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Western Philosophy
20th-century philosophy
Name
Jean Piaget
Birth August 9, 1896
Death September 16, 1980
School/tradition Constructivism
Notable ideas Constructivist epistemology, Theory of cognitive development

Jean Piaget [ʒɑ̃ pjaʒɛ] (August 9, 1896 – September 16, 1980) was a Swiss philosopher, natural scientist and developmental theorist, well known for his work studying children, his theory of cognitive development and for his epistemological view called "genetic epistemology. Western philosophy is a term that refers to philosophical thinking in the Western or Occidental world, as distinct from Eastern or Oriental philosophies See also [[Analytic philosophy]] and [[Continental philosophy]] The 20th century brought with it upheavals that produced a series of conflicting developments within Philosophy Events 48 BC - Caesar's civil war: Battle of Pharsalus - Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus Year 1896 ( MDCCCXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) Constructivist epistemology is an epistemological perspective in Philosophy about the nature of scientific knowledge held by many philosophers of science The Theory of Cognitive Development (one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss Philosopher (1896–1980 Events 48 BC - Caesar's civil war: Battle of Pharsalus - Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus Year 1896 ( MDCCCXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language In Science, the term natural science refers to a naturalistic approach to the study of the Universe, which is understood as obeying rules or law of The Theory of Cognitive Development (one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss Philosopher (1896–1980 Genetic epistemology is a study of the origins (genesis of knowledge ( Epistemology) which was established by Jean Piaget. " He created in 1955 the International Centre for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva and directed it until 1980. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Geneva (Genève is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and is the most populous city of Romandy (the French -speaking According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is "the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing. Ernst von Glasersfeld (born 1917 in Munich) is a Philosopher, a cybernetician and is Emeritus Professor of Psychology at the Constructivist epistemology is an epistemological perspective in Philosophy about the nature of scientific knowledge held by many philosophers of science "[1]

Contents

Biography

Piaget was born in 1896 in Neuchâtel in the French-speaking part of Switzerland. He died in 1980. His father, Arthur Piaget, was a professor of medieval literature at the University of Neuchâtel. Medieval literature is a broad subject encompassing essentially all written works available in Europe beyond and during the Middle Ages (encompassing the one thousand Piaget was a precocious child who developed an interest in biology and the natural world, particularly mollusks, and even published a number of papers before he graduated from high school. Molluscs are animals belonging to the phylum Mollusca. There are around 250000 extant Species within the phylum with an estimated 70000 In fact, his long career of scientific research began when he was just ten, with the 1907 publication of a short paper on the albino sparrow. The "true sparrows" the Old World sparrows in the family Passeridae, are small Passerine Birds Generally sparrows tend to be Over the course of his career, Piaget wrote more than sixty books and several hundred articles. Piaget received a Ph.D. "PhD" redirects here for other uses see PhD (disambiguation. in natural science from the University of Neuchâtel, and also studied briefly at the University of Zürich. At a glance An annual budget of CHF 120 millions An annual research fund of CHF 40 millions The University of Zurich ( German: Universität Zürich) located in the city of Zurich, is the largest University in Switzerland During this time, he published two philosophical papers which showed the direction of his thinking at the time, but which he later dismissed as adolescent work. His interest in psychoanalysis, a strain of psychological thought burgeoning at that time, can also be dated to this period. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior

