John Adams
2nd President of the United States
In office March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801
Vice President	Thomas Jefferson
Preceded by	George Washington
Succeeded by	Thomas Jefferson
1st Vice President of the United States
In office April 21, 1789 – March 4, 1797
President	George Washington
Preceded by	None
Succeeded by	Thomas Jefferson
United States Ambassador to Great Britain
In office 1785 – 1788
Appointed by	Congress of the Confederation
Preceded by	New office
Succeeded by	Thomas Pinckney
United States Ambassador to the Netherlands
In office 1782 – 1788
Appointed by	Congress of the Confederation
Preceded by	New office
Succeeded by	Charles W. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by Events 51 - Nero, later to become Roman Emperor, is given the title Princeps iuventutis (head of the youth Year 1797 ( MDCCXCVII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 51 - Nero, later to become Roman Emperor, is given the title Princeps iuventutis (head of the youth Year 1801 ( MDCCCI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting on Tuesday Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence The Vice President of the United States is the first person in the presidential line of succession, becoming the new President of the United States upon the death Events 753 BC - Romulus and Remus found Rome ( traditional date) Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 51 - Nero, later to become Roman Emperor, is given the title Princeps iuventutis (head of the youth Year 1797 ( MDCCXCVII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence The office of United States Ambassador (or Minister to the United Kingdom (known formally as Ambassador to the Court of St Year 1785 ( MDCCLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1788 ( MDCCLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap The Congress of the Confederation or the United States in Congress Assembled was the governing body of the United States of America from March 1, Thomas Pinckney ( October 23, 1750 November 2, 1828) was an early American statesman diplomat and veteran of both the American Revolutionary The United States Mission to The Netherlands consists of the Embassy located in The Hague and a consular office located in Amsterdam The Congress of the Confederation or the United States in Congress Assembled was the governing body of the United States of America from March 1, F. Dumas
Delegate from Massachusetts to the Second Continental Congress
In office May 10, 1775 – 1778
Delegate from Province of Massachusetts Bay to the First Continental Congress
In office September 5, 1774 – October 26, 1774
Born	October 30, 1735(1735-10-30) Quincy, Massachusetts, British America
Died	July 4, 1826 (aged 90) Quincy, Massachusetts, USA
Political party	Federalist
Spouse	Abigail Smith Adams
Children	Abigail ("Nabby"), John Quincy, Susanna, Charles, Thomas and Elizabeth (stillborn)
Alma mater	Harvard College
Occupation	Lawyer
Religion	Unitarianism
Signature

John Adams, Jr. A delegate is a member of a group representing an organization (e The Commonwealth of Massachusetts ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States. The Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that met beginning in May 10 1775 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England. Year 1775 ( MDCCLXXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Year 1778 ( MDCCLXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or A delegate is a member of a group representing an organization (e The Province of Massachusetts Bay was a crown colony chartered October 7, 1691 in North America by William and Mary, the joint The First Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from twelve of the thirteen British North American colonies that met on September 5 1774 in Events 1590 - Alexander Farnese 's army forces Henry IV of France to raise the siege of Paris. Year 1774 ( MDCCLXXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 740 - An Earthquake strikes Constantinople, causing much damage and death Year 1774 ( MDCCLXXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge. Year 1735 ( MDCCXXXV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Quincy is a city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States. For American people of British descent see British American. British America consisted of the British Empire in continental North America Events 836 - Pactum Sicardi, peace between the Principality of Benevento and the Duchy of Naples For the game see 1826 (board game. Year 1826 ( MDCCCXXVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display Quincy is a city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Federalist Party (or Federal Party) was an American political party in the period 1792 to 1816 with remnants lasting into the 1820s Abigail Adams (née Smith (November 11 1744 &ndash October 28 1818 was the wife of John Adams, the second President of the United States, and mother of John Abigail "Nabby" Adams Smith ( July 14 1765 &ndash August 15 1813) was the Firstborn of Abigail and John John Quincy Adams (July 11 1767 &ndash February 23 1848 was an American diplomat and politician who served as the sixth President of the United States Charles Adams ( May 29, 1770 &ndash November 30, 1800) was the second son of President John Adams and his wife Abigail Thomas Boylston Adams ( September 15, 1772 &ndash March 13, 1832) was the third and youngest son of John and Abigail (Smith Alma mater is Latin for "nourishing mother" It was used in Ancient Rome as a title for the mother Goddess, and in Medieval Harvard College is the undergraduate section and oldest school of Harvard University, a Private university in the United States founded in 1636 by the Massachusetts A lawyer, according to Black's Law Dictionary, is "a person learned in the law as an attorney, Counsel or Solicitor; a person Unitarianism as a theology is the belief in the single personality of God in contrast to the doctrine of the Trinity (three persons in one God (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was the second President of the United States (1797–1801). Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge. Year 1735 ( MDCCXXXV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 836 - Pactum Sicardi, peace between the Principality of Benevento and the Duchy of Naples For the game see 1826 (board game. Year 1826 ( MDCCCXXVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display The President of the United States is the Head of state and the Head of government of the United States. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by He also served as America's first Vice President (1789–1797). The Vice President of the United States is the first person in the presidential line of succession, becoming the new President of the United States upon the death He was defeated for re-election in the "Revolution of 1800" by Thomas Jefferson. In the United States Presidential election of 1800, sometimes referred to as the “Revolution of 1800” Vice President Thomas Jefferson defeated President John Adams In the United States Presidential election of 1800, sometimes referred to as the “Revolution of 1800” Vice President Thomas Jefferson defeated President John Adams Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence Adams was also the first President to reside in the newly-built White House in Washington, D.C., which was completed in 1800. See also Executive Office of the President of the United States The White House, formerly known as the Executive Mansion, is the Official residence Washington DC ( formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D Year -of the Julian calendar. The Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar until Friday, but 12 days ahead since Saturday. He is the first president to be defeated for re-election.

Adams, a sponsor of the American Revolution in Massachusetts, was a driving force for independence in 1776. In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" The Commonwealth of Massachusetts ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States. He represented the Continental Congress in Europe. The Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that became the governing body of the United States during the He was a major negotiator of the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and chiefly responsible for obtaining the loans from the Amsterdam money market necessary for the conduct of the Revolution. The Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783, and approved by the Congress of the Confederation on January 14, 1784, formally His prestige secured his two elections as Washington's Vice President and his election to succeed him. As President, he was frustrated by battles inside his own Federalist party against a faction led by Alexander Hamilton, but he broke with them to avert a major conflict with France in 1798, during the Quasi-War crisis. The Federalist Party (or Federal Party) was an American political party in the period 1792 to 1816 with remnants lasting into the 1820s This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Quasi-War was an Undeclared war fought entirely at sea between the United States and France from 1798 to 1800 He became the founder of an important family of politicians, diplomats and historians, and in recent years his achievements have received greater recognition. The Adams family was a prominent Political family in the United States during the late Eighteenth century through early Twentieth century In Political science, historical rankings of United States Presidents are surveys conducted in order to construct rankings of the success of individuals who have served

Contents 1 Early life 2 Politics 2.1 Opponent of Stamp Act 1765 2.2 Boston Massacre: 1770 3 Dispute concerning Parliament's authority 4 Continental Congress 5 Thoughts on Government 6 Declaration of Independence 7 In Europe 8 Constitutional ideas 9 Vice Presidency 10 Election of 1796 11 Presidency: 1797-1801 11.1 Foreign Policy 11.2 Domestic Policies 11.3 Re-election campaign 1800 11.4 Midnight Judges 11.5 Major presidential actions 11.6 Speeches 11.6.1 Inaugural Addresses 11.6.2 State of the Union Address 11.7 Administration and Cabinet 11.8 Supreme Court appointments 11.9 States admitted to the Union 12 Post Presidency 13 Death 14 Religious views 15 Notes 16 References 16.1 Primary sources 17 External links

