communist International movement in order to infiltrate agents and to ensure that foreign Communist parties remained pro-Soviet and pro-Stalin. The Comintern ( Com munist Intern ational also known as the Third International) was an international Communist organisation founded in Moscow
One of the best examples of Stalin's ability to integrate secret police and foreign espionage came in 1940, when he gave approval to the secret police to have Leon Trotsky assassinated in Mexico. Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij [20]
Stalin and changes in Soviet society, 1927–1939
Industrialization
See also: Industrialisation of the Soviet Union
The Russian Civil War and wartime communism had a devastating effect on the country's economy. This period of the Soviet Union was dominated by Joseph Stalin, who sought to reshape Soviet society with aggressive economic planning in particular a sweeping collectivization of agriculture The Russian Civil War (1917–1923 was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed War communism (or military communism) (Военный коммунизм 1918 - 1921 is the term created by western historians referring to the economic and political system Industrial output in 1922 was 13% of that in 1914. A recovery followed under the New Economic Policy, which allowed a degree of market flexibility within the context of socialism. For the Malaysian New Economic Policy see Malaysian New Economic Policy.
Under Stalin's direction, this was replaced by a system of centrally ordained "Five-Year Plans" in the late 1920s. These called for a highly ambitious program of state-guided crash industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture.
With seed capital unavailable because of international reaction to Communist policies, little international trade, and virtually no modern infrastructure, Stalin's government financed industrialization both by restraining consumption on the part of ordinary Soviet citizens to ensure that capital went for re-investment into industry, and by ruthless extraction of wealth from the kulaks. International trade is exchange of Capital, Goods, and Services across International borders or Territories.
In 1933 workers' real earnings sank to about one-tenth of the 1926 level. Common and political prisoners in labor camps were forced to do unpaid labor, and communists and Komsomol members were frequently "mobilized" for various construction projects. A labor camp is a simplified detention facility where inmates are engaged in Penal labor. Komsomol (Комсомол is a Syllabic abbreviation word from the Russian Kom munisticheskiy So yuz Mol odiozhi (Коммунистический The Soviet Union used foreign experts, e. g. British engineer Stephen Adams, to instruct their workers and improve their manufacturing processes.
In spite of early breakdowns and failures, the first two Five-Year Plans achieved rapid industrialization from a very low economic base. While it is generally agreed that the Soviet Union achieved significant levels of economic growth under Stalin, the precise rate of growth is disputed. It is not disputed, however, that these gains were accomplished at the cost of millions of lives.
Official Soviet estimates stated the annual rate of growth at 13. 9%; Russian and Western estimates gave lower figures of 5. 8% and even 2. 9%. Indeed, one estimate is that Soviet growth became temporarily much higher after Stalin's death. [7] [8]
According to Robert Lewis the Five-Year Plan substantially helped to modernize the previously backward Soviet economy. New products were developed, and the scale and efficiency of existing production greatly increased. Some innovations were based on indigenous technical developments, others on imported foreign technology. [21]
Collectivization
Stalin's regime moved to force collectivization of agriculture. Collectivization in the Soviet Union was a policy pursued under Stalin, between 1928 and 1940(much later for areas further away from capital to consolidate individual Collective farming is an organization of agricultural production in which the holdings of several farmers are run as a joint enterprise This was intended to increase agricultural output from large-scale mechanized farms, to bring the peasantry under more direct political control, and to make tax collection more efficient. Collectivization meant drastic social changes, on a scale not seen since the abolition of serfdom in 1861, and alienation from control of the land and its produce. Collectivization also meant a drastic drop in living standards for many peasants, and it faced violent reaction among the peasantry.
In the first years of collectivization it was estimated that industrial production would rise by 200% and agricultural production by 50%[22], but these estimates were not met. Stalin blamed this unanticipated failure on kulaks (rich peasants), who resisted collectivization. Kulaks ( Russian: кула́к kulak " Fist ", by extension "tight-fisted" were a category of rich Peasants in later (However, kulaks proper made up only 4% of the peasant population; the "kulaks" that Stalin targeted included the slightly better-off peasants who took the brunt of violence from the OGPU and the Komsomol. The State Political Directorate was the Secret police of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR) and the Soviet Union from 1922 until These peasants were about 60% of the population). Those officially defined as "kulaks," "kulak helpers," and later "ex-kulaks" were to be shot, placed into Gulag labor camps, or deported to remote areas of the country, depending on the charge. The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. A labor camp is a simplified detention facility where inmates are engaged in Penal labor.
The two-stage progress of collectivization—interrupted for a year by Stalin's famous editorial, "Dizzy with success" (Pravda, March 2, 1930), and "Reply to Collective Farm Comrades" (Pravda, April 3, 1930)—is a prime example of his capacity for tactical political withdrawal followed by intensification of initial strategies. Pravda (Правда "The Truth" was a leading Newspaper of the Soviet Union and an official organ of the Central Committee of the Events 986 - Louis V becomes King of the Franks. 1127 - Assassination of Charles the Good Year 1930 ( MCMXXX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. Year 1930 ( MCMXXX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
Many historians assert that the disruption caused by collectivization was largely responsible for major famines. A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation
The 1932–1933 famine in Ukraine and the Kuban regions has been termed the Holodomor (Ukrainian: Голодомор). Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Kuban ( Кубáнь) is a geographic region of Southern Russia surrounding the Kuban River, on the Black Sea between the Don Steppe The Holodomor (Голодомор is the famine that took place in Soviet Ukraine during the 1932-1933 agricultural season
According to Alan Bullock, "the total Soviet grain crop was no worse than that of 1931 … it was not a crop failure but the excessive demands of the state, ruthlessly enforced, that cost the lives of as many as five million Ukrainian peasants. Eufrosinia Antonovna Kersnovskaya (Евфросиния Антоновна Керсновская January 8, 1908 &mdash March 8, 1994) Alan Louis Charles Bullock Baron Bullock ( 13 December 1914 - 2 February 2004) was a British historian who wrote an influential " Stalin refused to release large grain reserves that could have alleviated the famine, while continuing to export grain; he was convinced that the Ukrainian peasants had hidden grain away, and strictly enforced draconian new collective-farm theft laws in response. [23][24]
Other historians hold that it was largely the insufficient harvests of 1931 and 1932 caused by a variety of natural disasters that resulted in famine, with the successful harvest of 1933 ending the famine. [25]
Famine affected other parts of the USSR. The death toll from famine in the Soviet Union at this time is estimated at between five and ten million people. The worst crop failure of late tsarist Russia, in 1892, had caused 375,000 to 400,000 deaths. )[26]
Soviet and other historians have argued that the rapid collectivization of agriculture was necessary in order to achieve an equally rapid industrialization of the Soviet Union and ultimately win World War II. This is disputed by other historians; Alec Nove claims that the Soviet Union industrialized in spite of, rather than because of, its collectivized agriculture. Alexander Nove FRSE, FBA ( 24 November 1915, Saint Petersburg - 15 May 1994, Glasgow) was a Professor
Science
- Main articles: Science and technology in the Soviet Union, Suppressed research in the Soviet Union, Lysenkoism
Science in the Soviet Union was under strict ideological control by Stalin and his government, along with art and literature. In the Soviet Union, science and technology served as an important part of national Politics, practices and identity Research in the Soviet Union in Science and Humanities was placed from the very beginning under a strict ideological scrutiny Lysenkoism was a set of repressive political and social campaigns in science and Agriculture by the powerful Stalinist director of the Soviet Lenin All-Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 There was significant progress in "ideologically safe" domains, owing to the free Soviet education system and state-financed research. Soviet Education was organized in a highly centralized government-run system However, in several cases the consequences of ideological pressure were dramatic—the most notable examples being the "bourgeois pseudosciences" genetics and cybernetics. Bourgeois Pseudoscience (Буржуазная лженаука was a term of condemnation in the Soviet Union for certain scientific disciplines that were Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary study of the Structure of Complex systems especially Communication processes control mechanisms and Feedback
In the late 40's, some areas of physics, especially quantum mechanics but also special and general relativity, were also criticized on grounds of "idealism". In Western civilization, Idealism is the philosophy which maintains that the Ultimate nature of reality is ideal or based upon ideas values essences The so-called Soviet physicists, such as K. V. Nikolskij and D. Blokhintzev, developed a version of the statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics, which was seen as more adhering to the principles of dialectical materialism. The Ensemble Interpretation, or Statistical Interpretation of Quantum mechanics, is an interpretation that can be viewed as a minimalist interpretation it is a quantum Dialectical materialism, according to many followers of Karl Marx 's thinking is the philosophical basis of Marxism. [27][28] However, although initially planned,[29] this process did not go as far as defining an "ideologically correct" version of physics and purging those scientists who refused to conform to it, because this was recognized as potentially too harmful to the Soviet nuclear program. The Soviet project to develop an atomic bomb began during World War II in the Soviet Union.
Linguistics was the only area of Soviet academic thought to which Stalin personally and directly contributed. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields At the beginning of Stalin's rule, the dominant figure in Soviet linguistics was Nikolai Yakovlevich Marr, who argued that language is a class construction and that language structure is determined by the economic structure of society. Nicholas Marr (Николай Яковлевич Марр Nikolay Yakovlevich Marr; ნიკოლოზ იაკობის ძე მარი Nikolos Iakobis dse Japhetic theory is a term used to describe a linguistic theory developed by the Soviet linguist Nikolay Yakovlevich Marr ( 1864 &ndash 1934) Stalin, who had previously written about language policy as People's Commissar for Nationalities, read a letter by Arnold Chikobava criticizing the theory. Arnold Stepanovich Chikobava (არნოლდ ჩიქობავა ( March 14, 1898 - November 5, 1985) was a Georgian linguist He "summoned Chikobava to a dinner that lasted from 9 p. m. to 7 a. m. taking notes diligently. "[30] In this way he grasped enough of the underlying issues to coherently oppose this simplistic Marxist formalism, ending Marr's ideological dominance over Soviet linguistics. Stalin's principal work discussing linguistics is a small essay, "Marxism and Linguistic Questions. "[31]
Although no great theoretical contributions or insights came from it, neither were there any apparent errors in Stalin's understanding of linguistics; his influence arguably relieved Soviet linguistics from the sort of ideologically driven theory that dominated genetics.
Scientific research was hindered by the fact that many scientists were sent to labor camps (including Lev Landau, later a Nobel Prize winner, who spent a year in prison in 1938–1939) or executed (e. A labor camp is a simplified detention facility where inmates are engaged in Penal labor. Lev Davidovich Landau ( Russian language: Ле́в Дави́дович Ланда́у ( January 22, 1908 &ndash April 1, 1968 The Nobel Prize (Nobelpriset (Nobelprisen is a Swedish prize established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Peace, Literature g. Lev Shubnikov, shot in 1937). Lev Vasilyevich Shubnikov (Лев Васильевич Шубников Лев Васильович Шубников ( September 9, 1901&mdash November 10, They were persecuted for their dissident views, not for their research. A dissident, broadly defined is a person who actively challenges an established doctrine policy or institution Nevertheless, much progress was made under Stalin in some areas of science and technology. It laid the ground for the famous achievements of Soviet science in the 1950s, such as the development of the BESM-1 computer in 1953 and the launching of Sputnik in 1957. This article is about the Soviet computer "BESM" redirects here
Indeed, many politicians in the United States expressed a fear, after the "Sputnik crisis," that their country had been eclipsed by the Soviet Union in science and in public education. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Sputnik crisis was a turning point of the Cold War that began on October 4, 1957 when the Soviet Union launched the Sputnik 1
Social services
Under the Soviet government people benefited from some social liberalization. For the Soviet republics of the Soviet Union see Republics of the Soviet Union. Girls were given an adequate, equal education and women had equal rights in employment,[32] improving lives for women and families. Stalinist development also contributed to advances in health care, which significantly increased the lifespan and quality of life of the typical Soviet citizen. [32] Stalin's policies granted the Soviet people universal access to healthcare and education, effectively creating the first generation free from the fear of typhus, cholera, and malaria. Typhus is any of several similar diseases caused by Louse -borne bacteria Cholera, sometimes known as Asiatic cholera or epidemic cholera, is an infectious Gastroenteritis caused by the Bacterium Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including [32] The occurrences of these diseases dropped to record low numbers, increasing life spans by decades. [32]
Soviet women under Stalin were the first generation of women able to give birth in the safety of a hospital, with access to prenatal care. [32] Education was also an example of an increase in standard of living after economic development. The generation born during Stalin's rule was the first near-universally literate generation. Millions benefitted from mass literacy campaigns in the 1930s, and from workers training schemes. [33] Engineers were sent abroad to learn industrial technology, and hundreds of foreign engineers were brought to Russia on contract. [32] Transport links were improved and many new railways built. Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. Workers who exceeded their quotas, Stakhanovites, received many incentives for their work;[33] they could afford to buy the goods that were mass-produced by the rapidly expanding Soviet economy. In Soviet history and iconography a Stakhanovite (стахановец follows the example of Aleksei Grigorievich Stakhanov, employing hard work or
The increase in demand due to industrialization and the decrease in the workforce due to World War II and repressions generated a major expansion in job opportunities for the survivors, especially for women. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including [33]
Culture
Although born in Georgia, Stalin became a Russian nationalist and significantly promoted Russian history, language, and Russian national heroes, particularly during the 1930s and 1940s. Socialist realism is a teleologically -oriented style of realistic art which has as its purpose the furtherance of the goals of Socialism and Communism He held the Russians up as the elder brothers of the non-Russian minorities. [34]
During Stalin's reign the official and long-lived style of Socialist Realism was established for painting, sculpture, music, drama and literature. Socialist realism is a teleologically -oriented style of realistic art which has as its purpose the furtherance of the goals of Socialism and Communism Previously fashionable "revolutionary" expressionism, abstract art, and avant-garde experimentation were discouraged or denounced as "formalism". Expressionism is the tendency of an artist to distort reality for an Emotional effect it is a subjective art form Abstract art uses a Visual language of form color and line to create a composition which exists independently of visual references to the world The Russian avant-garde is an umbrella term used to define the large influential wave of Modern art that flourished in Russia from approximately 1890 to Careers were made and broken, some more than once. Famous figures were repressed, and many persecuted, tortured and executed, both "revolutionaries" (among them Isaac Babel, Vsevolod Meyerhold) and "non-conformists" (for example, Osip Mandelstam). Isaac Emmanuilovich Babel, Исаак Эммануилович Бабель ( – January 27, 1940) was a Soviet journalist playwright and short story writer who Vsevolod Emilevich Meyerhold (Всеволод Эмильевич Мейерхольд born Karl Kasimir Theodor Meyerhold ( &mdash 2 February 1940 ? was a Osip Emilyevich Mandelstam (also spelled Mandelshtam) (О́сип Эми́льевич Мандельшта́м ( &ndash December 27, 1938) was a
A minority, both representing the "Soviet man" (e. g. Arkady Gaidar) and remnants of the older pre-revolutionary Russia (e. Arkady Petrovich Golikov (Арка́дий Петро́вич Го́ликов ( &mdash October 26 1941) better known as Arkady Gaidar (ru Арка́дий g. Konstantin Stanislavski), thrived. Constantin Sergeyevich Stanislavski (Константин A number of émigrés returned to the Soviet Union, among them Alexei Tolstoi in 1925, Alexander Kuprin in 1936, and Alexander Vertinsky in 1943. Émigré is a French term that literally refers to a person who has "migrated out" but often carries a connotation of politico-social self- Exile. Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoi (Алексей Николаевич Толстой ( January 10, 1883 ( December 29, 1882 ( O Aleksandr Ivanovich Kuprin (Александр Иванович Куприн September 7, 1870 ( August 26, 1870 OS) in the town Aleksandr Nikolayevich Vertinsky ( Russian: Александр Вертинский, 21 March, 1889 in Kiev — 21 May
Poet Anna Akhmatova was subjected to several cycles of suppression and rehabilitation, but was never herself arrested. Anna Akhmatova (А́нна Ахма́това real name А́нна Андре́евна Горе́нко ( — March 5 1966 was the Pen name of Anna Andreevna Gorenko Her first husband, poet Nikolai Gumilev, was shot in 1921, and her son, historian Lev Gumilev, spent two decades in a gulag. Nikolay Stepanovich Gumilyov (Николай Степанович Гумилёв April 15 NS 1886 - August 1921 was an influential Russian Lev Nikolayevich Gumilyov (Лев Никола́евич Гумилёв ( October 1, 1912, St The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union.
