Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg
Born	c. 1400 Mainz, Germany
Died	February 3, 1468 Mainz, Germany
Occupation	Engraver, Inventor, and Printer

Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (c. 1400 – February 3, 1468) was a German goldsmith and printer who is credited with inventing movable type printing in Europe around 1439, and mechanical printing globally. Circa (often abbreviated c, ca, ca or cca and sometimes Italicized to show it is Latin) means "about" Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Events 1112 - Ramon Berenguer III of Barcelona and Douce I of Provence marry uniting the fortunes of those two states Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it An invention is a new form composition of matter device or Process. A printer is a company that provides commercial Printing services often also offering Typesetting and Book-binding services Circa (often abbreviated c, ca, ca or cca and sometimes Italicized to show it is Latin) means "about" Events 1112 - Ramon Berenguer III of Barcelona and Douce I of Provence marry uniting the fortunes of those two states The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in A goldsmith is a Metalworker who specializes in working with Gold and other Precious metals usually in modern times to make Jewelry. A printer is a company that provides commercial Printing services often also offering Typesetting and Book-binding services Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image His major work, the Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible), has been acclaimed for its high aesthetic and technical quality. Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible or the Mazarin Bible) is a printed version of the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible that

Among the specific contributions to printing that are attributed to Gutenberg are the design of metal movable type, the invention of a process for making such type in quantity (mass production), the use of oil-based ink, and the use of a wooden printing press similar to the screw olive and wine presses of the period. A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image His truly epochal invention was the combination of these elements into a practical system. Gutenberg may have been familiar with printing; it is claimed that he had worked on copper engravings with an artist known as the Master of the Playing Cards. Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it The Master of the Playing Cards was the first major master in the history of Printmaking. ^[1] Gutenberg's method for making type is traditionally considered to have included a type metal alloy and a hand mould for casting type. The term type metal (sometimes called "hot metal" represents a range of metal Alloys that are used in traditional Typefounding and Mechanical typesetting It should be noted that new research may indicate that standardised moveable type was a more complex evolutionary process spread over multiple locations^[2].

The use of movable type was a marked improvement on the handwritten manuscript, which was the existing method of book production in Europe, and upon woodblock printing, and revolutionized European book-making. For the use of the technique in art see Woodcut on the technique and Old master print for the history in Europe and Woodblock printing in Japan. Gutenberg's printing technology spread rapidly throughout Europe and is considered a key factor in the European Renaissance. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Gutenberg remains a towering figure in the popular image; in 1999, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg #1 on their "People of the Millennium" countdown, and in 1997, Time–Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium. A&E is a cable and Satellite television network with headquarters in Manhattan and offices in Stamford, Atlanta, The Time-Life company was founded by Time Incorporated in 1961 as a book marketing division ^[3]

Contents 1 Life 1.1 Printing press 1.2 Court case 1.3 Later life 2 Gutenberg's printed books 3 Gutenberg's method of printing with movable type 3.1 Was the type produced by punches and copper matrices? 3.2 Other hypotheses about European origins 3.3 Hypotheses about East Asian origins 4 Legacy 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links

Life

Gutenberg was born in the German city of Mainz, the youngest son of the upper-class merchant Friele Gensfleisch zur Laden, and his second wife Else Wyrich, who was the daughter of a shopkeeper. The 2006 FIFA World Cup was the 18th instance of the FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international football world championship tournament Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. According to some accounts Friele was a goldsmith for the bishop at Mainz, but most likely he was involved in the cloth trade^[4]. The Archbishopric of Mainz (Erzbistum Mainz or Electorate of Mainz (Kurfürstentum Mainz or Kurmainz) was an influential ecclesiastic and secular Prince-bishopric Gutenberg's year of birth is not known; it was certainly between 1394 and 1404, most likely around 1400.