Early life

John Adams was the eldest of three brothers, born on October 30, 1735 (October 19, 1735 by the Old Style, Julian calendar), in Braintree, Massachusetts, to John and Susanna Boylston Adams. Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge. Year 1735 ( MDCCXXXV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal. Year 1735 ( MDCCXXXV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Julian calendar, a reform of the Roman calendar, was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and came into force in 45 BC (709 Ab urbe condita For geographic and demographic information on the Census-designated place Braintree please see the article Braintree (CDP, Massachusetts. Susanna Boylston Adams ( March 5, 1699 &ndash April 17, 1797) was a prominent early-American Socialite, mother of the second The location of Adams' birth became part of Quincy, Massachusetts in 1792 and is now part of Adams National Historical Park. Quincy is a city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. Adams National Historical Park in Quincy Massachusetts, preserves the home of His father, a farmer and a Deacon, also named John (1690-1761), was a fourth-generation descendant of Henry Adams, who immigrated from Barton St David, Somerset, England, to Massachusetts Bay Colony in about 1636, from a Welsh male line called Ap Adam. Deacon is a role in the Christian Church that is generally associated with service of some kind but which varies among theological and denominational traditions Barton St David is a village and Civil parish on the River Brue adjacent to Keinton Mandeville in Somerset, England. Somerset ( or) is a county in south west England The County town is Taunton, which is in the south of the county The Massachusetts Bay Colony (sometimes called the Massachusetts Bay Company, for the institution that founded it was an English settlement on the east coast of North America The Welsh people ( Welsh: Cymro ("Welshman" Cymraes ("Welsh woman" Cymry ("Welshmen/women" Cymry ^[1] His mother, Susanna Boylston Adams,^[2] was a descendant of one of the colony's most vigorous and successful families, the Boylstons of Brookline.

Young Adams went to Harvard College at age sixteen (in 1751). Harvard College is the undergraduate section and oldest school of Harvard University, a Private university in the United States founded in 1636 by the Massachusetts ^[3] His father expected him to become a minister, but Adams had doubts. After graduating in 1755, he taught school for a few years in Worcester, allowing himself time to think about his career choice. Worcester (ˈwʊstɚ is a City in the state of Massachusetts in the United States of America. After much reflection, he decided to become a lawyer, and studied law in the office of James Putnam, a prominent lawyer in Worcester. In 1758, he was admitted to the bar. From an early age, he developed the habit of writing descriptions of events and impressions of men, which litter his diary. He put the skill to good use as a lawyer, often recording cases he observed so that he could study and reflect upon them. His report of the 1761 argument of James Otis in the superior court of Massachusetts as to the legality of Writs of Assistance is a good example. James Otis Jr (February 5 1725 &ndash May 23 1783 was a lawyer in colonial Massachusetts who was an early advocate of the political views that led to the American The Writs of Assistance is a legal document that serves as a general Search warrant. Otis’s argument inspired Adams with zeal for the cause of the American colonies. ^[4]

In 1764, Adams married Abigail Smith (1744–1818), the daughter of a Congregational minister, Rev. Abigail Adams (née Smith (November 11 1744 &ndash October 28 1818 was the wife of John Adams, the second President of the United States, and mother of John Congregationalist polity, often known as congregationalism is a system of Church governance in which every Local church congregation is independent William Smith, at Weymouth, Massachusetts. Weymouth is a city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. Their children were: Abigail (1765–1813); future president John Quincy (1767–1848); Susanna (1768–1770); Charles (1770–1800); Thomas Boylston (1772–1832); and Elizabeth (1775) who was stillborn. Abigail "Nabby" Adams Smith ( July 14 1765 &ndash August 15 1813) was the Firstborn of Abigail and John John Quincy Adams (July 11 1767 &ndash February 23 1848 was an American diplomat and politician who served as the sixth President of the United States Charles Adams ( May 29, 1770 &ndash November 30, 1800) was the second son of President John Adams and his wife Abigail Thomas Boylston Adams ( September 15, 1772 &ndash March 13, 1832) was the third and youngest son of John and Abigail (Smith

Adams was not a popular leader like his second cousin, Samuel Adams. Samuel Adams ( – October 2 1803 was an American Statesman, Politician, Writer and political philosopher, brewer Instead, his influence emerged through his work as a constitutional lawyer and his intense analysis of historical examples,^[5] together with his thorough knowledge of the law and his dedication to the principles of republicanism. Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty Adams often found his inborn contentiousness to be a restraint in his political career.

Politics

Opponent of Stamp Act 1765

Adams first rose to prominence as an opponent of the Stamp Act of 1765. The Stamp Act of 1765 (short title Duties in American Colonies Act 1765; 5 George III c Popular resistance, he later observed, was sparked by an oft-reprinted sermon of the Boston minister, Jonathan Mayhew, interpreting Romans 13 so as to elucidate the principle of just insurrection. Jonathan Mayhew ( October 8, 1720 &ndash July 9, 1766) was a noted American clergyman and minister at Old West Church Boston Massachusetts ^[6].

In 1765, Adams drafted the instructions which were sent by the inhabitants of Braintree to its representatives in the Massachusetts legislature, and which served as a model for other towns to draw up instructions to their representatives. For geographic and demographic information on the Census-designated place Braintree please see the article Braintree (CDP, Massachusetts. In August 1765, he anonymously contributed four notable articles to the Boston Gazette (republished in The London Chronicle in 1768 as True Sentiments of America and also known as A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law). The Boston Gazette was an early newspaper printed in the British North American colonies it began publication December 12, 1719 and appeared weekly In the letter he suggested that there was a connection between the Protestant ideas that Adams' Puritan ancestors brought to New England and the ideas behind their resistance to the Stamp Act. In the former he explained that the opposition of the colonies to the Stamp Act was because the Stamp Act deprived the American colonists of two basic rights guaranteed to all Englishmen, and which all free men deserved: rights to be taxed only by consent and to be tried only by a jury of one's peers. A stamp act is a law enacted by a government that requires a tax to be paid on the transfer of certain documents The "Braintree Instructions" were a succinct and forthright defense of colonial rights and liberties, while the Dissertation was an essay in political education.

In December 1765, he delivered a speech before the governor and council in which he pronounced the Stamp Act invalid on the ground that Massachusetts, being without representation in Parliament, had not assented to it. ^[7]

Boston Massacre: 1770

In 1770, a street confrontation resulted in British soldiers killing five civilians in what became known as the Boston Massacre. The 29th Regiment of Foot was an infantry regiment of the British Army The regiment was raised in 1694 by Colonel Thomas Farrington, This article is about the 1770 incident The Boston Massacre is also used colloquially to describe portions of a Yankees-Red Sox rivalry. ^[8] The soldiers involved, who were arrested on criminal charges, had trouble finding legal counsel. Finally, they asked Adams to defend them. Although he feared it would hurt his reputation, he agreed. Six of the soldiers were acquitted. Two who had fired directly into the crowd were charged with murder but were convicted only of manslaughter. Murder is the unlawful killing of another human person with Malice aforethought, as defined in Common Law countries Manslaughter is a legal term for the killing of a human being in a manner considered by law as less culpable than Murder.