He then moved from Switzerland to Paris, France, where he taught at the Grange-Aux-Belles street school for boys run by Alfred Binet, the developer of the Binet intelligence test. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Alfred Binet ( July 8, 1857 &ndash October 18, 1911) French Psychologist and Inventor of the first usable An Intelligence Quotient or IQ is a score derived from one of several different Standardized tests attempting to measure Intelligence. It was while he was helping to mark some instances of these intelligence tests that Piaget noticed that young children consistently gave wrong answers to certain questions. Piaget did not focus so much on the fact of the children's answers being wrong, but that young children kept making the same pattern of mistakes that older children and adults did not. This led him to the theory that young children's thought or cognitive processes are inherently different from those of adults. (Ultimately, he was to propose a global theory of developmental stages stating that individuals exhibit certain distinctive common patterns of cognition in each period in their development. ) In 1921, Piaget returned to Switzerland as director of the Rousseau Institute in Geneva. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Rousseau Institute (also known as Jean-Jacques Rousseau Institute or Academy of Geneva - in French Académie De Genève or Institut Jean-Jacques Rousseau Geneva (Genève is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and is the most populous city of Romandy (the French -speaking

In 1923, he married Valentine Châtenay, one of his students; together, the couple had three children, whom Piaget studied from infancy. In 1929, Jean Piaget accepted the post of Director of the International Bureau of Education and remained the head of this international organization until 1968. Every year, he drafted his “Director's Speeches” for the IBE Council and for the International Conference on Public Education in which he explicitly expressed his educational credo.

Scientific and philosophical development

The stages of cognitive development

Main article: Theory of cognitive development

Piaget studied non-human animals to begin with. The Theory of Cognitive Development (one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss Philosopher (1896–1980 He was a biologist, but specifically a malacologist. Malacology is the branch of Invertebrate Zoology which deals with the study of Mollusks the second-largest Phylum of animals in terms of described Piaget served as professor of psychology at the University of Geneva from 1929 to 1975 and is best known for reorganizing cognitive development theory into a series of stages, expanding on earlier work from James Mark Baldwin: four levels of development corresponding roughly to (1) infancy, (2) pre-school, (3) childhood, and (4) adolescence. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and The University of Geneva (Université de Genève is a university in Geneva, Switzerland. James Mark Baldwin ( Columbia South Carolina, 1861–1934 was an American philosopher and psychologist who was educated at Princeton Each stage is characterized by a general cognitive structure that affects all of the child's thinking (a structuralist view influenced by philosopher Immanuel Kant). For the use of structuralism in biology see Structuralism (biology Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Each stage represents the child's understanding of reality during that period, and each but the last is an inadequate approximation of reality. Development from one stage to the next is thus caused by the accumulation of errors in the child's understanding of the environment; this accumulation eventually causes such a degree of cognitive disequilibrium that thought structures require reorganizing.

The four development stages are described in Piaget's theory as:

  1. Sensorimotor stage: from birth to age 2 years (children experience the world through movement and senses and learn object permanence) Children are extremely egocentric, meaning they cannot perceive the world from others viewpoints and explore using senses. The Theory of Cognitive Development (one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss Philosopher (1896–1980
  2. Preoperational stage: from ages 2 to 7 (magical thinking predominates. The Theory of Cognitive Development (one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss Philosopher (1896–1980 Acquisition of motor skills) Children are still egocentric and

cannot conserve or use logical thinking.

  1. Concrete operational stage: from ages 7 to 11 (children begin to think logically but are very concrete in their thinking) Children can now conserve and think logically but only with practical aids. The Theory of Cognitive Development (one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss Philosopher (1896–1980 They are no longer egocentric
  2. Formal operational stage: after age 11 (development of abstract reasoning). The Theory of Cognitive Development (one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss Philosopher (1896–1980 Children develop abstract thought and can easily conserve and think logically in their mind.

The developmental process

Piaget provided no concise description of the development process as a whole. Broadly speaking it consisted of a cycle:

This process is not wholly gradual, however. Once a new level of organization, knowledge and insight proves to be effective, it will quickly be generalized to other areas. As a result, transitions between stages tend to be rapid and radical, and the bulk of the time spent in a new stage consists of refining this new cognitive level. When the knowledge that has been gained at one stage of study and experience leads rapidly and radically to a new higher stage of insight, a "gestalt" is said to have occurred.