At the time, patricians in Mainz were often named after the houses they owned, and around 1427, the name zu Gutenberg, after the family house in Mainz, is documented for the first time. Patricianship, the quality of belonging to a patriciate, began in the ancient world where cities such as Ancient Rome had a class of Patrician families ^[4] This house had previously been known as "Judenberg," Jewish Hill. According to historian John Man, "In the 1282 pogrom, fifty-four Jewish properties were abandoned and were grabbed by the rich and powerful. A pogrom is a form of Riot directed against a particular group whether ethnic religious or other and characterized by destruction of their Homes Businesses It seems that the Gutenberg house fell to the archbishop's treasurers. It was later acquired by the great-great-grandfather of our inventor and stayed in the family. "^[5]

In 1411, there was an uprising in Mainz against the patricians, and more than a hundred families were forced to leave. The Gutenbergs may have moved to Eltville am Rhein (Alta Villa), where his mother had an inherited estate. Eltville am Rhein (Eltville on the Rhine river is a town in the Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis, Hesse, Germany. He may have studied at the University of Erfurt, where there is a record of a student in 1419 named Johannes de Alta villa. The University of Erfurt is a German University History The University of Erfurt was founded in 1392 as the third university in the territory Following his father's death in 1419, he is mentioned in the inheritance proceedings.

Nothing is now known of Gutenberg's life for the next fifteen years, but in March 1434, a letter by him indicates that he was living in Strasbourg, where he had some relatives on his mother's side. Strasbourg (Strasbourg stʁazbuʁ Alsatian: Strossburi,; Straßburg) is the capital and principal City of the Alsace région He also appears to have been a goldsmith member enrolled in the Strasbourg militia. In 1437, there is evidence that he was instructing a wealthy tradesman on polishing gems, but where he had acquired this knowledge is unknown. In 1436/37 his name also comes up in court in connection with a broken promise of marriage to a woman from Strasbourg, Ennelin. ^[6] Whether the marriage actually took place is not recorded.

Printing press

Around 1439, Gutenberg was involved in a financial misadventure making polished metal mirrors (which were believed to capture holy light from religious relics) for sale to pilgrims to Aachen: in 1439 the city was planning to exhibit its collection of relics from Emperor Charlemagne but the event was delayed by one year and the capital already spent could not be repaid. ( Ripuarian: Oche, Dutch: Aken, Spanish: Aquisgrán, Italian: Aquisgrana, French, Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his When the question of satisfying the investors came up, Gutenberg is said to have promised to share a "secret". It has been widely speculated that this secret may have been the idea of printing with movable type. ^[7] Legend has it that the idea came to him "like a ray of light"^[8]

At least up to 1444, he lived in Strasbourg, most likely in the St. Arbogast suburb. Saint Arbogast (Gaelic Arascach) has been claimed as a native of Scotland but this is owing to a misunderstanding of the name "Scotia" which until late in the It was in Strasbourg in 1440 that Gutenberg perfected and unveiled the secret of printing based on his research, mysteriously entitled Kunst und Aventur (art and enterprise). It is not clear what work he was engaged in, or whether some early trials with printing from movable type may have been conducted there. After this, there is a gap of four years in the record. In 1448, he was back in Mainz, where he took out a loan from his brother-in-law Arnold Gelthus, presumably for a printing press. A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image

By 1450, the press was in operation, and a German poem had been printed, possibly the first item to be printed there. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Gutenberg was able to convince the wealthy moneylender Johann Fust for a loan of 800 guilders. Johann Fust (c1400 - October 30 1466) was an early German printer. Guilder is the English translation of the Dutch gulden — from Old Dutch for 'golden' Peter Schöffer, who became Fust's son-in-law, also joined the enterprise. Peter Schöffer or Petrus Schoeffer (c 1425 in Gernsheim, Groß-Gerau - 1503 Mainz) was an early German printer who studied in Paris Schöffer had worked as a scribe in Paris and designed some of the first typefaces. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city In Typography, a typeface is a set of one or more Fonts designed with stylistic unity each comprising a coordinated set of Glyphs A typeface usually comprises