As for Adams's payment, Chinard alleges^[9] that one of the soldiers, Captain Thomas Preston gave Adams a symbolic "single guinea" as a retaining fee, the only fee he received in the case. Thomas Preston was an officer of the 29th Regiment of Foot who was present at the Boston Massacre March 5, 1770. The guinea coin of 1663 was the first English machine-struck Gold coin. However, David McCullough states in his biography of Adams that he received nothing more than a retainer of eighteen guineas. David Gaub McCullough (mə-kŭl'ə (born July 7, 1933 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) Born and raised in Pittsburgh McCullough later attended ^[10] Adams's own diary confirms that Preston paid an initial ten guineas and a subsequent payment of eight, "all the pecuniary Reward I ever had for fourteen or fifteen days labour, in the most exhausting and fatiguing Causes I ever tried. " ^[11]

Despite his previous misgivings, Adams was elected to the Massachusetts General Court (the colonial legislature) in June of 1770, while still in preparation for the trial. The Massachusetts General Court (formally styled The General Court of Massachusetts) is the state legislature of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts ^[12]

Dispute concerning Parliament's authority

In 1772, Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson announced that he and his judges would no longer need their salaries paid by the Massachusetts legislature, because the Crown would henceforth assume payment drawn from customs revenues. Thomas Hutchinson ( September 9 1711 June 3 1780) was the royal governor of Massachusetts from 1771 to 1774 and a prominent Boston radicals protested and asked Adams to explain their objections. In "Two Replies of the Massachusetts House of Representatives to Governor Hutchinson" Adams argued that the colonists had never been under the sovereignty of Parliament. Their original charter was with the person of the king and their allegiance was only to him. If a workable line could not be drawn between parliamentary sovereignty and the total independence of the colonies, he continued, the colonies would have no other choice but to choose independence.

In Novanglus; or, A History of the Dispute with America, From Its Origin, in 1754, to the Present Time Adams attacked some essays by Daniel Leonard that defended Hutchinson's arguments for the absolute authority of Parliament over the colonies. In Novanglus Adams gave a point-by-point refutation of Leonard's essays, and then provided one of the most extensive and learned arguments made by the colonists against British imperial policy. It was a systematic attempt by Adams to describe the origins, nature, and jurisdiction of the unwritten British constitution. Adams used his wide knowledge of English and colonial legal history to show the provincial legislatures were fully sovereign over their own internal affairs, and that the colonies were connected to Great Britain only through the King.

Continental Congress

Massachusetts sent Adams to the first and second Continental Congresses in 1774 and from 1775 to 1778. The Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that became the governing body of the United States during the ^[13] In June 1775, with a view of promoting the union of the colonies, he nominated George Washington of Virginia as commander-in-chief of the army then assembled around Boston. George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the The American Continental Army was an Army formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America His influence in Congress was great, and almost from the beginning, he sought permanent separation from Britain.

On May 15, 1776 the Continental Congress, in response to escalating hostilities which had commenced thirteen months earlier at the battles of Lexington and Concord, urged that the colonies begin constructing their own constitutions, a precursor to becoming independent states. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Year 1776 ( MDCCLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War.

Today, the Declaration of Independence is remembered as the great revolutionary act, but Adams and most of his contemporaries saw the Declaration as a mere formality. The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then The resolution to draft independent constitutions was, as Adams put it, "independence itself. "^[14]

Over the next decade, Americans from every state gathered and deliberated on new governing documents. As radical as it was to actually write constitutions (prior convention suggested that a society's form of government needn't be codified, nor should its organic law be written down in a single document), what was equally radical was the nature of American political thought as the summer of 1776 dawned. ^[15]

Thoughts on Government

At that time several Congressmen turned to Adams for advice about framing new governments. Adams tired of repeating the same thing, and published the pamphlet Thoughts on Government (1776), which was subsequently influential in the writing of many state constitutions. Thoughts on Government, or in full Thoughts on Government Applicable to the Present State of the American Colonies, was written by John Adams during the Many historians argue that Thoughts on Government should be read as an articulation of the classical theory of mixed government. Adams contended that social classes exist in every political society, and that a good government must accept that reality. For centuries, dating back to Aristotle, a mixed regime balancing monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, or the monarch, nobles, and people was required to preserve order and liberty. ^[16]

Using the tools of Republicanism in the United States the patriots believed it was corrupt and nefarious aristocrats, in the English Parliament and stationed in America, who were guilty of the British assault on American liberty. Republicanism is the Value system of Governance that has been a major part of American civic thought since the American Revolution The Parliament of England was the Legislature of the Kingdom of England. Unlike others, Adams thought that the definition of a republic had to do with its ends, rather than its means. He wrote in Thoughts on Government, "there is no good government but what is republican. That the only valuable part of the British constitution is so; because the very definition of a republic is 'an empire of laws, and not of men. The constitution of the United Kingdom is the set of laws and principles under which the United Kingdom is governed '" Thoughts on Government defended bicameralism, for "a single assembly is liable to all the vices, follies, and frailties of an individual. In Government, bicameralism (bi + Latin la ''camera'' chamber is the practice of having two legislative or Parliamentary chambers Thus a bicameral "^[17] He also suggested that the executive should be independent, as should the judiciary. Thoughts on Government was enormously influential and was referenced as an authority in every state-constitution writing hall.

Declaration of Independence

On June 7, 1776, Adams seconded the resolution introduced by Richard Henry Lee that "these colonies are, and of a right ought to be, free and independent states," acting as champion of these resolutions before the Congress until their adoption on July 2, 1776. Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins Year 1776 ( MDCCLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Richard Henry Lee (January 20 1732 June 19 1794 was an American statesman from Virginia best known for proposing the motion in the Second Continental Events 310 - Pope Miltiades is elected 626 - In fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushes and kills his rival Year 1776 ( MDCCLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a ^[18]

He was appointed on a committee with Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston and Roger Sherman, to draft a Declaration of Independence. The Committee of Five was the group delegated by the Second Continental Congress on June 11, 1776, to draft the United States Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Roger Sherman ( April 19, 1721 ( JC) April 30, 1721 ( GC) July 23, 1793) was an early The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then Although that document was largely drafted by Jefferson, Adams occupied the foremost place in the debate on its adoption. He deferred the writing to Jefferson believing it would be better received having been written by him. Adams believed Jefferson wrote profoundly better than any man in Congress, and he himself was "obnoxious and disliked. " Many years later, Jefferson hailed Adams as "The Colossus of that Congress—the great pillar of support to the Declaration of Independence, and its ablest advocate and champion on the floor of the House. "^[19] In 1777, Adams resigned his seat on the Massachusetts Superior Court to serve as the head of the Board of War and Ordinance, as well as many other important committees. ^[20]

In Europe

Congress twice dispatched Adams to represent the fledgling union in Europe, first in 1777, and again in 1779. Accompanied by his oldest son, Adams sailed for France aboard the Continental Navy frigate Boston on February 15, 1778. The Continental Navy was formed during the American Revolution in 1775 For the bird see Frigatebird. A frigate /ˈfrɪgɪt/ is a warship Although chased several times by British warships, the only action seen during the voyage was the bloodless capture of a British privateer. ^[21]

His first stay in Europe, between April 1, 1778, and June 17, 1779, was largely unproductive, and he returned to his home in Braintree in early August 1779. He was selected in September 1779 to return to France and left in November 15 aboard the French frigate Sensible following the conclusion of the Massachusetts constitutional convention.