The degree of Stalin's personal involvement in general, and in specific instances, has been the subject of discussion. His name was as constantly invoked during his reign in discussions of culture as in just about everything else; in several famous cases his opinion was final.
Stalin's occasional beneficence showed itself in strange ways. For example, Mikhail Bulgakov was driven to poverty and despair; yet, after a personal appeal to Stalin, he was allowed to continue working. Mikhail Afanasievich Bulgakov (Михаил Афанасьевич Булгаков, Kiev &ndash March 10, 1940, Moscow) was a Russian His play, The Days of the Turbines, with its sympathetic treatment of an anti-Bolshevik family caught up in the Civil War, was finally staged, apparently also on Stalin's intervention, and began a decades-long uninterrupted run at the Moscow Arts Theater.
Some insights into Stalin's political and esthetic thinking might perhaps be gleaned by reading his favorite novel, Pharaoh, by the Polish writer Bolesław Prus, a historical novel on mechanisms of political power. Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called Pharaoh (Faraon is the fourth and last major Novel by the Polish writer Bolesław Prus. A writer is anyone who creates a written work although the word usually designates those who write creatively or professionally as well as those who have written in many different forms Bolesław Prus (pronounced [bɔ'lεswaf 'prus]; Hrubieszów, August 20 1847 &ndash May 19 1912 Warsaw) whose actual name was Similarities have been pointed out between this novel and Sergei Eisenstein's film, Ivan the Terrible, produced under Stalin's tutelage. Sergei Mikhailovich Eisenstein (Сергей Михайлович Эйзенштейн January 23, 1898 &ndash February 11, 1948) was Ivan The Terrible (written Иван Грозный in Russian pronounced Ivan Groznyy) is a two-part film about Ivan IV of Russia
In architecture, a Stalinist Empire Style (basically, updated neoclassicism on a very large scale, exemplified by the Seven Sisters of Moscow) replaced the constructivism of the 1920s. The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation Stalinist architecture (also referred to as Stalin 's Empire style Stalinist Gothic, or Socialist Classicism Neoclassicism (sometimes rendered as Neo-Classicism or Neo-classicism) is the name given to quite distinct movements in the decorative and The Seven Sisters is the name given to various Moscow Skyscrapers by British immigrants who came to live in Russia in the 1980s and 90s Constructivist architecture was a form of Modern architecture that flourished in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and early 1930s
Stalin's rule had a largely disruptive effect on the many indigenous cultures within the Soviet Union. The politics of the Korenization and forced development of "Cultures National by Form, Socialist by their substance" was arguably beneficial to later generations of indigenous cultures in allowing them to integrate more easily into Russian society. Korenizatsiya (коренизация sometimes also called korenization, meaning "nativization" or "indigenization" literally "putting down roots"
The attempted unification of cultures in Stalin's later period was very harmful. Political repressions and purges were even more devastating to indigenous cultures than on urban ones as the cultural elites were smaller. The traditional lives of many peoples in the Siberian, Central Asian and Caucasian provinces was upset and large populations were displaced and scattered in order to prevent nationalist uprisings.
The Hotel Moskva (Moscow) in Moscow was said to have been built with mismatched side wings because Stalin had mistakenly signed off both of the proposals submitted, and the architects had been too afraid to clarify the matter. Hotel Moskva was a major Hotel located in central Moscow, Russia, just opposite the former Moscow City Hall. (The hotel had actually been built by two independent teams of architects with differing ideas. )
Religion
Stalin's role in the fortunes of the Russian Orthodox Church is complex. See also Eastern Orthodox Church Structure and organization The Slavic Orthodox Church is organized in a hierarchical structure Continuous persecution in the 1930s resulted in its near-extinction: by 1939, active parishes numbered in the low hundreds (down from 54,000 in 1917), many churches had been leveled, and tens of thousands of priests, monks and nuns were persecuted and killed. Over 100,000 were shot during the purges of 1937–1938. [35][36] During World War II, the Church was allowed a revival as a patriotic organization, after the NKVD had recruited the new metropolitan, the first after the revolution, as a secret agent. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The NKVD ( НКВД, ru Народный Комиссариат Внутренних Дел ''Narodnyy Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del'') or People's Commissariat In Hierarchical Christian churches the rank of metropolitan bishop, or simply metropolitan, pertains to the Diocesan bishop or Thousands of parishes were reactivated until a further round of suppression in Khrushchev's time. Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following
The Russian Orthodox Church Synod's recognition of the Soviet government and of Stalin personally led to a schism with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia. The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (Ру́сская Правосла́вная Це́рковь Заграни́цей ru Russkaya Pravoslavnaya Tserkov' Zagranitsey An Act of Canonical Communion was signed on May 17, 2007, followed immediately by a full restoration of communion with the Moscow Patriarchate; there remain some issues not fully healed to the present day. Events 1521 - Edward Stafford 3rd Duke of Buckingham, is executed for Treason. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
Just days before Stalin's death, certain religious sects were outlawed and persecuted. Forced settlements in the Soviet Union took several forms Though the most notorious was the Gulag Labor camp system of Penal labor, resettling of entire
Many religions popular in the ethnic regions of the Soviet Union including the Roman Catholic Church, Uniats, Baptists, Islam, Buddhism, Judaism, etc. This article refers to Eastern Churches in full communion with the Holy See underwent ordeals similar to the Orthodox churches in other parts: thousands of monks were persecuted, and hundreds of churches, synagogues, mosques, temples, sacred monuments, monasteries and other religious buildings were razed.
Purges and deportations
The purges
Main articles: Great Purge, Stalinist purges in Mongolia
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| Left: Beria's January 1940 letter to Stalin, asking permission to execute 346 "enemies of the CPSU and of the Soviet authorities" who conducted "counter-revolutionary, right-Trotskyite plotting and spying activities. Great Purge (Большая чистка transliterated Bolshaya chistka) was a series of campaigns of Political repression and Persecution Lavrentiy Pavlovich Beria (ლავრენტი პავლეს ძე ბერია Lavrenti Pavles dze Beria; Russian: Лаврентий Павлович The term enemy of the people is a fluid designation of political or class opponents of the group using the term " Middle: Stalin's handwriting: "за" (support). Right: The Politburo's decision is signed by Secretary Stalin. |
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Stalin, as head of the Politburo, consolidated near-absolute power in the 1930s with a Great Purge of the party, justified as an attempt to expel 'opportunists' and 'counter-revolutionary infiltrators'. Politburo, short for Political Bureau, Russian Politicheskoye Buro, is the executive organization for a number of Political parties, most notably Great Purge (Большая чистка transliterated Bolshaya chistka) was a series of campaigns of Political repression and Persecution Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party, however more severe measures ranged from banishment to the Gulag labor camps, to execution after trials held by NKVD troikas. The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. A labor camp is a simplified detention facility where inmates are engaged in Penal labor. NKVD troika or Troika, in Soviet Union history were commissions of three people employed as an additional instrument of Extrajudicial punishment (внесудебная
The purges commenced after the assassination of Sergei Kirov, the popular leader of the party in Leningrad. Sergei Mironovich Kirov (Серге́й Миро́нович Ки́ров ( &ndash December 1, 1934) was a prominent early Bolshevik leader whose assassination Kirov was very close to Stalin and his assassination sent chills through the Bolshevik party. Publicly Stalin merely reacted to this assassination by tightening security by seeking out alleged spies and counter-revolutionaries, but in effect he was removing those who might have threatened his leadership. This process then transformed itself into extensive purges.
There are two different views on the background of Kirov's murder. According to the first, Stalin was not involved but, fearing that he might be next in line to be assassinated, reacted by deciding to initiate purges instead of passively wait. According to the second, Stalin saw Kirov as a dangerous potential competitor for the top spot in Soviet leadership, and ordered Kirov's killing himself.
In the 1930s, Stalin apparently became increasingly worried about Kirov's growing popularity. At the 1934 Party Congress where the vote for the new Central Committee was held, Kirov received only three negative votes, the fewest of any candidate, while Stalin received 292 negative votes, the highest of any candidate. Kirov was a close friend with Sergo Ordzhonikidze, and together they formed a moderate bloc in the Politburo. Grigoriy Konstantinovich Ordzhonikidze (გრიგოლ (სერგო ორჯონიკიძე - Grigol (Sergo Orjonikidze Russian: Григорий Константинович Later in 1934, Stalin asked Kirov to work for him in Moscow. One theory suggests that Stalin did this in order to keep a closer eye on Kirov, this despite the supposed fact that Stalin entirely controlled the NKVD. Kirov refused, however, and according to the same theory he became a competitor in Stalin's eyes.
On December 1, 1934, Kirov was killed by Leonid Nikolaev (also seen spelled as Nikolayev) in the Smolny Institute Leningrad. Events 800 - Charlemagne judges the accusations against Pope Leo III in the Vatican Year 1934 ( MCMXXXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Smolny Institute (Смольный институт Smol'niy institut) is a Palladian edifice in St Petersburg, which has played a major part in the Kirov had arrived at the Smolny to work in his office, and, apparently leaving his bodyguard downstairs, headed to the upper floors, where the officials had their rooms. Nikolayev emerged from a bathroom and followed Kirov towards his office, shooting him in the back of the neck. Officially Stalin claimed that Nikolayev was part of a larger conspiracy led by Leon Trotsky against the Soviet government. This resulted in the arrest and execution of Lev Kamenev, Grigory Zinoviev, and fourteen others in 1936. The death of Kirov ignited the great purge where supporters of Trotsky and other suspected enemies of the state were arrested. It has been speculated that Stalin was the man who ordered the murder of Kirov, and that the shooting was carried out with the help of the NKVD. However, although most historians believe that this second version of why and how Kirov was killed is more likely, it has so far not been unambiguously proven correct and it is still disputed by some.
Several trials known as the Moscow Trials were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout the country. The Moscow Trials were a series of trials of political opponents of Joseph Stalin during the Great Purge. There were four key trials during this period: the Trial of the Sixteen (August 1936); Trial of the Seventeen (January 1937); the trial of Red Army generals, including Marshal Tukhachevsky (June 1937); and finally the Trial of the Twenty One (including Bukharin) in March 1938. The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya Mikhail Nikolayevich Tukhachevsky (Михаи́л Никола́евич Тухаче́вский Michał Tuchaczewski ( &ndash June 12, 1937) was a The Trial of the Twenty-One was the last of the Moscow Trials, Show trials of prominent Bolsheviks including the Old Bolsheviks The Trial of the Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (Никола́й Ива́нович Буха́рин ( &ndash March 15, 1938) was a Bolshevik
Most notably in the case of alleged Nazi collaborator Tukhachevsky, many military leaders were convicted of treason. The large scale purging of the officers of the Red Army cost the Soviet Union dearly during the German invasion of 22 June 1941, and its aftermath. Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^
The repression of so many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Leon Trotsky to claim that a "river of blood" separated Stalin's regime from that of Lenin. Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij Solzhenitsyn alleges that Stalin drew inspiration from Lenin's regime with the presence of labor camps and the executions of political opponents that occurred during the Russian Civil War. Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn ( Алекса́ндр Иса́евич Солжени́цын) (December 11 1918 – August 3 2008 was a Russian Novelist Trotsky's August 1940 assassination in Mexico, where he had lived in exile since January 1937, eliminated the last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Only three members of the "Old Bolsheviks" (Lenin's Politburo) now remained—Stalin himself, "the all-Union Chieftain" (всесоюзный староста) Mikhail Kalinin, and Chairman of Sovnarkom Vyacheslav Molotov. Old Bolshevik (ста́рый большеви́к is an unofficial designation for a member of the Bolshevik party before the Russian Revolution of 1917, most of The Politburo ( in Russian: Политбюро, full Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, abbreviated Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin (Михаи́л Ива́нович Кали́нин ( – June 3, 1946) was a Bolshevik revolutionary and the titular Head Premier of the Soviet Union is the commonly used English term for the offices of Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR (Председатель Molotov redirects here For other uses see Molotov (disambiguation.