Gutenberg's workshop was set up at Hof Humbrecht, a property belonging to a distant relative. It is not clear when Gutenberg conceived the Bible project, but for this he borrowed another 800 guilders from Fust, and work commenced in 1452. At the same time, the press was also printing other, more lucrative texts (possibly Latin grammars). There is also some speculation that there may have been two presses, one for the pedestrian texts, and one for the Bible. One of the profit-making enterprises of the new press was the printing of thousands of indulgences for the church, documented from 1454–55. An indulgence, in Roman Catholic Theology, is the full or partial Remission of temporal punishment due for Sins which have already been forgiven

In 1455 Gutenberg published his 42-line Bible, commonly known as the Gutenberg Bible. Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible or the Mazarin Bible) is a printed version of the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible that About 180 were printed, most on paper and some on vellum. Vellum (from the Old French Vélin for "calfskin" is mammal skin prepared for writing or printing on single pages scrolls codices or books

Court case

Sometime in 1455, there was a dispute between Gutenberg and Fust, and Fust demanded his money back, accusing Gutenberg of embezzling funds. Meanwhile the expenses of the Bible project had proliferated, and Gutenberg's debt now exceeded 2,000 guilders. Fust sued at the archbishop's court. A November 1455 legal document records that there was a partnership for a "project of the books," the funds for which Gutenberg had used for other purposes, according to Fust. The court decided in favour of Fust, giving him control over the Bible printing workshop and half of all printed Bibles.

Thus Gutenberg was effectively bankrupt, but it appears he retained (or re-started) a small printing shop, and participated in the printing of a bible in the town of Bamberg around 1459, for which he at least supplied the type. Bamberg is a town in Bavaria, Germany. It is located in Upper Franconia on the river Regnitz, close to its confluence with the river Main But since his printed books never carry his name or a date, it is difficult to be certain, and there is consequently a considerable scholarly literature about it. It is also possible that the large Catholicon dictionary, 300 copies of 744 pages, printed in Mainz in 1460, may have been executed in his workshop. The Summa grammaticalis quae vocatur Catholicon, or Catholicon, was completed March 7, 1286 by John Balbi (Johannes Januensis de Balbis

Meanwhile, the Fust–Schöffer shop were the first to bring out a book with the printer's name and date, the Mainz Psalter of August 1457, and while proudly proclaiming the mechanical process by which it had been produced, it made no mention of Gutenberg.

Later life

In 1462, during a conflict between two archbishops, Mainz was sacked by archbishop Adolph von Nassau, and Gutenberg was exiled. Adolph II (or III of Nassau-Wiesbaden-Idstein (German Adolf II An old man by now, he moved to Eltville where he may have initiated and supervised a new printing press belonging to the brothers Bechtermünze.

In January 1465, Gutenberg's achievements were recognized and he was given the title Hofmann (gentleman of the court) by von Nassau. This honour included a stipend, an annual court outfit, as well as 2180 liters of grain and 2000 liters of wine tax-free. A stipend is a form of Monetary payment or salary such as for an Internship or Apprenticeship. It is believed he may have moved back to Mainz around this time, but this is not certain.

Gutenberg died in 1468 and was buried in the Franciscan church at Mainz, his contributions largely unknown. This church and the cemetery were later destroyed, and Gutenberg's grave is lost.

In 1504, he was mentioned as the inventor of typography in a book by Professor Ivo Wittig. It was not until 1567 that the first portrait of Gutenberg, almost certainly an imaginary reconstruction, appeared in Heinrich Pantaleon's biography of famous Germans.