On the second trip, Adams was appointed as Minister Plenipotentiary charged with the mission of negotiating a treaty of peace and a treaty of commerce with Great Britain. The system of diplomatic rank has over time been formalised on an international basis The French government, however, did not approve of Adams’s appointment and subsequently, on the insistence of the French foreign minister, the Comte de Vergennes, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay and Henry Laurens were appointed to cooperate with Adams, although Jefferson did not go to Europe and Laurens was posted to Holland (the Netherlands). Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes ( December 20, 1717 &mdash February 13, 1787) was a French statesman and diplomat Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence John Jay (December 12 1745 – May 17 1829 was an American Politician, Statesman, revolutionary, Diplomat, a Supreme Court Henry Laurens (March 6 1724 December 8 1792 was an American merchant and rice planter from South Carolina who became a political leader during the Revolutionary The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands In the event Jay, Adams and Franklin played the major part in the negotiations. Overruling Franklin and distrustful of Vergennes, Jay and Adams decided not to consult with France. Instead, they dealt directly with the British commissioners. ^[22]

Throughout the negotiations, Adams was especially determined that the right of the United States to the fisheries along the Atlantic coast should be recognized. The American negotiators were able to secure a favorable treaty, which gave Americans ownership of all lands east of the Mississippi, except Florida, which was transferred to Spain as its reward. Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the The treaty was signed on November 30, 1782.

After these negotiations began, Adams had spent some time as the ambassador in the Netherlands, then the only other well-functioning Republic in the world. An ambassador is the highest ranking Diplomat who represents their country In July 1780, he had been authorized to execute the duties previously assigned to Laurens. With the aid of the Dutch patriot leader Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol, Adams secured the recognition of the United States as an independent government at The Hague on April 19, 1782. Joan Derk Baron van der Capellen tot den Poll ( November 2, 1741, Tiel – June 6, 1784, Zwolle) was a Dutch ^[23] During this visit, he also negotiated a loan of five million guilders financed by Nicolaas van Staphorst and Wilhelm Willink. Nicolaas van Staphorst (bapt 14 January 1742, Amsterdam – bur Wilhelm Willink (sometimes Willem Wilheim or Wilhem (1750 &ndash 1841 was a wealthy Amsterdam merchant and one of the investors in the Holland Land Company, and the ^[24] In October 1782, he negotiated with the Dutch a treaty of amity and commerce, the first such treaty between the United States and a foreign power following the 1778 treaty with France. The house that Adams purchased during this stay in The Netherlands became the first American embassy on foreign soil anywhere in the world. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands ^[25]

In 1785, John Adams was appointed the first American minister to the Court of St. James's (ambassador to Great Britain). The Court of St James's is the name of the Royal court of the United Kingdom. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands When he was presented to his former sovereign, George III, the King intimated that he was aware of Adams's lack of confidence in the French government. George III (George William Frederick 4 June 1738 George III's long reign was marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdom much of the rest of Europe and places Adams admitted this, stating: "I must avow to your Majesty that I have no attachment but to my own country. ”

Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain referred to this episode in July 7, 1976 at the White House. For the ship see RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary Context States headed by Elizabeth II She said, "John Adams, America's first Ambassador, said to my ancestor, King George III, that it was his desire to help with the restoration of 'the old good nature and the old good humor between our peoples. ' That restoration has long been made, and the links of language, tradition, and personal contact have maintained it. "^[26]

Adams returned to the United States in 1788 to continue his domestic political life.

Constitutional ideas

Massachusetts's new constitution, ratified in 1780 and written largely by Adams himself, structured its government most closely on his views of politics and society. The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts is the fundamental governing document of the United States Commonwealth of Massachusetts. ^[27] It was the first constitution written by a special committee and ratified by the people. It was also the first to feature a bicameral legislature, a clear and distinct executive with a partial (2/3) veto (although he was restrained by an executive council), and a distinct judicial branch.

While in London, Adams published a work entitled A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States (1787)^[28]. In it he repudiated the views of Turgot and other European writers as to the viciousness of the framework of state governments. Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot Baron de Laune, often referred to as Turgot ( 10 May 1727 &ndash 18 March 1781) was a French Turgot argued that countries that lacked aristocracies needn't have bicameral legislatures. He thought that republican governments feature “all authorities into one center, that of the nation. ”^[29] In the book, Adams suggested that "the rich, the well-born and the able" should be set apart from other men in a senate--that would prevent them from dominating the lower house. Wood (2006) has maintained that Adams had become intellectually irrelevant by the time the Federal Constitution was ratified. By then, American political thought, transformed by more than a decade of vigorous and searching debate as well as shaping experiential pressures, had abandoned the classical conception of politics which understood government as a mirror of social estates. Americans' new conception of popular sovereignty now saw the people-at-large as the sole possessors of power in the realm. Popular sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people is the belief that the legitimacy of the State is created by the will or consent of its people, who All agents of the government enjoyed mere portions of the people's power and only for a limited period of time. Adams had completely missed this concept and revealed his continued attachment to the older version of politics. ^[30] Yet Wood overlooks Adams' peculiar definition of the term "republic," and his support for a constitution ratified by the people. ^[31] He also underplays Adams' belief in checks and balances. "Power must be opposed to power, and interest to interest,” Adams wrote; this sentiment would later be echoed by James Madison's famous statement that "[a]mbition must be made to counteract ambition" in The Federalist No. 51, in explaining the powers of the branches of the United States federal government under the new Constitution. James Madison Jr (March 16 1751 – June 28 1836 was an American Politician, the fourth President of the United States (1809–1817 and one of the Founding Federalist No 51 is an essay by James Madison, the fifty-first of the Federalist Papers. The federal government of the United States is the central United States Governmental body established by the United States Constitution. The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. ^[32][33] Adams did as much as anyone to put the idea of "checks and balances" on the intellectual map.

Adams never bought a slave and declined on principle to employ slave labor. ^[34] Abigail Adams opposed slavery and employed free blacks in preference to her father's two domestic slaves. He spoke out against a bill to emancipate slaves in Massachusetts, opposed use of black soldiers in the Revolution, and tried to keep the issue out of national politics. ^[35]

Vice Presidency

While Washington was the unanimous choice for president, Adams came in second in the electoral college and became Vice President in the presidential election of 1789. John Trumbull ( June 6, 1756 &ndash November 10, 1843) was an American artist during the period of the American Revolutionary The Electoral College consists of 538 popularly elected representatives who formally select the President and Vice President of the United States. The United States presidential election of 1789 was the first presidential election in the United States of America, and the only one to not take place in an even numbered He played a minor role in the politics of the early 1790s and was re-elected in 1792. The United States presidential election of 1792 was the second presidential election in the United States, and the first in which each of the original 13 states appointed Washington never asked Adams for input on policy and legal issues during his tenure as vice president. ^[36]

Adams' main task while in office was presiding over the Senate. Subsequent Vice Presidents were also generally not powerful or significant members of their President's administrations until after the Second World War. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including

In the first year of Washington's administration, Adams became deeply involved in a month-long Senate controversy over what the official title of the President would be. Adams favored grandiose titles such as "His Majesty the President" or "His High Mightiness" over the simple "President of the United States" that eventually won the debate. The pomposity of his stance, along with his being overweight, led to Adams earning the nickname "His Rotundity. "