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| Nikolai Yezhov, the young man strolling with Stalin to his left in this photo from the 1930s, was shot in 1940. Biography His character Yezhov was born in Saint Petersburg according to his official Soviet biography though he stated he was born in Mariiampole Lithuania Following his death, he was edited out of the photo by Soviet censors [9]. Such retouching was a common occurrence during Stalin's reign. |
No segment of society was left untouched during the purges. Article 58 of the legal code, listing prohibited "anti-Soviet activities", was applied in the broadest manner. Article 58 of the Russian SFSR Penal Code was put in force on February 25, 1927 to arrest those suspected of counter-revolutionary activities Initially, the execution lists for the enemies of the people were confirmed by the Politburo. The term enemy of the people is a fluid designation of political or class opponents of the group using the term
Over time the procedure was greatly simplified and delegated down the line of command. People would inform on others arbitrarily, to attempt to redeem themselves, or to gain small retributions. The flimsiest pretexts were often enough to brand someone an "enemy of the people," starting the cycle of public persecution and abuse, often proceeding to interrogation, torture and deportation, if not death. The term enemy of the people is a fluid designation of political or class opponents of the group using the term Nadezhda Mandelstam, the widow of the poet Osip Mandelstam and one of the key memoirists of the purges, recalls being shouted at by Akhmatova: "Don't you understand? They are arresting people for nothing now?" The Russian word troika gained a new meaning: a quick, simplified trial by a committee of three subordinated to NKVD. Nadezhda Yakovlevna Mandelstam (Надежда Яковлевна Мандельштам née Hazin 31 October, 1899 &mdash 29 December, 1980 Osip Emilyevich Mandelstam (also spelled Mandelshtam) (О́сип Эми́льевич Мандельшта́м ( &ndash December 27, 1938) was a NKVD troika or Troika, in Soviet Union history were commissions of three people employed as an additional instrument of Extrajudicial punishment (внесудебная
Towards the end of the purge, the Politburo relieved NKVD head Nikolai Yezhov, from his position for overzealousness. Biography His character Yezhov was born in Saint Petersburg according to his official Soviet biography though he stated he was born in Mariiampole Lithuania He was subsequently executed. Some historians such as Amy Knight and Robert Conquest postulate that Stalin had Yezhov and his predecessor, Genrikh Yagoda, removed in order to deflect blame from himself. Genrikh Grigor'evich Yagoda (Генрих Григорьевич Ягода born Yenokh (Enoch Gershonovich Ieguda ( Енох Гершонович Иегуда 1891
In parallel with the purges, efforts were made to rewrite the history in Soviet textbooks and other propaganda materials. Notable people executed by NKVD were removed from the texts and photographs as though they never existed. The NKVD ( НКВД, ru Народный Комиссариат Внутренних Дел ''Narodnyy Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del'') or People's Commissariat Gradually, the history of revolution was transformed to a story about just two key characters: Lenin and Stalin. Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party
In light of revelations from the Soviet archives, historians now estimate that nearly 700,000 people were executed in the course of the terror,[37] with the great mass of victims being ordinary peasants and workers. [38]
In addition, Stalin dispatched a contingent of NKVD operatives to Mongolia, had a Mongolian version of the troika established and unleashed a bloody purge in which tens of thousands were executed as 'Japanese Spies. The NKVD ( НКВД, ru Народный Комиссариат Внутренних Дел ''Narodnyy Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del'') or People's Commissariat The Mongolian People's Republic ( Mongolian: Бүгд Найрамдах Монгол Ард Улс (БНМАУ Bügd Nairamdakh Mongol Ard Uls (BNMAU) was a NKVD troika or Troika, in Soviet Union history were commissions of three people employed as an additional instrument of Extrajudicial punishment (внесудебная ' Mongolian ruler Khorloogiin Choibalsan closely followed Stalin's lead. Khorloogiin Choibalsan (Хорлоогийн Чойбалсан February 8 1895 &ndash January 26, 1952) was the Communist leader [39]
It is worth noting that 2007 tours of Stalin's Museum in Gori, Georgia reference the purges only in passing. "Sure, during the process of collectivization, some mistakes were made" is the official line at the museum. No other references to mortalities are made during the tour, and when asked about actual fatalities, the estimate of 25,000 is given.
Ukrainian famine
The Holodomor famine is sometimes referred to as the Ukrainian Genocide,[40][41][42][43] implying that the Holodomor was engineered by the Soviet government, specifically targeting the Ukrainian people to destroy the Ukrainian nation as a political factor and social entity. The Holodomor (Голодомор is the famine that took place in Soviet Ukraine during the 1932-1933 agricultural season Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group [44] While historians continue to disagree whether the policies that led to Holodomor fall under the legal definition of genocide, twenty six countries have officially recognized the Holodomor as such. The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in December 1948 and came into effect in January 1951 On 28 November 2006 the Ukrainian Parliament approved a bill, according to which the Soviet-era forced famine was an act of genocide against the Ukrainian people. [45]
Deportations
Shortly before, during and immediately after World War II, Stalin conducted a series of deportations on a huge scale which profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union. Population transfer in the Soviet Union may be classified into the following broad categories deportations of " Anti-Soviet " categories of population often classified World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Forced settlements in the Soviet Union took several forms Though the most notorious was the Gulag Labor camp system of Penal labor, resettling of entire It is estimated that between 1941 and 1949 nearly 3. 3 million[46] were deported to Siberia and the Central Asian republics. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Separatism, resistance to Soviet rule and collaboration with the invading Germans were cited as the official reasons for the deportations, rightly or wrongly. Historian Allan Bullock explains:
Many no doubt had collaborated with the occupying forces … but many had done so not out of disloyalty but from the instinct to survive when abandoned to their fate by the retreating Soviet armies. Alan Louis Charles Bullock Baron Bullock ( 13 December 1914 - 2 February 2004) was a British historian who wrote an influential The individual circumstances were of no interest to Stalin … After the brief Nazi occupation of the Caucasus was over … the entire population of five of the small highland peoples of the North Caucasus, as well as the Crimean Tatars — more than a million souls — (were deported) without notice or any opportunity to take their possessions. There were certainly collaborators among these peoples, but most of those had fled with the Germans. The majority of those left were old folk, women, and children; their men were away fighting at the front, where the Chechens and Ingushes alone produced thirty-six Heroes of the Soviet Union. [47]
During Stalin's rule the following ethnic groups were deported completely or partially: Ukrainians, Poles, Koreans, Volga Germans, Crimean Tatars, Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, Karachays, Meskhetian Turks, Finns, Bulgarians, Greeks, Latvians, Lithuanians, Estonians, and Jews. Ukrainians (Українці Ukrayintsi,) are an East Slavic Ethnic group primarily living in Ukraine, or more broadly— Citizens The Korean people are an East Asian Ethnic group. Most Koreans speak the Korean language. The Volga Germans (Wolgadeutsche or Russlanddeutsche) were Ethnic Germans living along the Volga River in the region of southern European Russia Crimean Tatars (sg Qırımtatar, pl Qırımtatarlar) or Crimeans (sg The Republic of Kalmykia (Респу́блика Калмы́кия Kalmyk: Хальмг Таңһч is a federal subject of the Russian Federation (a The Chechen Republic (ˈʧɛʧɨn rɪˈpʌblɨk Чече́нская Респу́блика Chechenskaya Respublika; Нохчийн Республика Noxçiyn Respublika The Republic of Ingushetia ( Ingush: ГӀалгӀай Мохк Респу́блика Ингуше́тия Respublika Ingushetiya) is a federal The Balkars ( Karachay-Balkar: sg малкъар - malqar, pl Karachay-Cherkess Republic (Карача́ево-Черке́сская респу́блика Karachay-Balkar: Къарачай-Черкес Республика Meskhetian Turks or Meskhetians are the former Muslim inhabitants of Meskheti (Georgia along the border with Turkey. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Large numbers of Kulaks, regardless of their nationality, were resettled to Siberia and Central Asia. Kulaks ( Russian: кула́к kulak " Fist ", by extension "tight-fisted" were a category of rich Peasants in later Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Deportations took place in appalling conditions, often by cattle truck, and hundreds of thousands of deportees died en route. [48] Those who survived were forced to work without pay in the labour camps. Many of the deportees died of hunger or other conditions.
In February 1956, Nikita Khrushchev condemned the deportations as a violation of Leninist principles, and reversed most of them, although it was not until as late as 1991 that the Tatars, Meskhs and Volga Germans were allowed to return en masse to their homelands. Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following Leninism refers to various related political and economic theories elaborated by Bolshevik revolutionary leader Vladimir Lenin. The deportations had a profound effect on the peoples of the Soviet Union. The memory of the deportations played a major part in the separatist movements in the Baltic States, Tatarstan and Chechnya, even today. Republic of Tatarstan (Респу́блика Татарста́н Татарстан Республикасы|Tatarstan Respublikası is a federal subject of the Russian The Chechen Republic (ˈʧɛʧɨn rɪˈpʌblɨk Чече́нская Респу́блика Chechenskaya Respublika; Нохчийн Республика Noxçiyn Respublika
Number of victims
Early researchers attempting to tally the number of people killed under Stalin's regime were forced to rely largely upon anecdotal evidence. Their estimates ranged from a low of 3 million to as high as 60 million. [49][50] When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 however, evidence from the Soviet archives finally became available. The archives record that about 800,000 prisoners were executed (for either political or criminal offences) under Stalin, while about 1. 7 million died in the GULAG and some 389,000 perished during kulak forced resettlement — a total of about 3 million victims. The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. Forced settlements in the Soviet Union took several forms Though the most notorious was the Gulag Labor camp system of Penal labor, resettling of entire
Debate continues, however,[51] since some historians believe the archival figures to be unreliable. [52][53] For example, some argue that the many suspects tortured to death while in "investigative custody" were likely not counted amongst the executed. [54][55] Also, there are certain categories of victim which it is generally agreed were carelessly recorded by the Soviets — such as the victims of ethnic deportations, or of German population transfer in the aftermath of WWII.
Thus while some archival researchers have estimated the number of victims of Stalin's repressions to be no more than about 4 million in total,[56][57][58] others believe the number to be considerably higher. Russian writer Vadim Erlikman,[59] for example, makes the following estimates: executions, 1. 5 million; gulags, 5 million; deportations, 1. 7 million (out of 7. 5 million deported); and POWs and German civilians, 1 million — a total of about 9 million victims of repression.
Some historians have also included the 6 to 8 million victims of the 1932–1933 famine as victims of repression. [24][60][61] This categorization is controversial however, as historians differ as to whether the famine was a deliberate part of the campaign of repression against kulaks or simply an unintended consequence of the struggle over forced collectivization. Unintended consequences are outcomes that are not (or not limited to what the actor intended in a particular situation (See also: Droughts and famines in Russia and the USSR).
Regardless, it appears that a minimum of around 10 million surplus deaths (4 million by repression and 6 million from famine) are attributable to the regime, with a number of recent books suggesting a likely total of around 20 million. [62][63][64][65][66] Adding 6–8 million famine victims to Erlikman's estimates above, for example, would yield a total of between 15 and 17 million victims. Pioneering researcher Robert Conquest, meanwhile, has revised his original estimate of up to 30 million victims down to 20 million. Dr George Robert Ackworth Conquest (born July 15 1917) British Historian, became a well known writer and researcher on the Soviet Union [67] Others, however, continue to maintain that their earlier much higher estimates are correct. [68]
World War II, 1939–1945
After the failure of Soviet and Franco-British talks on a mutual defense pact in Moscow, Stalin began to negotiate a non-aggression pact with Hitler's Nazi Germany. Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German There is a version that in his speech on August 19, 1939, Stalin prepared his comrades for the great turn in Soviet policy, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany. Stalin's speech on August 19, 1939 was a speech alleged to have been given in secret by Joseph Stalin to Soviet leaders wherein he supposedly described Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers According to a controversial Russian author living in the UK, Viktor Suvorov, Stalin expressed in the speech an expectation that the war would be the best opportunity to weaken both the Western nations and Nazi Germany, and make Germany suitable for "Sovietization". Viktor Suvorov (Ви́ктор Суво́ров is the Pen name for Vladimir Bogdanovich Rezun: Влади́мир Богда́нович Резу́н (born Whether this speech was ever delivered to the public and what its content was is still debated.
Officially a non-aggression treaty only, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact had a secret annex according to which Central Europe was divided into the two powers' respective spheres of influence. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and The USSR was promised an eastern part of Poland, primarily populated with Ukrainians and Belarusians in case of its dissolution, as long as Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Another clause of the treaty was that Bessarabia, then part of Romania, was to be joined to the Moldovan ASSR, and become the Moldovan SSR under control of Moscow. Bessarabia ( Basarabia in Romanian, Бесарабія in Ukrainian, Бессарабия in Russian, Бесарабия in Bulgarian
On September 1, 1939, the German invasion of Poland started World War II. Events 462 - Possible start of first Byzantine indiction cycle. Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Stalin decided to intervene, and on September 17 the Red Army entered eastern Poland and occupied the territory assigned to it by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Events 1176 - The Battle of Myriokephalon is fought 1462 - The Battle of Świecino (or Battle of Żarnowiec The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya
In November 1939, Stalin sent troops over the Finnish border, provoking a war of aggression, and probably intended to annex Finland into the Soviet Union, as he had already done in Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia. A war of aggression is a Military conflict waged in the absence of "a necessity of self-defense instant overwhelming leaving no choice of means and no moment of deliberation But the Winter War between the Soviet Union and Finland proved to be far more difficult than Stalin and the Red Army were prepared for, and the Soviets sustained surprisingly high casualties. The Winter War (Talvisota Советско-финляндская война - official Зимняя война - unofficial Vinterkriget began when the By some estimates, the Soviet Union lost as many as 391,800 lives in this four-month war against Finland alone, or more than the United States suffered in all of World War II against Germany and Japan (1941–1945). The Soviets finally agreed on an interim peace in March, 1940, but only succeeded in annexing the eastern region of Karelia (10% of Finnish territory), a classic example of a Pyrrhic victory. The Interim Peace was a short period in the History of Finland during the Second World War. A Pyrrhic victory (ˈpɪrɪk is a victory with devastating cost to the victor Finland remains an independent country to the present day, but the Red Armies' serious problems had been revealed to the rest of the world, including Germany.
On March 5, 1940, the Soviet leadership approved an order of execution for more than 25,700 Polish "nationalist, educators and counterrevolutionary" activists in the parts of the Ukraine and Belarus republics that had been annexed from Poland. This event has become known as the Katyn Massacre. [69]
In June 1941, Hitler broke the pact and invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, thus beginning the Great Patriotic War. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Operation Barbarossa ( Unternehmen Barbarossa) was the Codename for Nazi Germany 's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II The term Great Patriotic War (Великая Отечественная война Velikaya Otechestvennaya Vojna) is used in Russia and some other Although expecting war with Germany, Stalin may not have expected an invasion to come so soon—and the Soviet Union was relatively unprepared for this invasion. An alternative theory suggested by Viktor Suvorov claims that Stalin had made aggressive preparations from the late 1930s on and was about to invade Germany in summer 1941. Viktor Suvorov (Ви́ктор Суво́ров is the Pen name for Vladimir Bogdanovich Rezun: Влади́мир Богда́нович Резу́н (born Thus, he believes Hitler only managed to forestall Stalin and the German invasion was in essence a pre-emptive strike. Preemptive war (or a preemptive strike) is waged in an attempt to repel or defeat a perceived inevitable offensive or Invasion, or to gain a strategic advantage in This theory was supported by Igor Bunich, Mikhail Meltyukhov (see Stalin's Missed Chance) and Edvard Radzinsky (see Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives). Igor Bunich is a Russian historian known for offering a number of revisionist interpretations of Russian history Mikhail Ivanovich Meltiukhov (also spelled Meltyukhov or Mel'tiuhov, Russian Михаил Иванович Мельтюхов mixʌ'il i'vʌnəviʨ mʲil'tʲuxəf Stalin's Missed Chance is a study by Russian military historian Mikhail Ivanovich Meltyukhov, author of several books and articles on Soviet military Edvard Radzinsky (Эдвард Станиславович Радзинский (b However, most western historians reject this thesis.