Gutenberg's printed books

Main article: Gutenberg Bible

Between 1450 and 1455, Gutenberg printed several texts, but details are not known; his texts did not bear the printer's name or date, so attribution is possible only through external references. Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible or the Mazarin Bible) is a printed version of the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible that Certainly several church documents including a papal letter and two indulgences were printed. Some printed editions of Ars Minor, a schoolbook on Latin grammar by Aelius Donatus may have been printed by Gutenberg; these have been dated either 1451–52 or 1455. Aelius Donatus (fl late 4th century AD was a Roman Grammarian and teacher of Rhetoric.

In 1455 (possibly starting 1454), Gutenberg brought out copies of a beautifully executed folio Bible (Biblia Sacra), with 42 lines on each page. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin The pages of the books were not bound, and the date 1455 is documented on the spine by the binder for a copy bound in Paris.

The Bible sold for 30 florins each,^[9] which was roughly three years' wages for an average clerk. Nonetheless, it was significantly cheaper than a handwritten Bible that could take a single scribe over a year to prepare. After printing the text portions, each book was hand illustrated in the same elegant way as manuscript Bibles from the same period written by scribes.

48 substantially complete copies are known to exist, including two at the British Library that can be viewed and compared online. The Library of Congress is the De facto National library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress Washington DC ( formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D The British Library ( BL) is the National library of the United Kingdom. ^[10] The text lacks modern features such as pagination, indentations, and paragraph breaks. Pagination is the system by which the information on a Newspaper, Bookpage Manuscript, or otherwise handwritten printed or displayed document is laid out English An indentation can mean two things To make notches in something or form deep recesses in a coastline for instance A hard return is a paragraph break in a Word processor. It differs from a Soft return in that it starts a new Paragraph.

Another, 36-line edition of the Bible was also printed, some years after the first edition, and in large part set from a copy of it, thus disproving earlier speculation that this may have been the first Bible of the two. ^[11]

Gutenberg's method of printing with movable type

Gutenberg's early printing process, and what tests he may have made with movable type, are not known in great detail. Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation His later Bibles were printed six pages at a time, and would have required 100,000 pieces of type—making the type alone would take years. ^[12] Setting each page would take at least half a day, and considering all the work in loading the press, inking the type, hanging up the sheets, etc. , it is thought that the Gutenberg–Fust shop might have employed about 25 craftsmen.

Gutenberg's technique of making movable type remains unclear. In the following decades, punches and copper matrices became standardized in the rapidly disseminating printing presses across Europe. Whether Gutenberg used this sophisticated technique or a somewhat primitive version has been the subject of considerable debate.

In the standard process of making type, a hard metal punch (with the letter carved back to front) is hammered into the soft metal copper, creating a mould or matrix. This is then placed into a holder, and cast by filling with hot type-metal, which cooled down to create a piece of type. The matrix can now be reused to create hundreds of identical letters, so that the same type appearing anywhere in the book will appear similar, giving rise to the growth of fonts. In typography a font (also fount) is traditionally defined as a complete character set of a single size and style of a particular Typeface. Subsequently, these letters are placed on a rack and inked; using a press, many hundred copies can be made. The letters can be reused in any combination, earning the process the name of 'movable type'. (For details, see Typography). Typography is the art and techniques of arranging type, Type design, and modifying type Glyphs Type glyphs are created and modified using a variety

Was the type produced by punches and copper matrices?

Such is the process that has been widely attributed to have been Gutenberg's invention, but it appears from recent evidence that Gutenberg's actual process was somewhat different. If he used the punch and matrix approach, all his letters should have been identical, within some variation possibly due to inking. However, the type used in Gutenberg's printed Bibles were quite irregular.