As president of the Senate, Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes—a record that only John C. Calhoun came close to tying, with 28. The President of the Senate is a title often given to the presiding officer speaker or chairman of a Senate. The Vice President of the United States is the ex-officio President of the United States Senate. John Caldwell Calhoun (March 18 1782 &ndash March 31 1850 was a leading United States Southern politician and political philosopher from South Carolina during ^[37] His votes protected the president's sole authority over the removal of appointees and influenced the location of the national capital. On at least one occasion, he persuaded senators to vote against legislation that he opposed, and he frequently lectured the Senate on procedural and policy matters. Adams's political views and his active role in the Senate made him a natural target for critics of the Washington administration. George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the Toward the end of his first term, as a result of a threatened resolution that would have silenced him except for procedural and policy matters, he began to exercise more restraint. When the two political parties formed, he joined the Federalist Party, but never got on well with its dominant leader Alexander Hamilton. The Federalist Party (or Federal Party) was an American political party in the period 1792 to 1816 with remnants lasting into the 1820s Because of Adams's seniority and the need for a northern president, he was elected as the Federalist nominee for president in 1796, over Thomas Jefferson, the leader of the opposition Democratic-Republican Party. The United States presidential election of 1796 was the first contested American presidential election and the first one to elect a President and Vice-President from opposing tickets Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence His success was due to peace and prosperity; Washington and Hamilton had averted war with Britain with the Jay Treaty of 1795. The Jay Treaty, also known as the Treaty of London of 1794, between the United States and Great Britain averted war solved many issues left over from ^[38]

Adams' two terms as Vice President were frustrating experiences for a man of his vigor, intellect, and vanity. He complained to his wife Abigail, "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived. "^[39]

Election of 1796

Main article: United States presidential election, 1796

During the presidential campaign of 1796 Adams was the presidential candidate of the Federalist Party and Thomas Pinckney, the Governor of South Carolina, his running mate. The United States presidential election of 1796 was the first contested American presidential election and the first one to elect a President and Vice-President from opposing tickets The United States presidential election of 1796 was the first contested American presidential election and the first one to elect a President and Vice-President from opposing tickets The Federalist Party (or Federal Party) was an American political party in the period 1792 to 1816 with remnants lasting into the 1820s Thomas Pinckney ( October 23, 1750 November 2, 1828) was an early American statesman diplomat and veteran of both the American Revolutionary The Governor of the State of South Carolina is the Head of state for the State of South Carolina. South Carolina ( is a state in the southern region ( Deep South) of the United States of America. The federalists wanted Adams as their presidential candidate to crush Thomas Jefferson's bid. Most federalists would have preferred Hamilton to be a candidate. Although Hamilton and his followers supported Adams, they also held a grudge against him. They did consider him to be the lesser of the two evils. However, they thought Adams lacked the seriousness and popularity that had caused Washington to be successful, and also feared that Adams was too vain, opinionated, unpredictable, and stubborn to follow their directions. Adams' opponents were former Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who was joined by Senator Aaron Burr of New York on the Democratic-Republican ticket. The United States Secretary of State (commonly abbreviated as SecState) is the head of the United States Department of State, concerned with Foreign affairs Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence The Commonwealth of Virginia ( is an American state The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives This article discusses Aaron Burr (1756-1836 the US politician New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous

As was customary, Adams stayed in his home town of Quincy rather than actively campaign for the Presidency. Quincy is a city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. He wanted to stay out of what he called the silly and wicked game. His party, however, campaigned for him, while the Republicans campaigned for Jefferson. The Federalist Party (or Federal Party) was an American political party in the period 1792 to 1816 with remnants lasting into the 1820s

It was expected that Adams would dominate the votes in New England, while Jefferson was expected to win in the Southern states. In the end, Adams won the election by a narrow margin of 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson (who became the vice president).

Presidency: 1797-1801

Foreign Policy

When Adams entered office, he realized that he needed to protect Washington’s policy of staying out of the French and British war. Because the French helped secure American independence from Britain they had greater popularity with America. After the Jay Treaty, the French became angry and began seizing American merchant ships that were trading with the British. The Jay Treaty, also known as the Treaty of London of 1794, between the United States and Great Britain averted war solved many issues left over from Adams sent a commission to negotiate an understanding with France. However, Adams urged the Congress to augment the navy and army in case of diplomatic failure.

Domestic Policies

See also: John Adams' First State of the Union Address

As President Adams followed Washington's lead in making the presidency the example of republican values, and stressing civic virtue, he was never implicated in any scandal. John Adams' First State of the Union Address was delivered on November 11, 1797, in the Congress Hall of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Civic virtue is the cultivation of habits of personal living that are claimed to be important for the success of the community Some historians consider his worst mistake to be keeping the old cabinet, which was controlled by Hamilton, instead of installing his own people, confirming Adams's own admission he was a poor politician because he "was unpractised in intrigues for power. "^[40] Yet, there are those historians who feel that Adams's retention of Washington's cabinet was a statesman-like step to soothe worries about an orderly succession. As Adams himself explained, "I had then no particular object of any of them. "^[41] That would soon change. Adams's combative spirit did not always lend itself to presidential decorum, as Adams himself admitted in his old age: "[As president] I refused to suffer in silence. I sighed, sobbed, and groaned, and sometimes screeched and screamed. And I must confess to my shame and sorrow that I sometimes swore. "^[42]

Adams's four years as president (1797–1801) were marked by intense disputes over foreign policy. Britain and France were at war; Adams and the Federalists favored Britain, while Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans favored France. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions An undeclared naval war between the U. S. and France, called the Quasi-War, broke out in 1798. The Quasi-War was an Undeclared war fought entirely at sea between the United States and France from 1798 to 1800 The humiliation of the XYZ Affair, in which the French demanded huge bribes before any discussions could begin, led to serious threats of full-scale war with France and embarrassed the Jeffersonians, who were friends to France. The XYZ Affair was a 1798 diplomatic episode that worsened relations between France and the United States and led to the undeclared The Federalists built up the army under George Washington and Alexander Hamilton, built warships, such as USS Constitution, and raised taxes. George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the Construction In August 1785 after the Revolutionary War drew to a close Congress sold, the last ship remaining in the Continental Navy. They cracked down on political immigrants and domestic opponents with the Alien and Sedition Acts, which were signed by Adams in 1798. The Alien and Sedition Acts were four bills passed in 1798 by the Federalists in the United States Congress —who were waging an undeclared naval war with France

These Acts were composed of four separate and distinct units:

• The Naturalization Act, passed on June 18
• The Alien Act, passed on June 24
• The Alien Enemies Act, passed on July 6
• The Sedition Act, passed on July 14

These 4 acts were brought about to suppress Republican opposition. The Naturalization Act, passed by Congress on June 18, 1798, increased the amount of time necessary for immigrants to become Naturalized Events 618 - Coronation of the Chinese governor Li Yuan as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, the new Emperor of China, initiating three centuries The Alien and Sedition Acts were four bills passed in 1798 by the Federalists in the United States Congress —who were waging an undeclared naval war with France Events 972 - Battle of Cedynia, the first documented victory of Polish forces takes place The Alien and Sedition Acts were four bills passed in 1798 by the Federalists in the United States Congress —who were waging an undeclared naval war with France Events 1044 - The Battle of Ménfő takes place 1189 - Richard the Lionheart is crowned King of England The Alien and Sedition Acts were four bills passed in 1798 by the Federalists in the United States Congress —who were waging an undeclared naval war with France Events 1223 - Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father Philip II of France. The Naturalization Act doubled the period required to naturalize the foreign born to American citizenship to 14 years. Since most immigrants voted republican they thought by initiating this act it would decrease the proportion of people who voted republican. The Alien Friends Act and the Alien Enemies Act allowed the president to deport any foreigner that he thought was dangerous to the country. The Sedition Act criminalized anyone who publicly criticized the federal government. Some of the punishments included 2-5 years in prison and fines of $2,000 to $5,000. Adams had not designed or promoted any of these acts but he did sign them into law.