In the diary of General Fedor von Boch, it is also mentioned that the Abwehr fully expected a Soviet attack against German forces in Poland no later than 1942. Please see " General " for other countries which use this rank General (genəˈraːl is presently the highest rank Fedor von Bock ( December 3, 1880 &ndash May 4, 1945) was an officer in the German Military from 1898 to The Abwehr was a German intelligence organization from 1921 to 1944 Such speculations are difficult to substantiate, however, as information on the Soviet Army from 1939 to 1941 remains classified, but it is known that the Soviets had received some warnings of the German invasion through their foreign intelligence agents, such as Richard Sorge. Richard Sorge ( Russian: Рихард Зорге ( October 4, 1895 - November 7, 1944) is considered to have been the best Soviet
Even though Stalin received intelligence warnings of a German attack,[70] he sought to avoid any obvious defensive preparation which might further provoke the Germans, in the hope of buying time to modernize and strengthen his military forces. In the initial hours after the German attack commenced, Stalin hesitated, wanting to ensure that the German attack was sanctioned by Hitler, rather than the unauthorized action of a rogue general. [5]
The Germans initially made huge advances, capturing and killing millions of Soviet troops. The Soviet Red Army put up fierce resistance during the war's early stages. Even so, they were plagued by an ineffective defense doctrine against the well-trained and experienced German forces, despite quite modern equipment, such as first heavy tank in the world, the KV-1. The Kliment Voroshilov ( KV) Tanks were a series of Soviet Heavy tanks named after the Soviet defense commissar and politician Kliment Voroshilov
Stalin feared that Hitler would use disgruntled Soviet citizens to fight his regime, particularly people imprisoned in the Gulags. The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. He thus ordered the NKVD to take care of the situation. The NKVD ( НКВД, ru Народный Комиссариат Внутренних Дел ''Narodnyy Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del'') or People's Commissariat The massacre of prisoners refers to a series of mass executions committed by the Soviet NKVD against prisoners in Poland, the Baltic states, They responded by murdering around one hundred thousand political prisoners throughout the western parts of the Soviet Union, with methods that included bayoneting people to death and tossing grenades into crowded cells. [71] Many others were simply deported east. [72][73][74]
Hitler's experts had expected eight weeks of war, and early indications appeared to support their predictions. However, the invading German forces were eventually driven back in December 1941 near Moscow. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of
Stalin met in several conferences with Churchill and/or Roosevelt in Moscow, Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam to plan military strategy (Truman taking the place of the deceased Roosevelt). List of World War II conferences of the Allied forces The Tehran Conference ( Codenamed EUREKA) was the meeting of Joseph Stalin, Franklin D The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and Codenamed the Argonaut Conference, was the wartime meeting from 4 February The Potsdam Conference was held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm Hohenzollern, in Potsdam, Germany, from July 16, Military strategy is a National defence policy implemented by Military organisations to pursue desired strategic goals Derived from the Greek
In these conferences, his first appearances on the world stage, Stalin proved to be a formidable negotiator. Anthony Eden, the British Foreign Secretary noted:
"Marshal Stalin as a negotiator was the toughest proposition of all. Robert Anthony Eden 1st Earl of Avon, KG, MC, PC (12 June 1897 &ndash 14 January 1977 was a British Conservative Politician Indeed, after something like thirty years' experience of international conferences of one kind and another, if I had to pick a team for going into a conference room, Stalin would be my first choice. Of course the man was ruthless and of course he knew his purpose. He never wasted a word. He never stormed, he was seldom even irritated. "[75]
His shortcomings as strategist are frequently noted regarding massive Soviet loss of life and early Soviet defeats. An example of it is the summer offensive of 1942, which led to even more losses by the Red Army and recapture of initiative by the Germans. Stalin eventually recognized his lack of know-how and relied on his professional generals to conduct the war.
Yet Stalin did rapidly move Soviet industrial production east of the Volga River, far from Luftwaffe-reach, to sustain the Red Army's war machine with astonishing success. Clement Richard Attlee 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, PC ( 3 January 1883 &ndash 8 October 1967 The Potsdam Conference was held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm Hohenzollern, in Potsdam, Germany, from July 16, ( German 'luftvafe is a generic German term for an Air force. The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya Additionally, Stalin was well aware that other European armies had utterly disintegrated when faced with Nazi military efficacy and responded effectively by subjecting his army to galvanizing terror and unrevolutionary, nationalist appeals to patriotism. He also appealed to the Russian Orthodox church and images of national Russian heroes. See also Eastern Orthodox Church Structure and organization The Slavic Orthodox Church is organized in a hierarchical structure On November 6, 1941, Stalin addressed the whole nation of the Soviet Union for the second time (the first time was earlier that year on July 2). Events 355 - Roman Emperor Constantius II promotes his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar, entrusting him with Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 310 - Pope Miltiades is elected 626 - In fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushes and kills his rival
According to Stalin's Order No. 227 of July 27, 1942, any commander or commissar of a regiment, battalion or army, who allowed retreat without permission from above was subject to military tribunal. Order No 227 of July 28 1942 was issued by Joseph Stalin acting as People's Commissar of Defence Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Soviet soldiers who surrendered were declared traitors; however most of those who survived the brutality of German captivity were mobilized again as they were freed. Between 5% and 10% of them were sent to Gulag (As "traitors of Homeland". The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. Soviet Criminal Code, §58, clause 1B: criminal conviction — 10 or later 25 years of labor camp plus 5 years without "citizen rights").
In the war's opening stages, the retreating Red Army also sought to deny resources to the enemy through a scorched earth policy of destroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them. This, along with abuse by German troops, caused starvation and suffering among the civilian population that were left behind.
According to recent figures, of an estimated four million POWs taken by the Russians, including Germans, Japanese, Hungarians, Romanians and others, some 580,000 never returned, presumably victims of privation or the Gulags, compared with 3. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania 5 million Soviet POW that died in German camps out of the 5. 6 million taken. [76]
Returning Soviet soldiers who had surrendered were viewed with suspicion and some were killed. According to historian Alan Bullock:
The huge number of Russian troops taken prisoner in the first eighteen months of the war convinced Stalin that many of them must have been traitors who had deserted at the first opportunity. Alan Louis Charles Bullock Baron Bullock ( 13 December 1914 - 2 February 2004) was a British historian who wrote an influential Any soldier who had been a prisoner was henceforth suspect … All such, whether generals, officers, or ordinary soldiers, were sent to special concentration camps where the NKVD investigated them … Twenty percent were sentenced to death or twenty-five years in camps; only 15 to 20 percent were allowed to return to their homes. The remainder were condemned to shorter sentences (five to ten years), to exile in Siberia, and forced labor — or were killed or died on the way home. [77]
Post-war era, 1945–1953
Domestically, Stalin was seen as a great wartime leader who had led the Soviets to victory against the Nazis. His early cooperation with Hitlerism was forgotten. That cooperation included helping the German Army violate the Versailles Treaty limitations with training in the Soviet Union, the notorious Molotov-von Ribbentrop treaty which partitioned Poland (giving the Soviet Union what is now Belarus), and granted the Soviet Union a free hand in Finland, Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia, and Soviet trade with Hitler to counteract the expected French and British trade blockades. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I.
By the end of the 1940s, Russian patriotism increased due to successful propaganda efforts. For instance, some inventions and scientific discoveries were claimed by Russian propaganda. Examples include the boiler, reclaimed by father and son Cherepanovs; the electric bulb, by Yablochkov and Lodygin; the radio, by Popov; and the airplane, by Mozhaysky. A boiler is a closed vessel in which Water or other Fluid is heated Cherepanov Yefim Alekseyevich (1774–1842 and Miron Yefimovich (1803–1849 Russian Inventors and industrial engineers, father and son A lamp is a replaceable component such as an Incandescent light bulb, which is designed to produce Light from Electricity. Pavel Nikolayevich Yablochkov ( Павел Николаевич Яблочков in Russian) (( &ndash) was a Russian Electrical engineer, the Inventor Alexander Nikolayevich Lodygin ( October 18 1847 – March 16 1923) ( Александр Николаевич Лодыгин in Radio is the transmission of signals by Modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible Light. Alexander Stepanovich Popov (Александр Степанович Попов (Gregorian March 16 1859 - January 13 1906, Julian March Alexander Fedorovich Mozhayskiy (Александр Фёдорович Можайский ( in Rochensalm, current Kotka, Finland &mdash in Saint Stalin's internal repressive policies continued (including in newly acquired territories), but never reached the extremes of the 1930s, in part because the smarter party functionaries had learned caution.
Internationally, Stalin viewed Soviet consolidation of power as a necessary step to protect the USSR by surrounding it with countries with friendly governments like the variety seen in Finland, to act as a cordon sanitaire (buffer) against possible invaders, while the "West" sought a similar buffer against communist expansion. These competing policies led to an admirable stability, where successful Soviet aggression would depend on enthusiastic cooperation by the satellite nations.
He had hoped that the American withdrawal and demobilization would lead to increased communist influence, especially in Europe. Demob redirects here For the television series see Demob (TV series. Each side might view the other's defensive actions as destabilizing provocations and these security dilemmas frayed relations between the Soviet Union and its former World War II western allies and led to a prolonged period of tension and distrust between East and West known as the Cold War (see also Iron curtain). Security dilemma is a term used in International relations and refers to a situation wherein two or more States are drawn into conflict possibly even War Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The " Iron Curtain " was the symbolic ideological and physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II until the end
The Red Army ended World War II occupying much of the territory that had been formerly held by the Axis countries:
In Asia, the Red Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of the war and then also occupied Korea above the 38th parallel north. The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Manchuria ( Romanized Manchu: Manju,, Маньчжурия Mongolian: Манж is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. The 38th parallel north is a Circle of latitude that is 38 degrees north of the Earth's equatorial plane. Mao Zedong's Communist Party of China, though receptive to minimal Soviet support, defeated the pro-Western and heavily American-assisted Chinese Nationalist Party in the Chinese Civil War. Mao Zedong ( 26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Military and political leader who led The Communist Party of China ( CPC) ( also known as the Chinese Communist Party ( CCP) is the founding and ruling political party of the
The Communists controlled mainland China while the Nationalists held a rump state on the island of Formosa (now Taiwan). A rump state is the remnant of a once-larger Government, left with limited powers or authority after a Disaster, Invasion or Military occupation Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. The Soviet Union soon after recognized Mao's People's Republic of China, which it regarded as a new ally. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES The People's Republic claimed Taiwan, though it had never held authority there.
Diplomatic relations reached a high point with the signing of the 1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance. The Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship Alliance and Mutual Assistance ( Chinese: 中苏友好同盟互助条约 Pinyin: Zhōng-Sū Yǒuhǎo Tóngméng Hùzhù Tiáoyuè Both countries provided military support to a new friendly state in North Korea. North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, After various border conflicts, war broke out with U. S. -allied South Korea in 1950, starting the Korean War. South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː The Korean War refers to a period of military conflict between North Korean and South Korean regimes with major hostilities lasting from June 25 1950 until the
In Europe, there were Soviet occupation zones in Germany and Austria. The Soviet Occupation Zone ( German: Sowjetische Besatzungszone (SBZ or Ostzone; Советская зона Германии Sovetskaya zona Germanii Hungary and Poland were under practical military occupation. From 1946–1948 coalition governments comprising communists were elected in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria and homegrown communist movements rose to power in Yugoslavia and Albania. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian See also Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Yugoslavia ( Serbo-Croatian This article is about the country in southern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Albania topics.
These nations became known as the "Communist Bloc. " Britain and the United States supported the anti-communists in the Greek Civil War and suspected the Soviets of supporting the Greek communists although Stalin refrained from getting involved in Greece, dismissing the movement as premature. The Greek Civil War (ο Eμφύλιος, "the Civil War" fought from 1946 to 1949 by the Governmental forces receiving logistical support by the United Kingdom Albania remained an ally of the Soviet Union, but Yugoslavia broke with the USSR in 1948. This article is about the country in southern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Albania topics. Greece, Italy and France received enormous support from the population, which were at the very least friendly towards Moscow. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics.
Both Superpowers viewed Germany as key. A superpower is a State with a leading position in the international system and the ability to Influence events and project power on a worldwide scale Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. In retaliation to the Western formation of Trizonia, Stalin determined to take action. BiZone (formerly "The Bisexual Network of New Jersey" is a statewide member-based organization created to foster a visible community for Bisexual
Armed with intelligence from the British agent Donald Duart Maclean and other British and American espionage agents, Stalin was well aware that the United States had not proceeded with mass production of atomic weapons, indeed, had not even assembled any after the last was used at Nagasaki. Donald Duart Maclean (məˈkleɪn 25 May, 1913 Marylebone, London – 6 March, 1983 Moscow) was a British Large numbers would have been needed to destroy Soviet or Communist land forces either in Europe or the Far East. He therefore ordered a blockade of West Berlin, which was under British, French, and U. West Berlin was the name given to the western part of Berlin between 1949 and 1990 S. occupation, to test the Western powers.
The Berlin Blockade failed due to the unexpected massive aerial resupply campaign carried out by the Western powers known as the Berlin Airlift. The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 – 11 May 1949 was one of the first major international crises of the Cold war. The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 – 11 May 1949 was one of the first major international crises of the Cold war. In 1949, Stalin conceded defeat and ended the blockade. After West Germany was formed by the union of the three Western occupation zones, the Soviets declared East Germany a separate country in 1949, ruled by the communists. West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany ( The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state
Stalin originally supported the creation of Israel in 1948. The USSR was one of the first nations to recognize the new country. [78] Golda Meir came to Moscow as the first Israeli Ambassador to the USSR that year. Golda Meir ( גּוֹלְדָּה מֵאִיר جولدا مائير born Golda Mabovitch, 3 May 1898 - 8 December 1978 known as Golda Myerson from 1917-1956 But he later changed his mind and came out against Israel.
Contrary to America's policy which restrained armament (limited equipment was provided for infantry and police forces) to South Korea, Stalin also extensively armed Kim Il Sung's North Korean army and air forces with military equipment (to include T-34/85 tanks) and "advisors" far in excess of that required for defensive purposes) in order to facilitate Kim's (a former Soviet Officer) aim to conquer the rest of the Korean peninsula. Kim Il-sung ( 15 April 1912 – 8 July 1994) was the leader of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea from its founding in early Soviet pilots flew Soviet aircraft from Chinese bases against United Nations aircraft defending South Korea. Post cold war research in Soviet Archives reveal that the Korean War was begun by Kim Il-sung with the express permission of Stalin, though this is widely disputed by North Korea.