In 2001, the physicist Blaise Aguera y Arcas and Princeton librarian Paul Needham, used digital scans of the Gutenberg Bible in the Scheide Library, Princeton, to carefully compare the same letters (types) appearing in different parts of the Gutenberg 42-line Bible ^[13][14]. Princeton University is a private Coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. The irregularities in Gutenberg's type, particularly in simple characters such as the hyphen, made it clear that the variations could not have come from either ink smear or from wear and damage on the pieces of metal on the types themselves. While some identical types are clearly used on other pages, other variations, subjected to detailed image analysis, made for only one conclusion: that they could not have been produced from the same matrix. Transmitted light pictures of the page also revealed substructures in the type that could not arise from punchcutting techniques. They hypothesized that the method involved impressing simple shapes to create alphabets in "cuneiform" style in a mould like sand. Casting the type would destroy the mould, and the alphabet would need to be recreated to make additional type. This would explain the non-identical type, as well as the substructures observed in the printed type.

Thus, they feel that "the decisive factor for the birth of typography", the use of reusable moulds for casting type, might have been a more progressive process than was previously thought (also see Adams 91 ^[15] Chapter 4). They suggest that the additional step of using the punch to create a mould that could be reused many times was not taken until twenty years later, in the 1470s.

Other hypotheses about European origins

The nineteenth century printer and typefounder Fournier Le Jeune suggested that Gutenberg might not have been using type cast with a reusable matrix, but possibly wooden types that were carved individually. However, this appears unlikely given the uniformity of the bulk of the type he used.

It has also been questioned whether Gutenberg used movable types at all. In 2004, Italian professor Bruno Fabbiani claimed that examination of the 42-line Bible revealed an overlapping of letters, suggesting that Gutenberg did not in fact use movable type (individual cast characters) but rather used whole plates made from a system somewhat like a modern typewriter, whereby the letters were stamped successively into the plate and then printed. However, most specialists regard the occasional overlapping of type as caused by paper movement over pieces of type of slightly unequal height.

A 1568 history by Hadrianus Junius of Holland claims that the basic idea of the movable type came to Gutenberg from Laurens Janszoon Coster via Fust, who was apprenticed to Coster in the 1430s and may have brought some of his equipment from Haarlem to Mainz. Laurens Janszoon Coster (ca 1370 Haarlem, the Netherlands &ndash ca in the past usually Harlem in English is a city in the Netherlands. While Coster appears to have experimented with moulds and cast-able metal type, there is no evidence that he had actually printed anything with this technology. He was an inventor and a goldsmith. However, there is one support for the claim that Coster might be the inventor. In the Kölner Chronik of 1499 Ulrich Zell, the first printer of Cologne, mentions that printing was performed in Mainz of 1450, but that before already some type of printing of lower quality occurred in The Netherlands. Ulrich Zell was the first printer of Cologne. He was born at Hanau-on-the-Main, date unknown he died about 1503 Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. The name of Coster is not however mentioned in that chronicle. ^[11]

Hypotheses about East Asian origins

Main article: History of typography in East Asia

Since the use of printing from movable type arose in East Asia well before it did in Europe, it is relevant to ask whether Gutenberg may have been influenced, directly or indirectly, by the Chinese or Korean inventions of movable type printing, or their earlier discoveries of block printing. For the article on the development of printing in Europe see History of western typography. An invention is a new form composition of matter device or Process. For the compulsory pre-trial disclosure of documents relevant to a case see Discovery (law Discovery Observations form acts of detecting

There are no historical documents which single out that Gutenberg was aware of existing Asian printing techniques. Nonetheless, several historians have drawn inferences. The earliest woodblocks used for printing in Europe, in the fourteenth century, using exactly the same technique as Chinese woodblocks, led some early writers on Asian subjects to speculate about a connection: "the process of printing them must have been copied from ancient Chinese specimens, brought from that country by some early travelers, whose names have not been handed down to our times" (Robert Curzon, 1810-1873). Robert Curzon 14th Baron Zouche ( 16 March 1810 - 2 August 1873) was a notable Victorian English traveler travel writer and diplomat active ^[16] Since the 13th century, with the expansion of the Mongol Empire to the door of Europe, numerous travelers bridged the distance between Europe and China, such as Marco Polo or the Mongol Chinese Rabban Bar Sauma, and numerous direct contacts occurred in attempts at creating a Franco-Mongol alliance, giving ample opportunity for the transmission of printing technology from China. The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire Marco Polo ( September 15 1254 – January 9 1324 at earliest but no later than June 1325 was a Venetian trader and explorer Rabban Bar Sauma (c 1220–1294 (pronounced "ruh-BAHN BAR sah-OO-muh" also known as Rabban Ṣawma or Rabban Çauma, (Chinese拉賓掃務瑪 was a Many attempts were made towards forming a Franco-Mongol alliance between the mid-13th and early 14th centuries starting around the time of the Seventh Crusade.