Those Acts, and the high-profile prosecution of a number of newspaper editors and one Congressman by the Federalists, became highly controversial. Some historians have noted that the Alien and Sedition Acts were relatively rarely enforced, as only 10 convictions under the Sedition Act have been identified and as Adams never signed a deportation order, and that the furor over the Alien and Sedition Acts was mainly stirred up by the Democratic-Republicans. However, other historians emphasize that the Acts were highly controversial from the outset, resulted in many aliens leaving the country voluntarily, and created an atmosphere where opposing the Federalists, even on the floor of Congress, could and did result in prosecution. The election of 1800 became a bitter and volatile battle, with each side expressing extraordinary fear of the other party and its policies. ^[43]

The deep division in the Federalist party came on the army issue. Adams was forced to name Washington as commander of the new army, and Washington demanded that Hamilton be given the second position. Adams reluctantly gave in. Major General Hamilton virtually took control of the War department. The rift between Adams and the High Federalists (as Adams's opponents were called) grew wider. The High Federalists refused to consult Adams over the key legislation of 1798; they changed the defense measures which he had called for, demanded that Hamilton control the army, and refused to recognize the necessity of giving key Democratic-Republicans (like Aaron Burr) senior positions in the army (which Adams wanted to do in order to gain some Democratic-Republican support). This article discusses Aaron Burr (1756-1836 the US politician By building a large standing army the High Federalists raised popular alarms and played into the hands of the Democratic-Republicans. A standing army is an Army composed of full time career Soldiers who 'stand over' in other words who do not disband during times of peace They also alienated Adams and his large personal following. They shortsightedly viewed the Federalist party as their own tool and ignored the need to pull together the entire nation in the face of war with France. ^[44]

For long stretches, Adams withdrew to his home in Massachusetts. In February 1799, Adams stunned the country by sending diplomat William Vans Murray on a peace mission to France. William Vans Murray ( February 9, 1760 &ndash December 11, 1803) was an American lawyer politician and statesman from Cambridge Napoleon, realizing the animosity of the United States was doing no good, signaled his readiness for friendly relations. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. The Treaty of Alliance of 1778 was superseded and the United States could now be free of foreign entanglements, as Washington advised in his own Farewell Letter. The Franco-American Alliance (also called the Treaty of Alliance) was a pact between France and the Second Continental Congress, representing Adams avoided war, but deeply split his own party in the process. He brought in John Marshall as Secretary of State and demobilized the emergency army. John Marshall (September 24 1755 – July 6 1835 was an American statesman and jurist who shaped American constitutional law and made the Supreme Court a center of power ^[45]

Re-election campaign 1800

Main article: United States presidential election, 1800

The death of Washington, in 1799, weakened the Federalists, as they lost the one man who symbolized and united the party. In the United States Presidential election of 1800, sometimes referred to as the “Revolution of 1800” Vice President Thomas Jefferson defeated President John Adams In the presidential election of 1800, Adams and his running mate, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, went against the Republican duo of Jefferson and Burr. In the United States Presidential election of 1800, sometimes referred to as the “Revolution of 1800” Vice President Thomas Jefferson defeated President John Adams Hamilton tried his hardest to sabotage Adams's campaign in hopes of boosting Pinckney's chances of winning the presidency. In the end, Adams lost narrowly to Jefferson by 65 to 73 electoral votes.

Among the causes of his defeat was distrust of him by "High Federalists" led by Hamilton, the popular disapproval of the Alien and Sedition Acts, the popularity of his opponent, Thomas Jefferson, and the effective politicking of Aaron Burr in New York State, where the legislature (which selected the electoral college) shifted from Federalist to Republican on the basis of a few wards in New York City controlled by Burr's machine. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence This article discusses Aaron Burr (1756-1836 the US politician New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous The City of New York ^[46]

Midnight Judges

As his term was expiring, Adams appointed a series of judges, called the "Midnight Judges" because most of them were formally appointed days before the presidential term expired. The Midnight Judges Act (also known as the Judiciary Act of 1801;) represented an effort to solve an issue in the Supreme Court during the late 18th century Most of the judges were eventually unseated when the Jeffersonians abolished their offices. But John Marshall remained, and his long tenure as Chief Justice of the United States represents the most lasting influence of the Federalists, as Marshall refashioned the Constitution into a nationalizing force and established the Judicial Branch as the equal of the Executive and Legislative branches. John Marshall (September 24 1755 – July 6 1835 was an American statesman and jurist who shaped American constitutional law and made the Supreme Court a center of power The Chief Justice of the United States is the head of the judicial branch of the government of the United States, and presides over the U ^[47]

Major presidential actions

• Built up the U.S. Navy
• Fought the Quasi War with France
• Signed Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798
• Ended war with France through diplomacy

Speeches

Inaugural Addresses

• Inaugural Address (March 4, 1797)

State of the Union Address

• First State of the Union Address (November 22, 1797)
• Second State of the Union Address, (December 8, 1798)
• Third State of the Union Address, (December 3, 1799)
• Fourth State of the Union Address, (November 22, 1800)

Administration and Cabinet

The Adams Cabinet
OFFICE	NAME	TERM
President	John Adams	1797 – 1801
Vice President	Thomas Jefferson	1797 – 1801
Secretary of State	Timothy Pickering	1797 – 1800
	John Marshall	1800 – 1801
Secretary of Treasury	Oliver Wolcott, Jr.	1797 – 1801
	Samuel Dexter	1801
Secretary of War	James McHenry	1796 – 1800
	Samuel Dexter	1800 – 1801
Attorney General	Charles Lee	1797 – 1801
Secretary of the Navy	Benjamin Stoddert	1798 – 1801

Supreme Court appointments

Adams appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:

• Bushrod Washington – 1799
• Alfred Moore – 1800
• John Marshall (Chief Justice) – 1801

States admitted to the Union

None

Post Presidency

Following his 1800 defeat, Adams retired into private life. Depressed when he left office, he did not attend Jefferson's inauguration. He went back to farming in the Quincy area.

In 1812, Adams reconciled with Jefferson. Their mutual friend Benjamin Rush, who had been corresponding with both, encouraged Adams to reach out to Jefferson. Benjamin Rush ( December 24 1745 &ndash April 19 1813) was a Founding Father of the United States. Adams sent a brief note to Jefferson, which resulted in a resumption of their friendship, and initiated a correspondence that lasted the rest of their lives.

Their letters are rich in insight into both the period and the minds of the two Presidents and revolutionary leaders. Their correspondence lasted fourteen years, and consisted of 158 letters. ^[48] It was in these years that the two men discussed "natural aristocracy. " Jefferson said that "The natural aristocracy I consider as the most precious gift of nature for the instruction, the trusts, and government of society. And indeed it would have been inconsistent in creation to have formed man for the social state, and not to have provided virtue and wisdom enough to manage the concerns of society. May we not even say that the form of government is best which provides most effectually for a pure selection of these natural aristoi into the offices of government?"^[49] Adams wondered if it ever would be so clear who these people were, "Your distinction between natural and artificial aristocracy does not appear to me well founded. Birth and wealth are conferred on some men as imperiously by nature, as genius, strength, or beauty. . . . When aristocracies are established by human laws and honour, wealth, and power are made hereditary by municipal laws and political institutions, then I acknowledge artificial aristocracy to commence. "^[50] It would always be true, Adams argued, that fate would bestow influence on some men for reasons other than true wisdom and virtue. That being the way of nature, he thought such "talents" were natural. A good government, therefore, had to account for that reality.