In Stalin's last year of life, one of his last major foreign policy initiatives was the 1952 Stalin Note for German reunification and Superpower disengagement from Central Europe, but Britain, France, and the United States viewed this with suspicion and rejected the offer. The Stalin Note, also known as the March Note, was a document delivered to the representatives of the Western allied powers ( Britain, France, and the German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung took place twice after 1945 first in 1957 the Saarland was permitted to join the Federal Republic of Germany Superpower disengagement is a Foreign policy option whereby the most powerful nations the Superpowers reduce their interventions in an area Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and
Stalin as theorist
Stalin made few contributions to Communist (or, more specifically, Marxist-Leninist) theory. Stalinism is the political regime named after Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union from 1929–1953 The contributions he made were accepted and upheld by all Soviet political scientists during his rule.
Among Stalin's contributions were his "Marxism and the National Question", a work praised by Lenin; his "Trotskyism or Leninism", which was a factor in the "liquidation of Trotskyism as an ideological trend" within the CPSU(B).
Stalin's Collected Works (in 13 volumes) was released in 1949. A subsequent 16 volume American Edition appeared, in which one volume consisted of the book "History of the CPSU(B) Short Course", although when released in 1938 this book was credited to a commission of the Central Committee.
In 1933, Stalin put forward the theory of aggravation of the class struggle along with the development of socialism, arguing that the further the country would move forward, the more acute forms of struggle will be used by the doomed remnants of exploiter classes in their last desperate efforts — and that, therefore, political repression was necessary. The theory of aggravation of the class struggle along with the development of socialism was one of the cornerstones of Stalinism in the internal Politics of the
In 1936, Stalin announced that the society of the Soviet Union consisted of two non-antagonistic classes: workers and kolkhoz peasantry. A kolkhoz () plural kolkhozy, was a form of Collective farming in the Soviet Union that existed along with state Farms ( Sovkhoz, These corresponded to the two different forms of property over the means of production that existed in the Soviet Union: state property (for the workers) and collective property (for the peasantry). Means Of Production is a compilation of Aim 's early 12" and EP releases recorded between 1995 and 1998 In addition to these, Stalin distinguished the stratum of intelligentsia. For the coffee shop company often called Intelligentsia for short see Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea. The concept of "non-antagonistic classes" was entirely new to Leninist theory.
Stalin and his supporters have highlighted the notion that socialism can be built and consolidated by a country as underdeveloped as Russia during the 1920s. Socialism in One Country was a thesis developed by Nikolai Bukharin in 1925 and adopted as state policy by Joseph Stalin. Indeed this might be the only means in which it could be built in a hostile environment. [79]
Death
On March 1, 1953, after an all-night dinner in his residence in Krylatskoye some 15 km west of Moscow centre with interior minister Lavrentiy Beria and future premiers Georgy Malenkov, Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin did not emerge from his room, having probably suffered a stroke that paralyzed the right side of his body. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Lavrentiy Pavlovich Beria (ლავრენტი პავლეს ძე ბერია Lavrenti Pavles dze Beria; Russian: Лаврентий Павлович Georgy Maximilianovich Malenkov (Гео́ргий Максимилиа́нович Маленко́в Georgij Maksimilianovič Malenkov; January 8, Nikolai Alexandrovich Bulganin (Никола́й Алекса́ндрович Булга́нин Nikolaj Aleksandrovič Bulganin; – February 24 1975 Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following
Although his guards thought that it was odd for him not to rise at his usual time, they were under orders not to disturb him. He was discovered lying on the floor of his room only at about 10pm in the evening. Lavrentiy Beria was informed and arrived a few hours afterwards, and the doctors arrived only in the early morning of March, 2nd. Stalin died four days later, on March 5, 1953, at the age of 74, and was embalmed on March 9. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia. His daughter Svetlana recalls the scene as she stood by his death bed: "He suddenly opened his eyes and cast a glance over everyone in the room. It was a terrible glance. Then something incomprehensible and awesome happened. He suddenly lifted his left hand as though he were pointing to something above and bringing down a curse upon all of us. The next moment after a final effort the spirit wrenched itself free of the flesh. " Officially, the cause of death was listed as a cerebral hemorrhage. A cerebral hemorrhage (or intracerebral hemorrhage, ICH) is a subtype of Intracranial hemorrhage that occurs within the Brain tissue itself His body was preserved in Lenin's Mausoleum until October 31, 1961, when his body was removed from the Mausoleum and buried next to the Kremlin walls as part of the process of de-Stalinization. Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Cold War ensued as the USSR and the United States struggled indirectly for influence around the world
It has been suggested that Stalin was assassinated. The Kremlin Wall Necropolis (Некрополь у Кремлёвской стены is a part of the Kremlin Wall in Moscow overlooking the Red Square The ex-Communist exile Avtorkhanov argued this point as early as 1975. Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov ( Russian Абдурахман Геназович Авторханов (c The political memoirs of Vyacheslav Molotov, published in 1993, claimed that Beria had boasted to Molotov that he poisoned Stalin: "I took him out. Molotov redirects here For other uses see Molotov (disambiguation. "
Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs that Beria had, immediately after the stroke, gone about "spewing hatred against [Stalin] and mocking him", and then, when Stalin showed signs of consciousness, dropped to his knees and kissed his hand. Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following When Stalin fell unconscious again, Beria immediately stood and spat.
In 2003, a joint group of Russian and American historians announced their view that Stalin ingested warfarin, a powerful rat poison that inhibits coagulation of the blood and so predisposes the victim to hemorrhagic stroke (cerebral hemorrhage). Warfarin (also known under the brand names Coumadin, Jantoven, Marevan, and Waran) is an Anticoagulant. Since it is flavorless, warfarin is a plausible weapon of murder. The facts surrounding Stalin's death will probably never be known with certainty. [80]
His demise arrived at a convenient time for Beria and others, who feared being swept away in yet another purge. It is believed that Stalin felt Beria's power was too great and threatened his own. Whether or not Beria or another usurper was directly responsible for his death, it is true that the Politburo did not summon medical attention for Stalin for more than a day after he was found. Politburo, short for Political Bureau, Russian Politicheskoye Buro, is the executive organization for a number of Political parties, most notably
N. Gori (გორი is a city in eastern Georgia, which serves as the regional Capital of Shida Kartli and the centre of the Eponymous B. Radzinsky in Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents From Russia's Secret Archives notes, that while Stalin was preparing Beria's downfall, Beria first had Stalin's head of security killed and this allowed Beria to interfere with the bodyguard arrangements for "the Boss". The head of security on that night gave the guards the unprecedented order, allegedly from the Boss, that they were not required that night and they could go to bed. Next morning there was no activity from the Boss's room.
This was extremely convenient since the purge — which had already started against the Jewish doctors, was scheduled to start reaching up the current Politburo members including Beria and Khrushchev, not to mention the already deposed Molotov.
According to Radzinsky, this was also the resumption of the Terror, in order to ensure absolute obedience of the nation in anticipation of a planned nuclear war. Apparently Stalin intended to use his lead in the development of a hydrogen bomb to his advantage, by engineering a conflict with the West. This, he thought, could be achieved by building on the show trials of "the Jewish doctors", and embracing an anti-semitic expulsion of "the Jews" to Siberia.
Marriages and family
Stalin met his first wife, Ekaterina Svanidze, in late 1905 when he moved into the Tiflis townhouse where she lived. They were married on the night of July 28 1906. On March 31 1907, she gave birth to Stalin's first child, Yakov. In June 1907, after robbing the bank in Tiflis to fund the Bolshevik cause, Stalin and his family fled east to Baku. Stalin was frequently absent as he conducted revolutionary work across Georgia. Meanwhile, his Ekaterina suffered under the pollution and heat of Baku, which was an oil boomtown. She contracted typhus and died on December 5 1907. Typhus is any of several similar diseases caused by Louse -borne bacteria
His son finally shot himself because of Stalin's harshness toward him, but survived. After this, Stalin said "He can't even shoot straight". Yakov served in the Red Army during World War II and was captured by the Germans. They offered to exchange him for Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus, who had surrendered after Stalingrad, but Stalin turned the offer down, allegedly saying "A lieutenant is not worth a general"; others credit him with saying "I have no son," to this offer. Friedrich Wilhelm Ernst Paulus ( 23 September 1890 &ndash 1 February 1957) was an officer in the German Military Afterwards, Yakov is said to have committed suicide, running into an electric fence[81] in Sachsenhausen concentration camp, where he was being held. Sachsenhausen (zaksənˈhaʊzən was a Concentration camp in Germany, operating between 1936 and 1945 [82]
Stalin had a son, Vasiliy, and a daughter, Svetlana, with his second wife Nadezhda Alliluyeva. Vasily Iosifovich Dzhugashvili ( Russian Василий Иосифович Джугашвили known also as Vasily Stalin ( Russian Василий Svetlana Iosifovna Alliluyeva (sometimes Stalina, later Lana Peters) (born 28 February 1926 Moscow, Soviet Union) (Светлана Иосифовна Nadezhda Sergeyevna Alliluyeva (Надежда Сергеевна Аллилуева (1901 &ndash November 9, 1932) was the second wife of Joseph Stalin She died in 1932, officially of illness. She may have committed suicide by shooting herself after a quarrel with Stalin, leaving a suicide note which according to their daughter was "partly personal, partly political". [83] According to A&E Biography, there is also a belief among some Russians that Stalin himself murdered his wife after the quarrel, which apparently took place at a dinner in which Stalin tauntingly flicked cigarettes across the table at her. Historians also claim that her death ultimately "severed his [Stalin's] link from reality. " [84]
Vasiliy rose through the ranks of the Soviet air force, officially dying of alcoholism in 1962; however, this is still in question. An air force, also known in some countries as an air army or historically an army air corps, is in the broadest sense the national military or armed service Alcoholism is a term with multiple and sometimes conflicting definitions He distinguished himself in World War II as a capable airman. Svetlana emigrated to the United States in 1967. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the
In his book The Wolf of the Kremlin Stuart Kahan claimed that Stalin was secretly married to a third wife named Rosa Kaganovich, allegedly the sister of Lazar Kaganovich, a Soviet politician. However, the claim is unproven and many have disputed it, including the Kaganovich family, who deny that "Rosa" and Stalin ever met, and even state that Kaganovich's sister wasn't named Rosa. Kahan also claimed that both Lazar and Rosa were responsible for the death of Stalin (by poisoning), however this (as well as most of the remainder of Kahan's assertions) were dismissed as fabrication by the Statement of the Kaganovich Family.
In March 2001 Russian Independent Television NTV discovered a previously unknown grandson living in Novokuznetsk. Novokuznetsk (Новокузне́цк is a city in Kemerovo Oblast, Russia with a population of 549870 ( 2002 Census) Yuri Davydov told NTV that his father had told him of his lineage, but, because the campaign against Stalin's cult of personality was in full swing at the time, he was told to keep quiet. The Soviet dissident writer, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, had mentioned a son being born to Stalin and his common-law wife Lida in 1918, during Stalin's exile in northern Siberia. Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn ( Алекса́ндр Иса́евич Солжени́цын) (December 11 1918 – August 3 2008 was a Russian Novelist Common-law marriage (or Common law marriage) sometimes called de facto marriage, informal marriage or marriage by habit and repute Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving
Religious beliefs
Stalin's beliefs are complicated and sometimes contradictory. As the historians Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov noted, he received his education at Theological Seminary at Tiflis (Tbilisi), where his mother sent him to become a priest, but he became a closet atheist. Tbilisi (ˌtbiˈliːsi in Georgian: თბილისი is the capital and the largest city of the Republic of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Mt'k'vari [85] Zubok and Pleshakov further noted, "Many would later note, however, that his works were influenced by a distinctly Biblical style" and "his atheism remained rooted in some vague idea of a God of nature. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin "[85]
Regarding one famous claim about evolution, historians doubt one later Soviet claim that he read The Origin of Species at the age of thirteen while still at Gori, and told a fellow pupil that it proved the nonexistence of God. Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species (published 24 November 1859) is a seminal work in Scientific literature and arguably the The story fails on several obvious accounts, including Stalin's remaining religious, even pious, for some years longer. [86] In fact Professor of Religion Hector Avalos noted, "Stalin, in fact, had a complex relationship with religious institutions in the Soviet Union. Hector Avalos (b Nogales Sonora México October 8 1958 is a professor of Religious Studies at Iowa State University and the author of several books about religion "[87]
Historian Edvard Radzinsky used recently discovered secret archives and noted a story that changed Stalin's attitude toward religion. Edvard Radzinsky (Эдвард Станиславович Радзинский (b [88] The story in which Ilya, Metropolitan of the Lebanon Mountains, claimed to receive a sign from heaven that "The churches and monasteries must be reopened throughout the country. Priests must be brought back from imprisonment, Leningrad must not be surrendered, but the sacred icon of Our Lady of Kazan should be carried around the city boundary, taken on to Moscow, where a service should be held, and thence to Stalingrad [Tsaritsyn]. "[88] Shortly thereafter, Stalin's attitude changed and "Whatever the reason, after his mysterious retreat, he began making his peace with God. Something happened which no historian has yet written about. On his orders many priests were brought back to the camps. In Leningrad, besieged by the Germans and gradually dying of hunger, the inhabitants were astounded, and uplifted, to see wonder-working icon Our Lady of Kazan brought out into the streets and borne in procession. "[88] Radzinsky asked, "Had he seen the light? Had fear made him run to his Father? Had the Marxist God-Man simply decided to exploit belief in God? Or was it all of these things at once?. "[88]
During the Second World War Stalin reopened the Churches. One reason could have been to motivate the majority of the population who had Christian beliefs. The reasoning behind this is that by changing the official policy of the party and the state towards religion, the Church and its clergymen could be to his disposal in mobilizing the war effort.
Cult of personality
Stalin created a cult of personality in the Soviet Union around both himself and Lenin. A cult of personality or personality cult arises when a country's leader uses Mass media to create a heroic public image through unquestioning flattery and praise The embalming of the Soviet founder in Lenin's Mausoleum was performed over the objection of Lenin's widow, Nadezhda Krupskaya. Embalming, in most modern Cultures is the Art and Science of temporarily preserving human remains to forestall Decomposition Stalin became the focus of massive adoration and even worship.