It is because this process takes this dialectical form, in which each new stage is created through the further differentiation, integration, and synthesis of new structures out of the old, that the sequence of cognitive stages are logically necessary rather than simply empirically correct. Each new stage emerges only because the child can take for granted the achievements of its predecessors, and yet there are still more sophisticated forms of knowledge and action that are capable of being developed.

Because it covers both how we gain knowledge about objects and our reflections on our own actions, Piaget's model of development explains a number of features of human knowledge that had never previously been accounted for. For example, by showing how children progressively enrich their understanding of things by acting on and reflecting on the effects of their own previous knowledge, they are able to organize their knowledge in increasingly complex structures. Thus, once a young child can consistently and accurately recognize different kinds of animals, he or she then acquires the ability to organize the different kinds into higher groupings such as ‘birds’, ‘fish’, and so on. This is significant because they are now able to know things about a new animal simply on the basis of the fact that it is a bird – for example, that it will lay eggs.

At the same time, by reflecting on their own actions, the child develops an increasingly sophisticated awareness of the ‘rules’ that govern in various ways. For example, it is by this route that Piaget explains this child's growing awareness of notions such as ‘right’, ‘valid’, ‘necessary’, ‘proper’, and so on. In other words, it is through the process of objectification, reflection and abstraction that the child constructs the principles on which action is not only effective or correct but also justified.

One of Piaget's most famous studies focused purely on the discriminative abilities of children between the ages of two and a half years old, and four and a half years old. He began the study by taking children of different ages and placing two lines of M&M's, one with the M&M's in a line spread further apart, and one with the same number of M&M's in a line placed more closely together. M&M's Chocolate Candies are Candy -coated pieces of Chocolate with the letter "m" inscribed on them produced by Mars Incorporated. He found that, “Children between 2 years, 6 months old and 3 years, 2 months old correctly discriminate the relative number of objects in two rows; between 3 years, 2 months and 4 years, 6 months they indicate a longer row with fewer objects to have "more"; after 4 years, 6 months they again discriminate correctly” (Cognitive Capacity of Very Young Children, p. 141). Initially younger children were not studied, because if at four years old a child couldn’t conserve quantity, how could a child that is younger? The results show however that children that are younger than three years and two months have quantity conservation, but as they get older they lose this quality, and don’t recover it until four and a half years old. This attribute may be lost due to a temporary inability to solve because of an overdependence on perceptual strategies, which correlates more candy with a longer line of candy, or due to the inability for a four year old to reverse situations.

By the end of this experiment several results were found. First, younger children have a discriminative ability that shows the logical capacity for cognitive operations exists earlier than acknowledged. This study also reveals that young children can be equipped with certain qualities for cognitive operations, depending on how logical the structure of the task is. Research also shows that children develop explicit understanding at age 5 and as a result, the child will count the M&M's to decide which has more. Finally the study found that overall quantity conservation is not a basic characteristic of man's native inheritance. (See the video clip 'Jean Piaget - Father of Child Psychology')

Genetic epistemology

According to Jean Piaget, genetic epistemology "attempts to explain knowledge, and in particular scientific knowledge, on the basis of its history, its sociogenesis, and especially the psychological origins of the notions and operations upon which it is based"[2]. Genetic epistemology is a study of the origins (genesis of knowledge ( Epistemology) which was established by Jean Piaget.

Jean Piaget has become a reference for epistemology, and particularly for constructivist epistemology. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Constructivist epistemology is an epistemological perspective in Philosophy about the nature of scientific knowledge held by many philosophers of science

Recently, Jonathan Tsou argued that Piaget's later epistemological works could serve as a remedy for the flaws in Thomas Kuhn's theory of scientific revolutions. Thomas Samuel Kuhn (surname ˈkuːn July 18, 1922  &ndash June 17, 1996) was an American intellectual who wrote extensively [3] However, this criticism missed some of the history between them, as well as the existence of a "lost manuscript" by Kuhn (currently held at the University of Chicago) that was to address his critics' concerns. The University of Chicago is a Private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. [4] It is noted, however, that the implications of his later work remain largely unexamined.