Sixteen months before his death, his son, John Quincy Adams, became the sixth President of the United States (1825–1829), the only son of a former President to hold the office until George W. Bush in 2001. John Quincy Adams (July 11 1767 &ndash February 23 1848 was an American diplomat and politician who served as the sixth President of the United States George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States.

His daughter Abigail ("Nabby") was married to Congressman William Stephens Smith. Abigail "Nabby" Adams Smith ( July 14 1765 &ndash August 15 1813) was the Firstborn of Abigail and John A Member of Congress is a Politician who is a member of a Congress. William Stephens Smith ( November 8, 1755 &ndash June 10, 1816) was a United States Representative from New York. She died of cancer in 1813. His son Charles died as an alcoholic in 1800. Abigail, his wife, died of typhoid on October 28, 1818. Typhoid fever, also known as enteric fever, bilious fever, Yellow Jack or commonly just typhoid, is an illness caused by the Bacterium Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Year 1818 ( MDCCCXVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common His son Thomas and his family lived with Adams and Louisa Smith (Abigail's niece by her brother William) to the end of Adams' life. ^[51]

Death

On July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, Adams died at his home in Quincy. Events 836 - Pactum Sicardi, peace between the Principality of Benevento and the Duchy of Naples For the game see 1826 (board game. Year 1826 ( MDCCCXXVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display His last words are often quoted as "Thomas Jefferson survives. " Only the words "Thomas Jefferson" were clearly intelligible, however. ^[52] Adams was unaware that Jefferson, his compatriot in their quest for independence, then great political rival, then later friend and correspondent, had died a few hours earlier on the very same day.

His crypt lies at United First Parish Church (also known as the Church of the Presidents) in Quincy. United First Parish Church in Quincy Massachusetts, is a Unitarian Universalist congregation established as the Parish church of Quincy in 1639 Until his record was broken by Ronald Reagan in 2001, he was the nation's longest-living President (90 years, 247 days) maintaining that record for 175 years. The record is currently held by former President Gerald Ford, who served less than one term, and who died December 26, 2006 at 93 years, 165 days. Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr (July 14 1913 December 26 2006 was the thirty-eighth President of the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977 and the fortieth Vice President Events 1481 - Battle of Westbrook - Holland defeats troops of Utrecht. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.

John Adams remains the longest-lived person ever elected to both of the highest offices in the United States.

Religious views

Adams was raised a Congregationalist, becoming a Unitarian at a time when most of the Congregational churches around Boston were turning to Unitarianism. Congregational churches are Protestant Christian churches practicing Congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently Unitarianism as a theology is the belief in the single personality of God in contrast to the doctrine of the Trinity (three persons in one God Everett (1966) argues that Adams was not a deist, but he used deistic terms in his speeches and writing. Deism is the belief that a supreme God exists and created the physical universe and that religious truths can be arrived at by the application of reason alone without dependence on revelation He believed in the essential goodness of the creation, but did not believe in the divinity of Christ or that God intervened in the affairs of individuals. Although not anti-clerical, he advocated the separation of church and state. He also believed that regular church service was beneficial to man's moral sense. Everett concludes that "Adams strove for a religion based on a common sense sort of reasonableness" and maintained that religion must change and evolve toward perfection. ^[53]

Adams often railed against what he saw as overclaiming of authority by the Catholic church. ^[54]

In 1796, Adams denounced the deism of political opponent Thomas Paine, saying, "The Christian religion is, above all the religions that ever prevailed or existed in ancient or modern times, the religion of wisdom, virtue, equity and humanity, let the Blackguard Paine say what he will. Year 1796 ( MDCCXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual "^[55]

The Unitarian Universalist Historical Society sheds some light on Adams’s religious beliefs. ^[56] They point out that Adams was clearly no atheist by quoting from his letter to Benjamin Rush, an early promoter of Universalist thought, “I have attended public worship in all countries and with all sects and believe them all much better than no religion, though I have not thought myself obliged to believe all I heard. Benjamin Rush ( December 24 1745 &ndash April 19 1813) was a Founding Father of the United States. ” The Society also relates how Rush reconciled Adams to his former friend Thomas Jefferson in 1812, after many bitter political battles. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence This resulted in correspondence between Adams and Jefferson about many topics, including philosophy and religion. In one of these communications, Adams told Jefferson, "The Ten Commandments and the Sermon on the Mount contain my religion. " In another letter, Adams reveals his sincere devotion to God, “My Adoration of the Author of the Universe is too profound and too sincere. The Love of God and his Creation; delight, Joy, Tryumph, Exaltation in my own existence, tho' but an Atom, a molecule Organique, in the Universe, are my religion. ” He continues by revealing his Universalist sympathies, rejection of orthodox Christian dogma, and his personal belief that he was a true Christian for not accepting such dogma, “Howl, Snarl, bite, Ye Calvinistick! Ye Athanasian Divines, if You will. Ye will say, I am no Christian: I say Ye are no Christians: and there the Account is ballanced. Yet I believe all the honest men among you, are Christians in my Sense of the Word. " The Society also demonstrates that Adams rejected orthodox Christian doctrines of the trinity, predestination, yet equated human understanding and the human conscience to “celestial communication” or personal revelation from God. It is also shown that Adams held a strong conviction in life after death or otherwise, as he explained, “you might be ashamed of your Maker. ”^[56]

Notes

References

• Brown, Ralph A. The Presidency of John Adams. (1988). Political narrative.
• Chinard, Gilbert. Honest John Adams. (1933). short life
• Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism. (1993), highly detailed political interpretation of 1790s
• Ellis, Joseph J. Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams (1993), interpretative essay by Pulitzer prize winning scholar.
• Ferling, John. Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800. (2004), narrative history of the election .
• Ferling, John. John Adams: A Life. (1992), full scale biography
• Grant, James. John Adams: Party of One. (2005), short biography
• Haraszti, Zoltan. John Adams and the Prophets of Progress. (1952). Adams's political comments on numerous authors
• Knollenberg, Bernard. Growth of the American Revolution: 1766-1775,(2003). Online edition.
• Kurtz, Stephen G. The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795-1800 (1957). Detailed political narrative.
• McCullough, David. John Adams. (2002). Best-selling popular biography, stressing Adams's character and his marriage with Abigail over his ideas and constitutional thoughts. Winner of the 2002 Pulitzer Prize in Biography. A listing of the Pulitzer Prize award winners for 2002 Journalism Public Service: The New York Times, for
• Miller, John C. The Federalist Era: 1789-1801. (1960). Thorough survey of politics in decade.
• Ryerson, Richard Alan, ed. John Adams and the Founding of the Republic (2001). Essays by scholars: "John Adams and the Massachusetts Provincial Elite," by William Pencak; "Before Fame: Young John Adams and Thomas Jefferson," by John Ferling; "John Adams and the 'Bolder Plan,'" by Gregg L. Lint; "In the Shadow of Washington: John Adams as Vice President," by Jack D. Warren; "The Presidential Election of 1796," by Joanne B. Freeman; "The Disenchantment of a Radical Whig: John Adams Reckons with Free Speech," by Richard D. Brown; "'Splendid Misery': Abigail Adams as First Lady," by Edith B. Gelles; "John Adams and the Science of Politics," by C. Bradley Thompson; and "Presidents as Historians: John Adams and Thomas Jefferson," by Herbert Sloan.
• Sharp, James. American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis. (1995), detailed political narrative of 1790s.
• Smith, Page. John Adams. (1962) 2 volume; full-scale biography, winner of the Bancroft Prize
• Thompson, C. Bradley. John Adams and the Spirit of Liberty. (1998). Analysis of Adams's political thought; insists Adams was the greatest political thinker among the Founding Generation and anticipated many of the ideas in The Federalist.
• White, Leonard D. The Federalists: A Study in Administrative History (1956), thorough analysis of the mechanics of government in 1790s
• Gordon S. Wood. ‘’ Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different’’ (2006)