Numerous towns, villages and cities were renamed after the Soviet leader (see List of places named after Stalin) and the Stalin Prize and Stalin Peace Prize were named in his honor. During Joseph Stalin ' s rule ( 1922 – 1953) many places mostly cities in the Soviet Union and other communist countries were named or renamed The USSR State Prize (Госуда́рственная пре́мия СССР was the Soviet Union 's state honour The International Stalin Prize or the International Stalin Prize for Strengthening Peace Among Peoples (renamed Международная Ленинская премия «За He accepted grandiloquent titles (e. g. "Coryphaeus of Science," "Father of Nations," "Brilliant Genius of Humanity," "Great Architect of Communism," "Gardener of Human Happiness," and others), and helped rewrite Soviet history to provide himself a more significant role in the revolution. At the same time, according to Khrushchev, he insisted that he be remembered for "the extraordinary modesty characteristic of truly great people. Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following "
Many statues and monuments were erected to glorify Stalin but all of them distorted Stalin's true build. Going by these monuments and statues it would be easy to assume that Stalin was a tall and well built man not unlike Tsar Alexander III. Alexander III Alexandrovich ( 10 March 1845 – 1 November 1894) (Александр III Александрович reigned as Emperor This was not the case however; photographic evidence suggests he was between 5 ft 5 in and 5 ft 6 in (165–168 cm)[10]. His physical stature was exaggerated in all portraits and statues to avoid any image of weakness that could harm his cult of personality. A cult of personality or personality cult arises when a country's leader uses Mass media to create a heroic public image through unquestioning flattery and praise
Trotsky criticized the cult of personality built around Stalin as being against the values of socialism and Bolshevism, in that it exalted the individual above the party and class and it disallowed criticism of Stalin. Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij The personality cult reached new levels during the Great Patriotic War, with Stalin's name even being included in the new Soviet national anthem. The term Great Patriotic War (Великая Отечественная война Velikaya Otechestvennaya Vojna) is used in Russia and some other A national anthem is a generally patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history traditions and struggles of its people recognized either by a nation's The reference was later removed during the process of De-Stalinization. The Cold War ensued as the USSR and the United States struggled indirectly for influence around the world
Stalin became the focus of a body of literature encompassing poetry as well as music, paintings and film. Artists and writers vied with each other in fawning devotion, crediting Stalin with almost god-like qualities, and suggesting he single-handedly won the Second World War.
It is debatable as to how much Stalin relished the cult surrounding him. The Finnish communist Tuominen records a sarcastic toast proposed by Stalin at a New Year Party in 1935:
Comrades! I want to propose a toast to our patriarch, life and sun, liberator of nations, architect of socialism [he rattled off all the appellations applied to him in those days] — Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin, and I hope this is the first and last speech made to that genius this evening. Arvo " Poika " Tuominen (1894-1981 was a Finnish Communist revolutionary and later a Social democratic journalist and politician [89]
In recent years, support of Stalin has resurged. Millions of Russians, exasperated with the downfall of the economy and political instability after the breakup of the Soviet Union, want Stalin back. A recent controversial poll revealed that over thirty-five percent of Russians would vote for Stalin if he were still alive. [90] This is seen by some as a return of Stalin's cult. In Krasnoyarsk, it has been decided to rebuild a communist-era memorial complex dedicated to Josef Stalin. Krasnoyarsk (Красноя́рск is the administrative center of Krasnoyarsk Krai of Russia, and the third largest city in Siberia. [91] Also, a new statue of Stalin is to be erected in Moscow, “returning his once-ubiquitous image to the streets after an absence of four decades, a top city official said yesterday”, as reported by The Scotsman. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of The Scotsman is a Scottish national Newspaper, published in Edinburgh. [92]
Policies and accomplishments
Under Stalin's rule the Soviet Union was transformed from an agricultural nation into a global superpower, although at the cost of millions of lives. The USSR's industrialization was successful in that the country was able to defend against and eventually defeat the Axis invasion in World War II, though at an enormous cost in human life; and in 1957, four years after Stalin's death, to put into orbit the first ever artificial satellite, Sputnik 1. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Sputnik 1 ( "Спутник-1", "Satellite-1" ПС-1 ( PS-1, i However, libertarian historian Robert Conquest and other Westerners claim that the USSR was bound for industrialization, and that its speed along this course was not necessarily improved by Bolshevik influence. Dr George Robert Ackworth Conquest (born July 15 1917) British Historian, became a well known writer and researcher on the Soviet Union It has also been argued that Stalin was partially responsible for the initial military disasters and enormous human casualties during WWII, because Stalin eliminated many military officers during the purges, and especially the most senior ones, and rejected the massive amounts of intelligence warning of the German attack. [93]
While Stalin's social and economic policies laid the foundations for the USSR's emergence as a superpower, the harshness with which he conducted Soviet affairs was subsequently repudiated by his successors in the Communist Party leadership, notably in the denunciation of Stalinism by Nikita Khrushchev in February 1956. Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following In his "Secret Speech", On the Personality Cult and its Consequences, delivered to a closed session of the 20th Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev denounced Stalin for his cult of personality, and his regime for "violation of Leninist norms of legality". On the Personality Cult and its Consequences (О культе личности и его последствиях commonly known as the Secret Speech or the
However, his immediate successors preserved major elements of Stalin's rule, including the political monopoly of the Communist Party presiding over a command economy and a security service able to suppress dissent. The large-scale purges of Stalin's era were never repeated, but political repression continued, albeit on a lesser scale.
Other names
His first name is also transliterated as Iosif. Transliteration is the practice of Transcribing a Word or text written in one Writing system into another writing system or system of rules for such practice His original surname, ჯუღაშვილი, is also transliterated as Jugashvili or Jughashvili. The Russian transliteration is Джугашвили, which is in turn transliterated into English as Dzhugashvili and Djugashvili; -შვილი (-shvili) is a Georgian suffix meaning "child" or "son". Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages
There are several etymologies of the ჯუღა (jugha) root. In one version, it is the Ossetian for "rubbish"; the surname Jugayev is common among Ossetians, and before the revolution the names in South Ossetia were traditionally written with the Georgian suffix, especially among Christianized Ossetians. Ossetia (pronounced /ɒˈsɛtɪə/ or /oʊˈsiːʃə/ Ossetic: Ирыстон Iryston; Russian: Осетия Osetiya; Georgian South Ossetia ( or; Хуссар Ирыстон Xussar Iryston; Южная Осетия Yuzhnaya Osetiya; სამხრეთი ოსეთი Samxreti In a second version, the name derives from the village of Jugaani in Kakhetia, eastern Georgia. Kakheti ( Georgian: კახეთი is a province in Eastern Georgia.
An article in the newspaper Pravda in 1988 claimed that the word derives from the Old Georgian for "steel" which might be the reason for his adoption of the name Stalin. Pravda (Правда "The Truth" was a leading Newspaper of the Soviet Union and an official organ of the Central Committee of the Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0 Сталин (Stalin) is derived from combining the Russian сталь (stal), "steel", with the possessive suffix -ин (-in), a formula used by many other Bolsheviks, including Lenin.
It has also been said that, originally, "Stalin" was a conspiratorial nickname which stuck with him. A nickname is a Name of an entity or thing that is not its Proper name.
Like other Bolsheviks, he became commonly known by one of his revolutionary noms de guerre, of which Stalin was only the most prominent. A pseudonym is a fictitious alternative to a person's legal name (see Alias) He was also known as Koba, a Robin Hood-like brigand from the 1883 novel The Patricide by Alexander Kazbegi. Robin Hood is an archetypal figure in English folklore, whose story originates from medieval times but who remains significant in popular culture where The Patricide (მამის მკვლელი is a Novel by Alexander Kazbegi, first published in 1882 Alexander Kazbegi (1848-1893 was a Georgian writer famous for his 1883 novel The Patricide. [94]
Stalin is also reported to have used at least a dozen other names for the purpose of secret communications. Most of them remain unknown.
Directly following World War II, as the Soviets were negotiating with the Allies, Stalin often sent directions to Molotov as Druzhkov. Among his other nicknames and aliases were Ivanovich, Soso or Sosso (mainly his boyhood name), Soselo (youthful nickname),David, Nizharadze or Nijeradze, and Chizhikov.
Stalin was nicknamed "Uncle Joe" by the Western media. [95]
Hypotheses, rumors, and misconceptions about Stalin
Birth and death
For very long time the date of birth of Stalin was falsified. [1]
There are a number of hypotheses and popular rumors about the "real" father of Stalin.
See section "Death" for various hypotheses about causes of Stalin's death.
Suspected Tsarist connections
Stalin has been suspected in the past and in the present of being a Tsarist double-agent during his revolutionary years. Some of this suspicion stems from his ability to evade Tsarists efforts to capture him. His 1909 efforts to root out traitors caused much strife within the party; some accused him of doing this deliberately on the orders of the Okhrana. The Menshevik Razhden Arsenidze said that Stalin was betraying comrades he didn't like to the Okhrana, but there is no proof of this. Razhden Arsenidze (რაჟდენ არსენიძე ( October 1, 1880 – May 24, 1965) was a Georgian jurist journalist His ability to anticipate Okhrana actions may have come from moles within the organization. Another historian, Simon Sebag Montefiore, found that in all surviving Okhrana records Stalin is described as a revolutionary and never a spy. [12] In the 1956, the magazine Life published a letter by Colonel Ermin, head of the Tiflis Okhrana, that said Stalin was an agent, but it has since been shown to be a forgery.
Edward Ellis Smith argues that Stalin was an Okhrana agent by citing his suspicious ability to escape from Okhrana dragnets, travel unimpeded, and rabble-rouse full time with no apparent source of income. One such example was the raid that occurred on the night of March 21-22 1901, when most everyone of importance in the socialist-democratic movement in Tbilisi was arrested, except for Stalin, who was apparently "enjoying the balmy spring air, and in one of his to-hell-with-the-revolution moods, [which] is too impossible for serious consideration. "[96]
Notes
- ^ The scale of Stalin's purging of Red Army officers was exceptional - 90% of all generals and 80% of all colonels were killed. This included 3 out of 5 Marshals, 13 out of 15 Army commanders, 57 of 85 Corps commanders, 110 of 195 divisional commanders and 220 of 406 brigade commanders as well as all commanders of military districts. (pg 195, Carell, P. (1964) Hitler's War on Russia - The Story of the German Defeat in the East. translated from German by Ewald Osers, B. I. Publications New Delhi, 1974 (first Indian edition).
See also
- Cult of Personality
- Gulag
- Anti-Stalinist left
- Category:Joseph Stalin
- Doctors' plot
- Enemies of the people
- Engineers of the human soul
- Human rights in the Soviet Union
- Mass graves in the Soviet Union
- Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union
- Stalinist purges in Mongolia
- Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori
- Klement Gottwald
- Korenizatsiya
- Joseph Stalin and anti-Semitism
- Night of the Murdered Poets
- Soviet War Crimes
- Stalinism
- Stalin Monument in Budapest
- Stalin's Monument (Prague)
- Stalin Peace Prize
- Stalin Society
- The Black Book of Communism
- World War II casualties
- Genocides in history
- Marshal of the Soviet Union
- Generalissimo of the Soviet Union
- Cominform
- Khorloogiin Choibalsan
References
Notes
- ^ a b c Although there is an inconsistency among published sources about Stalin's year and date of birth, Iosif Dzhugashvili is found in the records of the Uspensky Church in Gori, Georgia as born on December 18 (Old Style: December 6) 1878. A cult of personality or personality cult arises when a country's leader uses Mass media to create a heroic public image through unquestioning flattery and praise The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. The term anti- Stalinist left refers to elements of the political left which have been critical of the policies of Joseph Stalin and of the Political The Doctors' plot ( Russian language: дело врачей (doctors' affair врачи-вредители (doctors-saboteurs or врачи-убийцы The term enemy of the people is a fluid designation of political or class opponents of the group using the term Engineers of the human soul (Инженеры человеческих душ ( Chinese:人类灵魂的工程师) - a concept of culture promoted by Joseph Stalin Soviet Union was a Single-party state where the Communist Party ruled the country Mass graves in the Soviet Union Soviet repression and terror The government Forced settlements in the Soviet Union took several forms Though the most notorious was the Gulag Labor camp system of Penal labor, resettling of entire The Joseph Stalin Museum in Gori Georgia is dedicated to the life of Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili better known as Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Klement Gottwald ( November 23, 1896, Dědice (Vyškov South Moravia Austria-Hungary (now the Czech Republic - March Korenizatsiya (коренизация sometimes also called korenization, meaning "nativization" or "indigenization" literally "putting down roots" 1930s Even though Communism theoretically rejects every form of national discrimination including Antisemitism, and many Old Bolsheviks were ethnically Jewish The Night of the Murdered Poets (Ночь казнённых поэтов refers to the night of 12 to 13 August 1952, when thirteen of the most prominent Yiddish Soviet war crimes gives a short overview about serious crimes committed by the Red Army 's (1918-1946 later Soviet Army) leadership and an unknown number of single Stalinism is the political regime named after Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union from 1929–1953 The Stalin Monument in Budapest was completed in December 1951 as a gift for Joseph Stalin from the Hungarian People on his seventieth birthday (December 21 1949 Stalin's Monument was a massive granite statue honoring Joseph Stalin that was unveiled in 1955 after more than 5½ years of work in Prague, Czech Republic The International Stalin Prize or the International Stalin Prize for Strengthening Peace Among Peoples (renamed Международная Ленинская премия «За The Stalin Society is a British and Swedish discussion group for individuals who see Joseph Stalin as a great Marxist-Leninist and wish to preserve The Black Book of Communism Crimes Terror Repression is a book which describes a history of Repressions both Political and Civilian, by World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Genocide is the mass killing of a group of people as defined by Article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG as "any of Marshal of the Soviet Union ( Marshal Sovietskovo Soyuza Советского Союза'' was the de facto highest military rank of the Soviet Union. Cominform ( Com munist Inform ation Bureau) is the common name for what was officially referred to as the Information Bureau of the Communist Khorloogiin Choibalsan (Хорлоогийн Чойбалсан February 8 1895 &ndash January 26, 1952) was the Communist leader Gori (გორი is a city in eastern Georgia, which serves as the regional Capital of Shida Kartli and the centre of the Eponymous Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the The Julian calendar, a reform of the Roman calendar, was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and came into force in 45 BC (709 Ab urbe condita Events 1060 - Béla I of Hungary is crowned king of Hungary 1240 - Mongol invasion of Rus: Kiev This birth date is maintained in his School Leaving Certificate, his extensive tsarist Russia police file, a police arrest record from 18 April 1902 which gave his age as 23 years, and all other surviving pre-revolution documents. Stalin himself listed December 18, 1878 in a curriculum vitae as late as 1921, in his own handwriting. Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the Year 1878 ( MDCCCLXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common However, after his coming to power in 1922, the date was changed to December 21, 1879 (December 9, Old Style), and that was the day his birthday was celebrated in the Soviet Union. Events 69 - The end of the Year of the four emperors: Following Galba, Otho and Vitellius, Vespasian Year 1879 ( MDCCCLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 536 - Byzantine General Belisarius enters Rome while the Ostrogothic garrison peacefully leaves the city The Julian calendar, a reform of the Roman calendar, was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and came into force in 45 BC (709 Ab urbe condita The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Russian playwright Edvard Radzinsky argues in his book Stalin that he changed the year to 1879 to have a nation-wide birthday celebration of his 50th birthday. Edvard Radzinsky (Эдвард Станиславович Радзинский (b He could not do it in 1928 because his rule was not absolute enough. [1]
- ^ Bullock, p. 548, "both dictators".