Influence

Despite ceasing to be a fashionable psychologist, the magnitude of Piaget's continuing influence can be measured by the global scale and activity of the Jean Piaget Society, which holds annual conferences and attracts very large numbers of participants. Mental health professional A psychologist is a practitioner of Psychology, the systematic investigation of the mind including Behavior, Cognition, His theory of cognitive development has proved influential in many different areas:

Developmental psychology

Piaget is without doubt one of the most influential developmental psychologists, influencing not only the work of Lev Vygotsky and of Lawrence Kohlberg but whole generations of eminent academics. The Theory of Cognitive Development (one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss Philosopher (1896–1980 Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Primatology is the study of Primates It is a diverse Discipline and primatologists can be found in departments of Biology, Anthropology Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (Russian Лев Семёнович Выготский ( November 17 ( November 5 Old Style) 1896 – June 11, 1934 Lawrence Kohlberg ( October 25, 1927 – January 19, 1987) was an American Although subjecting his ideas to massive scrutiny led to innumerable improvements and qualifications of his original model and the emergence of a plethora of neo-Piagetian and post-Piagetian variants, Piaget's original model has proved to be remarkably robust (Lourenço and Machado 1996).

Education and development of morality

During the 1970s and 1980s, Piaget's works also inspired the transformation of European and American education, including both theory and practice, leading to a more ‘child-centred’ approach. Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency In Conversations with Jean Piaget, he says: "Education, for most people, means trying to lead the child to resemble the typical adult of his society . . . but for me and no one else, education means making creators. . . . You have to make inventors, innovators—not conformists" (Bringuier, 1980, p. 132).

Mainly, Piaget influenced two parts of education: early education and moral education.

In early education, teachers use his theory of cognitive development as a tool in the classroom. According to Piaget, children developed best in a classroom with interaction. Using this idea, teachers in elementary schools or pre-school can make use of classroom time better using peer interaction.

In moral education, Piaget believed in two basic principles. The first one is the fact that children develop moral ideas in stages. The other is that children make their idea of the world: "The child is someone who constructs his own moral world view, who forms ideas about right and wrong, and fair and unfair, that are not the direct product of adult teaching and that are often maintained in the face of adult wishes to the contrary" (Gallagher, 1978, p. 26). The idea is that children observe the world, and then decide what is morally correct. So in today's education, we have started to bring moral education into education, such as talking about cheating and what is morally correct in today's society, dealing with crime and morals in politics.

Piaget's theory of morality was radical in 1932, when his book, The Moral Judgment of the Child, was published, due to his use of philosophical criteria to define morality (as universalizable, generalizable, and obligatory), and his rejection of equating cultural norms and moral norms. Piaget, drawing on Kantian theory, proposed that morality developed out of peer interaction, and that it was autonomous from authority mandates. Peers, not parents, were a key source of moral concepts, such as equality, reciprocity, and justice.

In his account of the development of moral judgment Piaget (1932) introduced a fundamental distinction between different types of social relationship, or more specifically he attributed different types of psychosocial processes to different forms of social relationship. Where there is constraint because one participant holds more power than the other the relationship is asymmetrical, and, importantly, the knowledge which can be acquired by the dominated participant takes on a fixed and inflexible form. Piaget refers to this process as one of social transmission, and he refers to the way in which the elders of a tribe initiate younger members into the patterns of beliefs and practices of the group. Similarly where adults exercise a dominating influence over the growing child, it is through social transmission that children can acquire knowledge. By contrast, in cooperative relations, power is more evenly distributed between participants so that a more symmetrical relationship emerges. Under these conditions authentic forms of intellectual exchange become possible, since each partner has the freedom to project their own thoughts, consider the positions of others, and defend their own point of view. In such circumstances, where children’s thinking is not limited by a dominant influence, the conditions exist for the emergence of constructive solutions to problems, or what Piaget refers to as the reconstruction of knowledge rather than social transmission. Here the knowledge which emerges is open, flexible and regulated by the logic of argument rather than being determined by an external authority. In short, cooperative relations provide the arena for the emergence of operations, which for Piaget requires the absence of any constraining influence, and is most often illustrated by the relations which form between peers (for more on the importance of this distinction see Duveen & Psaltis, in press; Psaltis & Duveen, 2006,2007).