However, European woodblock printing shows a clear progression from patterns to images, both printed on cloth, then to images printed on paper, when it became widely available in Europe in about 1400. ^[17] In particular, text and images printed together only appear in about 1460, some sixty years later than images alone, and after Gutenberg's invention of metal movable type^[18].

Joseph Needham's Science and Civilization in China has a chapter that suggests that "European block printers must not only have seen Chinese samples, but perhaps had been taught by missionaries or others who had learned these un-European methods from Chinese printers during their residence in China. "^[19]

But historians of the Western prints themselves see no need for such a direct and late connection. Rather, they assume that European woodcut appeared "spontaneously and presumably as a result of the use of paper as it had been observed that paper was better suited than rough-surfaced parchment for making the impressions from wood-reliefs". ^[20] Also, Hyatt Mayor:

A little before 1400 Europeans had enough paper to begin making holy images and playing cards in woodcut. They need not have learned woodcut from the Chinese, because they had been using woodblocks for about 1,000 years to stamp designs on linen. ^[21]

Whatever the facts regarding Asian influences in this invention, there can be no doubt about Gutenberg's genius in putting together the technologies that eventually went on to fuel the European Renaissance. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere ^[5]

Legacy

Although Gutenberg was financially unsuccessful in his lifetime, the printing technologies spread quickly, and news and books began to travel across Europe much faster than before. (Albert Bertel Thorvaldsen ( November 19, 1770 – March 24, 1844) was a Danish / Icelandic sculptor Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. It fed the growing Renaissance, and since it greatly facilitated scientific publishing, it was a major catalyst for the later scientific revolution. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published Gutenberg is thought to have said:

Give me 26 soldiers of lead and I shall conquer the world. Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly

The capital of printing in Europe shifted to Venice, where visionary printers like Aldus Manutius ensured widespread availability of the major Greek and Latin texts. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the Aldus Manutius (1449/1450 – February 6, 1515) the Latinized name of Teobaldo Mannucci, sometimes called Aldus Manutius the Elder to distinguish The claims of an Italian origin for movable type have also focused on this rapid rise of Italy in movable-type printing. This may perhaps be explained by the prior eminence of Italy in the paper and printing trade. Additionally, Italy's economy was growing rapidly at the time, facilitating the spread of literacy. Finally, the city of Mainz was sacked in 1462, driving many (including a number of printers and punch cutters) into exile.

Printing was also a factor in the Reformation: Martin Luther found that the 95 Theses, which he posted on the door of his church, were printed and circulated widely; subsequently he also issued broadsheets outlining his anti-indulgences position (ironically, indulgences were one of the first items Gutenberg had printed). The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer The Ninety-Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences, commonly known as The Ninety-Five Theses, were written by Martin Luther in 1517 Broadsheet is the largest of the various Newspaper formats and is characterized by long vertical pages (typically 22 inches or more An indulgence, in Roman Catholic Theology, is the full or partial Remission of temporal punishment due for Sins which have already been forgiven The broadsheet evolved into newspapers and defined the mass media we know today. A newspaper is a written Publication containing News, information and Advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called Newsprint. "Popular press" redirects here note that the University of Wisconsin Press publishes under the imprint "The Popular Press"

In the decades after Gutenberg, many conservative patrons looked down on cheap printed books; books produced by hand were considered more desirable. At one point the papal court debated a policy of requiring printing presses to obtain a license, but this could not be decreed. The Roman Curia is the administrative apparatus of the Holy See and the central governing body of the entire Roman Catholic Church, together with the Pope

Today there is a large antique market for the earliest printed objects. An antique ( Latin: antiquus; old is an old Collectible item It is collected or desirable because of its age rarity condition utility or other unique Books printed prior to 1500 are known as incunabula.