- Ulam, p. xiv, "the dictator not only deprived".
- Davies, Harris, p. 108, "Stalin as dictator".
- Mawdsley, p. 1, "effectively a dictator".
- Overy, p. 17, "and, later, as dictator"
- ^ Halfin, Igal. Terror in My Soul: Communist autobiographies on trial, p. 15. [2]
- ^ The Jamestown Foundation, Nikolai Getman, The Gulag Collection: Paintings of Nikolai Getman.
- ^ a b Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, Knopf, 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5).
- ^ Russia's War: A History of the Soviet Effort: 1941–1945, ISBN 0-14-027169-4.
- ^ Richard Overy, The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia, ISBN 0-393-02030-4.
- ^ The Black Book of Communism
- ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore on Stalin | By genre | guardian.co.uk Books
- ^ Birth of a despot by Alexander Nazaryan - The New Criterion
- ^ Ludwig, Arnold M. , King of the Mountain: The Nature of Political Leadership, University Press of Kentucky, 2002, ISBN 0813190681 p. 152
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac Simon Sebag Montefiore. Young Stalin. 2007. ISBN 978-0-297-85068-7
- ^ Figes, Orlando (November 2007). "Rise of a Gangster". New York Review of Books LIV (17): pp. 36–38. ISSN 0028-7504. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.
- ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore. "Prologue: The Bank Robbery", Young Stalin. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
- ^ Luxury beckons for East End's house of history
- ^ Knight, Ami W. (1991), Beria and the Cult of Stalin: Rewriting Transcaucasian Party History. Soviet Studies, Vol. Europe-Asia Studies is an academic Peer-reviewed journal published 8 times a year by Routledge on behalf of the Institute of Central and East European Studies 43, No. 4, pp. 749–763.
- ^ Shanin, Teodor (July 1989), Ethnicity in the Soviet Union: Analytical Perceptions and Political Strategies. Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 409–424.
- ^ Stalin's relationship with Lenin.
- ^ Joseph Stalin (January 30 1924). On The Death Of Lenin. Pravda magazine. Retrieved on May 9, 2007.
- ^ Soviet Readers Finally Told Moscow Had Trotsky Slain. Published in the New York Times on January 5, 1989. Events 1477 - Battle of Nancy: Charles the Bold is killed and Burgundy becomes part of France. Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) Accessed October 4, 2007. Events 610 - Heraclius arrives by ship from Africa at Constantinople, overthrows Byzantine Emperor Phocas Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Robert Lewis. The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, ed. Mark Harrison, RW Davies, S. G Wheatcroft, p. 188
- ^ The rise of Stalin: AD1921–1924. History of Russia. HistoryWorld. Retrieved on 2006-04-03. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.
- ^ Alan Bullock, p. 269
- ^ a b The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia. Palgrave Macmillan (2004).
- ^ "Natural Disaster and Human Actions in the Soviet Famine of 1931-1933" . The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies.
- ^ Overpopulation.Com » The Soviet Famines of 1921 and 1932-3
- ^ Oliver Freire Jr. 'Marxism and the Quantum Controversy: Responding to Max Jammer's Question'
- ^ Péter Szegedi 'Cold War and Interpretations in Quantum Mechanics'
- ^ Ethan Pollock, Stalin and the Soviet Science Wars, Princeton University Press, 2006; introduction available online at [3]
- ^ Montefiore. p. 638, Phoenix, Reprinted paperback.
- ^ Joseph V. Stalin (1950-06-20). "Concerning Marxism in Linguistics", Pravda. Pravda (Правда "The Truth" was a leading Newspaper of the Soviet Union and an official organ of the Central Committee of the Available online as Marxism and Problems of Linguistics including other articles and letters published (also in Pravda) soon after February 8 and July 4, 1950.
- ^ a b c d e f Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, Knopf, 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5)
- ^ a b c Acton, Edward, Russia, The Tsarist and Soviet Legacy, Longmann Group Ltd (1995) ISBN 0-582-08922-0
- ^ Russia. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc Retrieved July 14, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: [4].
- ^ Alexander N. Yakovlev: A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia (Yale University Press, 2002), pg 165
- ^ Richard Pipes: Communism: A History (Modern Library Chronicles, 2001), pg. See Alexander Yakovlev for other individuals with the same name Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev, Александр Николаевич Richard Edgar Pipes (born July 11, 1923) is an American historian who specializes in Russian history, particularly with respect to the history of the The Modern Library Chronicles are a series of short books between 170-210 pages intended to introduce readers to a period of history 66
- ^ Barry McLoughlin and Kevin McDermott (eds). Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. Macmillan Publishers Ltd, also known as The Macmillan Group, is a privately-held International Publishing company owned by Georg von Holtzbrinck ISBN 1403901198 p. 141
- ^ Barry McLoughlin and Kevin McDermott (eds). Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. Macmillan Publishers Ltd, also known as The Macmillan Group, is a privately-held International Publishing company owned by Georg von Holtzbrinck ISBN 1403901198 p. 6
- ^ Hiroaki Kuromiya, The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. Yale University Press, December 24, 2007. Yale University Press is a book Publisher founded in 1908. It became an official department of Yale University in 1961, but remained ISBN 0300123892 p. 2
- ^ U. S. Commission on the Ukraine Famine, "Findings of the Commission on the Ukraine Famine" [5], Report to Congress, Washington, D. C. , April 19, 1988
- ^ US House of Representatives Authorizes Construction of Ukrainian Genocide Monument
- ^ Statement by Pope John Paul II on the 70th anniversary of the Famine
- ^ HR356 "Expressing the sense of the House of Representatives regarding the man-made famine that occurred in Ukraine in 1932–1933", U. Events 1012 - Martyrdom of Alphege in Greenwich London. 1529 - At the Second Diet of Speyer Year 1988 ( MCMLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar) S. House of Representatives, Washington, D. C. , October 21, 2003
- ^ Yaroslav Bilinsky (1999). Events 1512 - Martin Luther joins the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. "Was the Ukrainian Famine of 1932–1933 Genocide?". Journal of Genocide Research 1 (2): 147–156. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ Lisova, Natasha. "Ukraine Recognize Famine As Genocide", Associated Press, 28. The Associated Press ( AP) is an American News agency. The AP is a Cooperative owned by its contributing Newspapers radio 11. 2006.
- ^ [6]
- ^ Alan Bullock, pp. Alan Louis Charles Bullock Baron Bullock ( 13 December 1914 - 2 February 2004) was a British historian who wrote an influential 904–905
- ^ Philip Boobbyer. The Stalin Era
- ^ Twentieth Century Atlas - Death Tolls
- ^ Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: The Gulag Archipelago 1918–1956, 1973–1976 ISBN 0-8133-3289-3
- ^ http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/
- ^ Anne Applebaum. Gulag : A History 2004 ISBN 1-4000-3409-4
- ^ Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1400040051 p. Alfred A Knopf Inc is a New York publishing house founded by Alfred A 584: "Anne Applebaum is right to insist that the statistics 'can never fully describe what happened. ' They do suggest, however, the massive scope of the repression and killing. "
- ^ Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007. Alfred A Knopf Inc is a New York publishing house founded by Alfred A ISBN 1400040051 p. 256
- ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. Knopf, 2004. Alfred A Knopf Inc is a New York publishing house founded by Alfred A ISBN 1400042305 p. 246
- ^ Getty, Rittersporn, Zemskov. Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence
- ^ German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings
- ^ http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-Scale_Repression.pdf
- '^ Vadim Erlikman. Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke: spravochnik. Moscow 2004. ISBN 5-93165-107-1
- ^ R. W. Davies, Stephen G. Wheatcroft: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931–1933 (The Industrialization of Soviet Russia), 2004 ISBN 0-333-31107-8
- ^ Andreev, EM, et al, Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922–1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993. ISBN 5-02-013479-1
- ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. p. 649: "Perhaps 20 million had been killed; 28 million deported, of whom 18 million had slaved in the Gulags. "
- ^ Dmitri Volkogonov. Dmitri Antonovich Volkogonov ( Дмитрий Антонович Волкогонов in Russian) ( 22 March 1928, Chita – 6 Autopsy for an Empire: The Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime. p. 139: "Between 1929 and 1953 the state created by Lenin and set in motion by Stalin deprived 21. 5 million Soviet citizens of their lives. "
- ^ Alexander N. Yakovlev. See Alexander Yakovlev for other individuals with the same name Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev, Александр Николаевич A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia., Yale University Press, 2002, p. Yale University Press is a book Publisher founded in 1908. It became an official department of Yale University in 1961, but remained 234: "My own many years and experience in the rehabilitation of victims of political terror allow me to assert that the number of people in the USSR who were killed for political motives or who died in prisons and camps during the entire period of Soviet power totaled 20 to 25 million. And unquestionably one must add those who died of famine — more than 5. 5 million during the civil war and more than 5 million during the 1930s. "
- ^ Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1400040051 p. Alfred A Knopf Inc is a New York publishing house founded by Alfred A 584: "More recent estimations of the Soviet-on-Soviet killing have been more 'modest' and range between ten and twenty million. "
- ^ Stéphane Courtois. Stéphane Courtois (born November 25, 1947) is a French Historian. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror Repression. The Black Book of Communism Crimes Terror Repression is a book which describes a history of Repressions both Political and Civilian, by Harvard University Press, 1999. Harvard University Press ( HUP) is a Publishing house, a division of Harvard University, that is highly respected in Academic publishing. p. 4: "U. S. S. R. : 20 million deaths"
- ^ Robert Conquest. The Great Terror: A Reassessment, Oxford University Press, 1991 (ISBN 0-19-507132-8).
- ^ Regimes murdering over 10 million people
- ^ Stalin's Killing Field
- ^ Stalin's Intelligence - New York Times
- ^ Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1400040051 p. Alfred A Knopf Inc is a New York publishing house founded by Alfred A 391
- ^ Anne Applebaum. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has Gulag: A History, Doubleday, 2003 (ISBN 0-7679-0056-1)
- ^ Richard Rhodes (2002). Richard Lee Rhodes (b July 4, 1937) is an American journalist historian and author of both fiction and non-fiction (which he prefers to call "verity" Masters of Death: The SS-Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40900-9. pp. 46–47
- ^ Allen Paul. Katyn: Stalin’s Massacre and the Seeds of Polish Resurrection, Naval Institute Press, 1996, (ISBN 1-55750-670-1), p. 155
- ^ Anthony Eden (1965). Robert Anthony Eden 1st Earl of Avon, KG, MC, PC (12 June 1897 &ndash 14 January 1977 was a British Conservative Politician Memoirs: The Reckoning.
- ^ Richard Overy The Dictators Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia p. 568–569
- ^ Alan Bullock, Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives, Vintage; Reprint edition, 1993 (ISBN 0-679-72994-1), p. Alan Louis Charles Bullock Baron Bullock ( 13 December 1914 - 2 February 2004) was a British historian who wrote an influential 905
- ^ See, e. g. , Brown, Philip Marshall. "The Recognition of Israel", American Journal of International Law, Vol. 42, No. 3 (Jul. , 1948), p. 620.
- ^ Joseph V. Stalin. "Voprosy leninizma", 2nd ed. , Moscow, p. 589; (1951) "Istoricheskij materializm", ed. by F. B. Konstantinov, Moscow, p. 402; P. Calvert (1982). "The Concept of Class", New York, pp. 144–145.
- ^ Jonathan Brent, Vladimir Naumov. Stalin's Last Crime: The Plot Against the Jewish Doctors, 1948–1953. HarperCollins, 2003. ISBN 0-06-019524-X.
- ^ The last days of Lieutenant Jakov Stalin Colin Simpson and John Shirley, Sunday Times 24th Jan. 1980
- ^ NYT: Ex-Death Camp Tells Story of Nazi + Soviet Horrors
- ^ Koba the Dread, p. 133, ISBN 0-7868-6876-7; Stalin: The Man and His Era, p. 354, ISBN 0-8070-7001-7, in a footnote he quotes the press announcement as speaking of her "sudden death"; he also cites pp. 103–105 of his daughter's book, Twenty Letters to a Friend, the Russian edition, New York, 1967.
- ^ YouTube - Joseph Stalin Biography 1 of 2
- ^ a b Inside the Kremlin's Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev by Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, page 4
- ^ Stalin: Breaker of Nations. by Robert Conquest, page 20
- ^ Fighting Words: The Origins Of Religious Violence. Dr George Robert Ackworth Conquest (born July 15 1917) British Historian, became a well known writer and researcher on the Soviet Union by Hector Avalos, page 325
- ^ a b c d Stalin: The First In-depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives. by Edvard Radzinsky, pages 472 and 473. Edvard Radzinsky (Эдвард Станиславович Радзинский (b
- ^ Arvo Tuominen. Arvo " Poika " Tuominen (1894-1981 was a Finnish Communist revolutionary and later a Social democratic journalist and politician The Bells of the Kremlin, p. 162.
- ^ Modern Poll — Votes for Stalin
- ^ Siberian tourist chiefs revive Stalin memorial | Independent, The (London)
- ^ The Scotsman: Stalin back in favour as new statue goes up in Moscow. 20 January 2005
- ^ Yakovlev, Alexander; Anthony Austin (2004). Events 250 - Emperor Decius begins a widespread persecution of Christians in Rome. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.
- ^ Rayfield, p. 18.
- ^ "The human monster," page 4. O'Hehir, A. Salon.com. Saloncom, part of Salon Media Group ( often just called Salon, is an online May 5, 2005. Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ Smith, Edward Ellis. The Young Stalin. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1967. pg 77.
Further reading
- Brent, Jonathan; Naumov, Vladimir Pavlovich. Stalin's Last Crime: The Plot Against the Jewish Doctors, 1948–1953. New York: HarperCollins, 2003 (hardcover, ISBN 0-06-019524-X; paperback, ISBN 0-06-093310-0); as Stalin's Last Crime: The Doctor's Plot. London: John Murray, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 0-7195-6508-1).
- Broekmeyer, Marius. Stalin, the Russians, and Their War, 1941–1945. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-299-19594-2; paperback, ISBN 0-299-19594-5).