Historical studies of thought and cognition

Historical changes of thought have been modeled in Piagetian terms. Broadly speaking these models have mapped changes in morality, intellectual life and cognitive levels against historical changes (typically in the complexity of social systems).

Notable examples include:

Evolution

Neo-Piagetian stages have been applied to the maximum stage attained by various animals. Kieran Egan (born 1942 is a contemporary Educational philosopher and a student of the Classics, Anthropology, Cognitive psychology, and The Educated Mind: How Cognitive Tools Shape Our Understanding is a 1997 book on educational theory by Kieran Egan. Dr James W Fowler III Charles Howard Candler Professor of Theology and Human Development at Emory University, was director of both the Center for Research on Faith A series of stages of faith development was proposed by Professor James W Lawrence Kohlberg ( October 25, 1927 – January 19, 1987) was an American Kohlberg's stages of moral development are planes of moral adequacy conceived by Lawrence Kohlberg to explain the development of Moral reasoning. For example spiders attain the circular sensory motor stage, coordinating actions and perceptions. Pigeons attain the sensory motor stage, forming concepts.

The origins of human intelligence have also been studied in Piagetian terms. Wynn (1979, 1981) analysed Acheulian and Oldowan tools in terms of the insight into spatial relationships required to create each kind. Acheulean (also spelled Acheulian,) is the name given to an Archaeological industry of Stone tool manufacture associated with prehistoric Hominins Oldowan (earlier spelled Olduwan or sometimes Oldawan) is an anthropological designation for an industrial complex of Stone tools used by On a more general level, Robinson's Birth of Reason (2005) suggests a large-scale model for the emergence of a Piagetian intelligence.

Primatology

Piaget's models of cognition have also been applied outside the human sphere, and some primatologists assess the development and abilities of primates in terms of Piaget's model. [11]

Philosophy

Some have taken account of Piaget's work. For example, the philosopher and social theorist Jürgen Habermas has incorporated Piaget into his work, most notably in The Theory of Communicative Action. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Jürgen Habermas (ˈjʏʁgən ˈhaːbɐmaːs born June 18, 1929 is a German Philosopher and Sociologist in the tradition of The Theory of Communicative Action is a book by Jürgen Habermas published in 1981 in two volumes the first subtitled Reason and the Rationalization of Society The philosopher Thomas Kuhn credited Piaget's work in helping him understand the transition between modes of thought which characterized his theory of paradigm shifts. Thomas Samuel Kuhn (surname ˈkuːn July 18, 1922  &ndash June 17, 1996) was an American intellectual who wrote extensively Paradigm shift, sometimes known as extraordinary science or revolutionary science, is the term first used by Thomas Kuhn in his influential Shortly before his death (October 1975), Piaget was involved in a debate about the relationships between innate and acquired features of language, at the Centre Royaumont pour une Science de l'Homme, where he discussed his point of view with the linguist Noam Chomsky as well as Hilary Putnam and Stephen Toulmin. Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political Hilary Whitehall Putnam (born July 31 1926 is an American Philosopher who has been a central figure in Western philosophy since the 1960s especially in Philosophy Stephen Edelston Toulmin (born March 25, 1922) is a British Philosopher, Author, and Educator.