There are many statues of Gutenberg in Germany, including the famous one by Bertel Thorvaldsen (1837) in Mainz, home to the Gutenberg Museum and the eponymous Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz. (Albert Bertel Thorvaldsen ( November 19, 1770 – March 24, 1844) was a Danish / Icelandic sculptor The Gutenberg Museum is one of the oldest museums of Printing in the world located opposite the cathedral in the old part of Mainz, Germany. The Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz (Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz is a University in Mainz, Rhineland Palatinate, Germany, named

Project Gutenberg commemorates Gutenberg's name. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works

Matthew Skelton's book Endymion Spring explores a controversial theory about Johann Gutenberg and his partner Fust. Endymion Spring is a Fantasy novel by English-Canadian author Matthew Skelton.

In 1961 the Canadian philosopher and scholar Marshall McLuhan entitled his pioneering study in the fields of print culture, cultural studies, and media ecology, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man

Johann Gutenberg has been ranked #8 in Michael H. Hart's controversial book, The 100: A Ranking Of The Most Influential Persons In History. The format of the book—a mosaic The book is unusual in its design Michael H Hart (born April 28, 1932 in New York City) is an Astrophysicist who has also written three books on History and controversial The 100 A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History is a 1978 book by Michael H

In 2006, Gutenberg! The Musical!, a musical about two people who wrote a musical about Johann Gutenberg inventing the printing press, began its Off-Broadway run in New York City. Gutenberg! The Musical! is a musical written by Scott Brown and Anthony King. Off-Broadway plays or musicals are performed in New York City. The City of New York

See also

• Printing
• Printing press
• Spread of printing
• Typography
• Incunabulum
• History of the book
• Gutenberg Bible

References

Further reading

• Michael H. Hart, The 100, Carol Publishing Group, July 1992, paperback, 576 pages, ISBN 0-8065-1350-0

Standard biographic works on Gutenberg

• Albert Kapr, Johann Gutenberg: the Man and his Invention. Michael H Hart (born April 28, 1932 in New York City) is an Astrophysicist who has also written three books on History and controversial The 100 A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History is a 1978 book by Michael H Translated from the German by Douglas Martin, Scolar Press, 1996. "Third ed. , revised by the author for . . . the English translation.

On the effects of Gutenberg's printing

• Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press, September 1980, Paperback, 832 pages, ISBN 0-521-29955-1
• Marshall McLuhan, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962) Univ. of Toronto Press (1st ed. ); reissued by Routledge & Kegan Paul ISBN 0-7100-1818-5.

External links

• English homepage of the Gutenberg-Museum Mainz, Germany.
• Historical overview of printing at the Silk Road site.
• The Digital Gutenberg Project: the Gutenberg Bible in 1,300 digital images, every page of the University of Texas at Austin copy. Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible or the Mazarin Bible) is a printed version of the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible that
• (French) Biographie de Johannes Gutenberg, inventeur de l'Imprimerie (a biography of Gutenberg at the Histoire et Geographie site).
• Treasures in Full – Gutenberg Bible View the British Library's Digital Versions Online

Persondata
NAME	Gutenberg, Johannes
ALTERNATIVE NAMES	Gutenberg, Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum
SHORT DESCRIPTION	German inventor who invented movable type
DATE OF BIRTH	c. 1398
PLACE OF BIRTH	Mainz, Germany
DATE OF DEATH	3 February 1468
PLACE OF DEATH	Mainz, Germany

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