- Bullock, Alan. Alan Louis Charles Bullock Baron Bullock ( 13 December 1914 - 2 February 2004) was a British historian who wrote an influential Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives. London: HarperCollins, 1991 (hardcover, ISBN 0002154943); New York: Vintage Books, 1993 (paperback, ISBN 0679729941).
- Boterbloem, Kees. Life and Death under Stalin: Kalinin Province, 1945–1953. Montreal, Quebec; Kingston, ON: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7735-1811-8).
- Conquest, Robert. Dr George Robert Ackworth Conquest (born July 15 1917) British Historian, became a well known writer and researcher on the Soviet Union The Great Terror: A Reassessment. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990 (hardcover, ISBN 0-19-507132-8).
- Conquest, Robert. Dr George Robert Ackworth Conquest (born July 15 1917) British Historian, became a well known writer and researcher on the Soviet Union The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 (hardcover, ISBN 0-19-505180-7); London: Pimlico, 2002 (paperback, ISBN 0712697500).
- Davies, Sarah; Harris, James R. Stalin: A New History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 0-521-85104-1).
- Deutscher, Isaac. Isaac Deutscher (b 3 April 1907 &ndash 19 August 1967) was a British journalist historian and political activist of Polish Stalin: A Political Biography. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967 (paperback, ISBN 0-19-500273-3); London: Penguin Books, 1990 (paperback, ISBN 0140135049).
- Djilas, Milovan. Milovan Đilas (or Djilas) ( Serbian Cyrillic: Милован Ђилас ( 12 June 1911 - 20 April 1995) was a Montenegrin Conversations With Stalin. Harcourt Trade Publishers New York, 1962 (Hardcover, ISBN 0151225907); Harvest Books, 1963 (Paperback, ISBN 0156225913)
- Gellately, Robert. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, August 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 1400040051). Alfred A Knopf Inc is a New York publishing house founded by Alfred A
- Gill, Graeme. Stalinism (2nd ed. ). New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-312-17764-X).
- Jonge, Alex de. Stalin and the Shaping of the Soviet Union. New York: William Morrow, 1986 (hardcover, ISBN 0-688-04730-0); 1987 (paperback, ISBN 0688072917).
- Keep, John L. H. ; Litvin, Alter L. Stalinism: Russian and Western Views at the Turn of the Millennium (Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions). New York: Routledge, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-415-35108-1); 2005 (paperback, ISBN 0-415-35109-X).
- Kuromiya, Hiroaki. Stalin. Harlow, UK: Longman, 2006 (paperback, ISBN 0-582-78479-4).
- Kuromiya, Hiroaki. The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. Yale University Press, December 24, 2007. Yale University Press is a book Publisher founded in 1908. It became an official department of Yale University in 1961, but remained ISBN 0300123892
- The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships: Stalin and the Eastern Bloc, edited by Apor, Balázs; Jan C. Behrends, Polly Jones and E. A. Rees. Houndmills, UK; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004 (ISBN 1-4039-3443-6).
- The Lesser Evil: Moral Approaches to Genocide Practices (Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions), edited by Helmut Dubiel and Gabriel Motzkin. New York: Routledge, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7146-5493-0; paperback, ISBN 0-7146-8395-7).
- Laqueur, Walter. Stalin: The Glasnost Revelations. New York: Scribner, 1990 (hardcover, ISBN 0684192039).
- Mace, James E. "The Man-Made Famine of 1933 in Soviet Ukraine", Famine in Ukraine 1932–1933: A Memorial Exhibition, edited by Roman Serbyn and Bohdan Krawchenko. Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1986 (hardcover, ISBN 0-920862-43-8), pp. 1–14.
- Mawdsley, Evan. The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union, 1929–53. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0-7190-6377-9).
- McDermott, Kevin. Stalin: Revolutionary in an Era of War (European History in Perspective). New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-333-71121-1; paperback, ISBN 0-333-71122-X).
- McLoughlin, Barry and McDermott, Kevin (eds). Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. Macmillan Publishers Ltd, also known as The Macmillan Group, is a privately-held International Publishing company owned by Georg von Holtzbrinck ISBN 1403901198
- Medvedev, Roy A.; Medvedev, Zhores A. The Unknown Stalin: His Life, Death, and Legacy. For the current Russian President, see Dmitry Medvedev. Roy Aleksandrovich Medvedev (Рой Александрович Zhores Aleksandrovich Medvedev (Жорес Медведев (born in Tbilisi Georgia on November 14, 1925) is a Russian Biologist, Historian London: I. B. Tauris, 2003 (hardcover, ISBN 1-86064-768-5); Woodstock, NY; New York: The Overlook Press, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 1585676446).
- Montefiore, Simon Sebag. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5); New York: Vintage, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 1400076781).
- Montefiore, Simon Sebag. Young Stalin. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 9780297850687). An excerpt is available online.
- Murphy, David E. What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa. Yale University Press, 2005 (hardcover ISBN 0300107803); (2006 paperback ISBN 030011981X).
- Overy, Richard. Richard Overy (born 1947 is British historian who has Published extensively on the History of World War II and the Third Reich. Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia. Allen Lane, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7139-9309-X); Penguin Books, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 0-14-028149-5); New York: W. W. Norton, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-393-02030-4); 2006 (paperback reprint, ISBN 0-393-32797-3).
- Pipes, Richard. Richard Edgar Pipes (born July 11, 1923) is an American historian who specializes in Russian history, particularly with respect to the history of the Communism: A History. Modern Library Chronicles, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0679640509); (2003 paperback reprint, ISBN 0812968646)
- Priestland, David. The Modern Library Chronicles are a series of short books between 170-210 pages intended to introduce readers to a period of history Stalin and the Politics of Mobilization: Ideas, Power, and Terror in Inter-war Russia. New York: Oxford University Press (USA), 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-19-924513-4).
- Radzinsky, Edvard. Edvard Radzinsky (Эдвард Станиславович Радзинский (b Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives. Doubleday, 1996 (hardcover, ISBN 0-385-47397-4); Anchor, 1997 (paperback, ISBN 0-385-47954-9). Chapter 1 is available online.
- Rayfield, Donald. Donald Rayfield (born 1942) is professor of Russian and Georgian at the University of London. Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him. Stalin and His Hangmen: An Authoritative Portrait of a Tyrant and Those Who Served Him by Donald Rayfield New York: Random House, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-375-50632-2); 2005 (paperback, ISBN 0375757716).
- Redefining Stalinism (Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions), edited by Harold Shukman. New York: Routledge, 2003 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7146-5415-9; paperback, ISBN 0-7146-8342-6).
- Ree, Erik van. The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin: A Study in Twentieth-Century Revolutionary Patriotism. London; New York: Routledge Courzon, 2002 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7007-1749-8).
- Roberts, Geoffrey. Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. New Heaven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0300112041).
- Rummel, R.J. Death By Government. Rudolph Joseph Rummel (born October 21, 1932) is Professor emeritus of Political science at the University of Hawaii. New Brunswick, N. J. : Transaction Publishers, 1994 (hardcover, ISBN 1560001453); 1997 (paperback, ISBN 1-56000-927-6).
- Rummel, R.J. Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. Rudolph Joseph Rummel (born October 21, 1932) is Professor emeritus of Political science at the University of Hawaii. New Brunswick, N. J. : Transaction Publishers, 1990 (hardcover, ISBN 0887383335); (paperback, ISBN 1560008873)
- Sandag, Shagdariin; Kendall, Harry H. ; Wakeman, Frederic E. Poisoned Arrows: The Stalin-Choibalsan Mongolian Massacres, 1921–1941. Westview Press (October 1999). ISBN 0813337100
- Service, Robert. Professor Robert John Service (born 29 October 1947) is a British Historian of Russia. Stalin: A Biography. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 0-674-01697-1); 2006 (paperback, ISBN 0674022580).
- Souvarine, Boris. Boris Souvarine (born Boris Konstantinovich Lifschitz and also known as Varine; 1895–1984 was an Imperial Russian born French socialist Stalin: A Critical Survey of Bolshevism. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 1-4191-1307-0)Online.
- Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn "The Gulag Archipelago: 1918–1956" A first hand account of the Soviet slave labor camp by a survivor dissonant author. Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn ( Алекса́ндр Иса́евич Солжени́цын) (December 11 1918 – August 3 2008 was a Russian Novelist
- Stalin's Terror Revisited. Edited by Melanie Ilic and Stephen G. Wheatcroft. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4039-4705-8).
- Tucker, Robert C. Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929: A Study in History and Personality. Robert C Tucker (born 29 May 1918) is an American historian Born in Kansas City, Missouri, he was a prominent Sovietologist New York: W. W. Norton, 1973 (ISBN 0-393-05487-X); 1992 (paperback, ISBN 0393007383).
- Tucker, Robert C. Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1928–1941. Robert C Tucker (born 29 May 1918) is an American historian Born in Kansas City, Missouri, he was a prominent Sovietologist New York: W. W. Norton, 1990 (hardcover, ISBN 0-393-02881-X); 1992 (paperback, ISBN 0393308693).
- Ulam, Adam Bruno. Stalin: The Man and His Era. Boston: Beacon Press, 1989 (paperback, ISBN 0-8070-7005-X); London: I. B. Tauris, 1989 (ISBN 1850431744).
- Vaksberg, Arkady. The Murder of Maxim Gorky. A Secret Execution. (Enigma Books: New York, 2007. ISBN 978-1-929631-62-9. )
- Volkogonov, Dmitri Antonovich (Author); Shukman, Harold (Editor, Translator). Dmitri Antonovich Volkogonov ( Дмитрий Антонович Волкогонов in Russian) ( 22 March 1928, Chita – 6 Autopsy for an Empire: the Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime. Free Press, 1998 (Hardcover, ISBN 0684834200); (Paperback, ISBN 0684871122)
- Ward, Chris. The Stalinist Dictatorship. London: Arnold Publishers, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-340-70640-6; paperback, ISBN 0-340-70641-4).
- Ward, Chris. "Stalin Through Seventeenth-Century Eyes", Journal of European Studies, Vol. 36, No. 2. (2006), pp. 181–200.
- Yakovlev, Alexander N. (Author); Austin, Anthony (Translator). See Alexander Yakovlev for other individuals with the same name Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev, Александр Николаевич A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. Yale University Press, 2002 (Hardcover, ISBN 0300087608); 2004 (Paperback, ISBN 0300103220)
External links
- Nikolai Getman: The Gulag collection
- Library of Congress: Revelations from the Russian Archives
- Electronic archive of Stalin's letters and presentations
- Sovetika.ru — site about Soviet era
- "Another view of Stalin" by Ludo Martens, Progressive Labor Party website
- "The Stalin Era" by Anna Louise Strong, PLP website
- "Secret documents reveal Stalin was poisoned" a recent study by the Russian paper Pravda gives a detailed study of events behind Stalin's possible death by poisoning
- Getty, J. Arch, Gabor T. Rittersporn, and Viktor N. Zemskov. "Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years:A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence" The American Historical Review 4 (October 1993)
- "The Revolution Betrayed" by Leon Trotsky
- Death toll during Stalin's rule: estimates
- A brief summary of the two Soviet famines
- Modern History Sourcebook: Stalin's Reply to Churchill, 1946
- Modern History Sourcebook: Nikita S. Khrushchev: The Secret Speech—On the Cult of Personality, 1956
- The political economy of Stalinism: evidence from the Soviet secret archives / Paul R. Gregory
- Impressions of Soviet Russia by John Dewey
- Stalin and the 'Cult of Personality'
- A "Stalinist" rebuttal of the Khrushchev's "Secret Speech" from the CPUSA, 1956
- Stalin Biography from Spartacus Educational
- A List of Key Documentary Material on Stalin
- "Stalin and the Struggle for Democratic Reform, Part One" and "Part Two" by Grover Furr. Ludo Martens (born 12 March, 1946) is a Belgian historian noted for his work on Francophone Africa and the Soviet Union The Progressive Labor Party (originally the Progressive Labor Movement and often referred to as PL) is a transnational Communist party based Anna Louise Strong ( 1885[[November 24]]– 1970[[March 29]] was a twentieth-century American Journalist and activist best known for her reporting Pravda (Правда "The Truth" was a leading Newspaper of the Soviet Union and an official organ of the Central Committee of the
- Stalinka: The Digital Library of Staliniana.
- "Demographic catastrophes of the 20th century", a chapter from Demographic Modernization in Russia 1900–2000, ed. A. G. Vishnevsky, 2006 (ISBN 5-98379-042-0)—estimations of the human cost of the Stalin's rule.
- Annotated bibliography for Joseph Stalin from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
- Over 2,000 original German WWII soldier photographs from the Eastern Front
- Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Current Intelligence. Death of Stalin, 16 July 1953.
- How Many Did Stalin Really Murder? by Professor R.J. Rummel
- Death of the Butcher by Hoover fellow Arnold Beichman
- A secret revealed: Stalin's police killed Americans (1997 Associated Press article)
- Stalin giving a speech with English subtitles
| Military offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Rank established |
Generalissimo of the Soviet Union 1945–1953 |
Succeeded by Rank absolished |
| Preceded by Post Created previous party leader Vladimir Lenin |
General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1922–1953 |
Succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev |
| Preceded by Vyacheslav Molotov |
Premier of the Soviet Union 1941–1953 |
Succeeded by Georgy Malenkov |
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| NAME | Stalin, Jossif Wissarionowitsch |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES | Josef Stalin, Иосиф Сталин (Russian), Jossif Wissarionowitsch Dschugaschwili, იოსებ ჯუღაშვილი (Georgian birthname) |
| SHORT DESCRIPTION | Dictator of the Soviet Union (1927-1953) |
| DATE OF BIRTH | 18 December 1878 |
| PLACE OF BIRTH | Gori, Georgia |
| DATE OF DEATH | 5 March 1953 |
| PLACE OF DEATH | Moscow, Russia |
Rudolph Joseph Rummel (born October 21, 1932) is Professor emeritus of Political science at the University of Hawaii. The Hoover Institution on War Revolution and Peace is a libertarian Public policy Think tank and Library founded in 1919 by U Arnold Beichman (b May 17, 1913 in New York City) is a conservative political pundit The Associated Press ( AP) is an American News agency. The AP is a Cooperative owned by its contributing Newspapers radio The General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( First Secretary in 1953-1966 was the title synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union after Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following Molotov redirects here For other uses see Molotov (disambiguation. Premier of the Soviet Union is the commonly used English term for the offices of Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR (Председатель Georgy Maximilianovich Malenkov (Гео́ргий Максимилиа́нович Маленко́в Georgij Maksimilianovič Malenkov; January 8, Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Georgian (ka ქართული ენა kartuli ena) is the Official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the Year 1878 ( MDCCCLXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending
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