Artificial intelligence

Piaget also had a considerable effect in the field of computer science and artificial intelligence. Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the Science of the theoretical foundations of Information and Computation and their Seymour Papert used Piaget's work while developing the Logo programming language. Seymour Papert (born February 29, 1928 in Pretoria South Africa) is an MIT Mathematician, computer scientist, and Logo is a Computer programming language used for Functional programming. Alan Kay used Piaget's theories as the basis for the Dynabook programming system concept, which was first discussed within the confines of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, or Xerox PARC. Alan Curtis Kay (born May 17, 1940) is an American Computer scientist, known for his early pioneering work on Object-oriented programming The Dynabook was a conceptual system proposed by Xerox PARC in 1968 PARC (Palo Alto Research Center Inc formerly Xerox PARC, is a Research and development company in Palo Alto California that began as a division of These discussions led to the development of the Alto prototype, which explored for the first time all the elements of the graphical user interface (GUI), and influenced the creation of user interfaces in the 1980s and beyond. The Xerox Alto was an early Personal computer developed at Xerox PARC in 1973.

Major works and achievements

Major works

Other works

Appointments

Piagetian and post-Piagetian stage theories

Quotations

See also

Notes

  1. ^ (in An Exposition of Constructivism: Why Some Like it Radical, 1990)
  2. ^ in "Genetic Epistemology" by Jean Piaget (1968)
  3. ^ Tsou, J. Constructivist epistemology is an epistemological perspective in Philosophy about the nature of scientific knowledge held by many philosophers of science Kohlberg's stages of moral development are planes of moral adequacy conceived by Lawrence Kohlberg to explain the development of Moral reasoning. Inquiry-based learning or inquiry-based science describes a range of philosophical curricular and pedagogical approaches to teaching Psychosocial development as articulated by Erik Erikson explains Eight Stages through which a healthily developing Human should pass from Why do some people find learning so difficult? What types of thinking do they find hard? Leaving aside the extremes of ability if secondary school teachers are asked the question "What (2006). Genetic Epistemology and Piaget's Philosophy of Science: Piaget vs. Kuhn on Scientific Progress. Theory & Psychology, 16(2), 203-224.
  4. ^ Burman, J. T. (2007). Piaget No `Remedy' for Kuhn, But the Two Should be Read Together: Comment on Tsou's `Piaget vs. Kuhn on Scientific Progress'. Theory & Psychology, 17(5), 721-732.
  5. ^ Barnes, Michael Horace (2000). Stages of thought: the co-evolution of religious thought and science. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513389-7.  
  6. ^ Damerow, P. (1998). "Prehistory And Cognitive Development". Piaget, Evolution, and Development.  
  7. ^ Kieran Egan (1997). Kieran Egan (born 1942 is a contemporary Educational philosopher and a student of the Classics, Anthropology, Cognitive psychology, and The educated mind: How Cognitive Tools Shape Our Understanding. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. The University of Chicago Press is the largest University press in the United States ISBN 0-226-19036-6.  
  8. ^ Gablik, Suzi (1977). Progress in art. New York: Rizzoli. ISBN 0847800822. .  
  9. ^ LePan, Don (1989). The cognitive revolution in Western culture. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-45796-X.  
  10. ^ Radding, Charles (1985). A world made by men: cognition and society, 400-1200. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-1664-7.  
  11. ^ McKinney, Michael L. ; Parker, Sue Taylor (1999). Origins of intelligence: the evolution of cognitive development in monkeys, apes, and humans. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6012-1.  
  12. ^ La Construction du Réel Chez l'Enfant by Jean Piaget (1937)

References

External links

Persondata
NAME Piaget, Jean
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION Swiss philosopher; developmental psychologist
DATE OF BIRTH August 9, 1896
PLACE OF BIRTH Neuchâtel, Switzerland
DATE OF DEATH September 16, 1980
PLACE OF DEATH Switzerland
Events 48 BC - Caesar's civil war: Battle of Pharsalus - Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus Year 1896 ( MDCCCXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Neuchâtel ( literally: New Castle in Old French) is the Capital of the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel on Lake Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar)
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