Primary sources

• Adams, C. F. The Works of John Adams, with Life (10 vols. , Boston, 1850-1856)
• Butterfield, L. H. et al. , eds. , The Adams Papers (1961- ). Multivolume letterpress edition of all letters to and from major members of the Adams family, plus their diaries; still incomplete [2].
• Cappon, Lester J. ed. The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams (1988).
• Carey, George W. , ed. The Political Writings of John Adams. (2001). Compilation of extracts from Adams's major political writings.
• Diggins, John P. , ed. The Portable John Adams. (2004)
• John A. Schutz and Douglass Adair, eds. Spur of Fame, The Dialogues of John Adams and Benjamin Rush, 1805–1813 (1966) ISBN 978-0-86597-287-2
• C. Bradley Thompson, ed. Revolutionary Writings of John Adams, (2001) ISBN 978-0-86597-285-8
• John Adams, Novanglus; or, A History of the Dispute with America (1774) online version
• Brinkley, Alan, and Davis Dyer. The American Presidency. Boston: Houghton Mifflin company, 2004.
• Hogan, Margaret and C. James Taylor, eds. My Dearest Friend: Letters of Abigail and John Adams. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007.
• Taylor, Robert J. et al, eds. Papers of John Adams. Cambridge: Harvard University Press
• Wroth, L. Kinvin and Hiller B. Zobel, eds. The Legal Papers of John Adams. Cambridge: Harvard University Press
• Butterfield, L. H. , ed. Adams Family Correspondence. Cambridge: Harvard University Press

External links

• Official NPS website: Adams National Historical Park
• John Adams Biography as well as quotes, gallery and speeches
• John Adams and the Massachusetts Constitution - Mass.gov
• John Adams @ the Jewish Encyclopedia
• John Adams
• White House biography
• State of the Union Addresses: 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800
• Inaugural Address,
• John Adams Quotes at Liberty-Tree. The Jewish Encyclopedia was an Encyclopedia originally published between 1901 and 1906 by Funk and Wagnalls. ca
• "Thoughts on Government" Adams, April 1776
• The Papers of John Adams from the Avalon Project (includes Inaugural Address, State of the Union Addresses, and other materials)
• Adams Family Papers: An electronic archive Captured December 16, 2004.
• Works by John Adams at Project Gutenberg
• Medical and Health History of John Adams
• Quotes on the preservation of freedom: [3]
• The John Adams Library, housed at the Boston Public Library, contains Adams's personal collection of more than 3,500 volumes in eight languages, many of which are extensively annotated by Adams. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works
• Extensive essay on John Adams and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
• Quotes from John Adams on the proper role, and divine purpose of government at Our Republic
• Works by or about John Adams in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• John Adams: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
• John Adams letters to Abigail Adams, Vol. 1

Political offices
New title	Vice President of the United States April 21, 1789¹ – March 4, 1797	Succeeded by Thomas Jefferson
Preceded by George Washington	President of the United States March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801
Party political offices
New political party	Federalist Party vice presidential candidate 1792² ³	Succeeded by Thomas Pinckney³
	Federalist Party presidential candidate 1796, 1800	Succeeded by Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
Diplomatic posts
New title	United States Minister to the Netherlands 1782 – 1788	Succeeded by Charles W. WorldCat is a Union catalog which itemizes the collections of more than 10000 libraries which participate in the OCLC global cooperative The Vice President of the United States is the first person in the presidential line of succession, becoming the new President of the United States upon the death Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by The Federalist Party (or Federal Party) was an American political party in the period 1792 to 1816 with remnants lasting into the 1820s The Vice President of the United States is the first person in the presidential line of succession, becoming the new President of the United States upon the death The United States presidential election of 1792 was the second presidential election in the United States, and the first in which each of the original 13 states appointed Thomas Pinckney ( October 23, 1750 November 2, 1828) was an early American statesman diplomat and veteran of both the American Revolutionary The Federalist Party (or Federal Party) was an American political party in the period 1792 to 1816 with remnants lasting into the 1820s The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by The United States presidential election of 1796 was the first contested American presidential election and the first one to elect a President and Vice-President from opposing tickets In the United States Presidential election of 1800, sometimes referred to as the “Revolution of 1800” Vice President Thomas Jefferson defeated President John Adams Charles Cotesworth (CC Pinckney ( February 25, 1746 August 16, 1825) was an early American Statesman and a constitutional delegate The United States Mission to The Netherlands consists of the Embassy located in The Hague and a consular office located in Amsterdam F. Dumas
	United States Minister to Great Britain 1785 – 1788	Succeeded by Thomas Pinckney
Honorary titles
Preceded by George Washington	Oldest U.S. President still living December 14, 1799 – July 4, 1826	Succeeded by James Madison
Notes and references
1. The office of United States Ambassador (or Minister to the United Kingdom (known formally as Ambassador to the Court of St Thomas Pinckney ( October 23, 1750 November 2, 1828) was an early American statesman diplomat and veteran of both the American Revolutionary George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the List of United States Presidents by ageThis is a chronology of who was the oldest living President of the United States, former or current at any given time James Madison Jr (March 16 1751 – June 28 1836 was an American Politician, the fourth President of the United States (1809–1817 and one of the Founding Adams' term as Vice President is sometimes listed as starting on either March 4 or April 6. March 4 is the official start of the first vice presidential term. April 6 is the date on which Congress counted the electoral votes and certified a Vice President. April 21 is the date on which Adams took the oath of office. 2. While Adams won the Vice Presidency in 1789 as well, he was not the candidate of the Federalist Party, which had not yet formed. The United States presidential election of 1789 was the first presidential election in the United States of America, and the only one to not take place in an even numbered 3. Technically, Adams was a presidential candidate in 1792 and Pinckney was a presidential candidate in 1796. Prior to the passage of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, each presidential elector could cast two ballots; the highest vote-getter would become President and the runner-up would become Vice President. The Twelfth Amendment ( Amendment XII) to the United States Constitution provides the procedure by which the President and Vice President are Thus, in 1792, with George Washington as the prohibitive favorite for President, the Federalist party fielded Adams as a presidential candidate, with the intention that he be elected to the Vice Presidency. George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the Similarly, in 1796 and 1800, the Federalist party fielded two candidates, Adams and Thomas Pinckney in 1796 and Adams and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney in 1800, with the intention that Adams be elected President and Pinckney be elected Vice President. Charles Cotesworth (CC Pinckney ( February 25, 1746 August 16, 1825) was an early American Statesman and a constitutional delegate

Persondata
NAME	Adams, John
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION	2nd U. S. President
DATE OF BIRTH	October 30, 1735
PLACE OF BIRTH	John Adams birthplace (Quincy, Massachusetts), Quincy, Massachusetts
DATE OF DEATH	July 4, 1826
PLACE OF DEATH	Quincy, Massachusetts

Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge. Year 1735 ( MDCCXXXV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Quincy is a city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. Events 836 - Pactum Sicardi, peace between the Principality of Benevento and the Duchy of Naples For the game see 1826 (board game. Year 1826 ( MDCCCXXVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display Quincy is a city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States.

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