Japanese war crimes occurred during the period of Japanese imperialism. refers to the Ideology in the Empire of Japan that Militarism should dominate the political and social life of the nation and that the strength of the military is Asian Holocaust and Japanese war atrocities are terms also used for these war crimes. War crimes are "violations of the laws or customs of war" including but not limited to "murder the ill-treatment or deportation of civilian residents of an occupied Some war crimes were committed by military personnel from the Empire of Japan in the late 19th century, although most took place during the first part of the Shōwa Era, the name given to the reign of Emperor Hirohito, until the military defeat of the Empire of Japan, in 1945. The Empire of Japan ( {{unicode|Kyūjitai}}: ja 大日本帝國 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国 pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar The, or Shōwa era, is the period of Japanese history corresponding to the reign of Emperor Shōwa ( Hirohito) from December 25, 1926 to also known as, (April 29 1901 – January 7 1989 was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order reigning from December 25 1926 until his death The surrender of Japan in August 1945 brought World War II to a close The Empire of Japan ( {{unicode|Kyūjitai}}: ja 大日本帝國 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国 pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar
Historians and governments of many countries officially hold Japanese military forces, namely the Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy, responsible for killings and other crimes committed against many millions of civilians and prisoners of war (POWs). See also History An historian is an individual who studies and writes about History, and is regarded as an Authority on it For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. The Imperial Japanese Army ( IJA) ( Kyūjitai: 大日本帝國陸軍 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国陸軍 Romaji: Dai-Nippon Teikoku For Combined Fleet, please see that article For Carrier Striking Task Force, please see that article A civilian under International humanitarian law is a person who is not a member of his or her Country 's Armed forces.
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Definitions
War crimes may be broadly defined as unconscionable behavior by a government or military personnel against either enemy civilians or enemy combatants. There are differences from one Country to another regarding the definition of Japanese war crimes. War crimes are "violations of the laws or customs of war" including but not limited to "murder the ill-treatment or deportation of civilian residents of an occupied Military personnel from the Empire of Japan have been accused and/or convicted of committing many such acts during the period of Japanese imperialism from the late 19th to mid-20th centuries. The Empire of Japan ( {{unicode|Kyūjitai}}: ja 大日本帝國 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国 pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku refers to the Ideology in the Empire of Japan that Militarism should dominate the political and social life of the nation and that the strength of the military is The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar The twentieth century of the Common Era began on They have been accused of conducting a series of human rights abuses against civilians and prisoners of war (POWs) throughout East Asia and the western Pacific region. Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled A civilian under International humanitarian law is a person who is not a member of his or her Country 's Armed forces. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions These events reached their height during the Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937–45 and the Asian and Pacific campaigns of World War II (1941-45)
International and Japanese law
Although the Empire of Japan did not sign the Geneva Conventions, which have provided the standard definition of war crimes since 1864, the crimes committed fall under other aspects of international and Japanese law. The Second Sino-Japanese War ( July 7, 1937 to September 9, 1945) was a major war fought between the Republic of China and the Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar The Pacific War was the part of World War II —and preceding conflicts—that took place in the Pacific Ocean, its islands and in East Asia, between Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Geneva Conventions consist of four Treaties formulated in Geneva, Switzerland, that set the standards for International law for humanitarian Year 1864 ( MDCCCLXIV) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year For example, many of the alleged crimes committed by Japanese personnel broke Japanese military law, and were not subject to court martial, as required by that law. Military law is a distinct legal system to which members of Armed forces are subject A court-martial (plural courts-martial) is a Military court. These military courts can determine Punishments for members of the Military subject [2] The Empire also violated international agreements signed by Japan, including provisions of the Treaty of Versailles such as a ban on the use of chemical weapons, and the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907), which protect prisoners of war (POWs). The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy. The Hague Conventions were international treaties negotiated at the First and Second Peace Conferences at The Hague, Netherlands in 1899 and The Japanese government also signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1929), thereby rendering its actions in 1937-45 liable to charges of crimes against peace, a charge that was introduced at the Tokyo Trials to prosecute "Class A" war criminals. The Kellogg-Briand Pact, also known as the Pact of Paris, after the city where it was signed on August 27, 1928, was an international treaty "providing A crime against peace, in International law, refers to "planning preparation initiation or waging of wars of aggression, or a war in violation of international "Class B" war criminals were those found guilty of war crimes per se, and "Class C" war criminals were those guilty of crimes against humanity. In Public international law, a crime against humanity is an act of Persecution or any large scale atrocities against a body of people and is the highest level of The Japanese government also accepted the terms set by the Potsdam Declaration (1945) after the end of the war. The Potsdam Declaration or the Proclamation Defining Terms for Japanese Surrender was a statement issued on July 26, 1945 by President of the The declaration alluded, in Article 10, to two kinds of war crime: one was the violation of international laws, such as the abuse of prisoners of war; the other was obstructing "democratic tendencies among the Japanese people" and civil liberties within Japan. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system thumb| |Broken Liberty Istanbul Archaeology Museum Civil liberties are freedoms that protect the Individual from the Government.
In Japan, the term "Japanese war crimes" generally only refers to cases tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, also known as the Tokyo Trials, following the end of the Pacific War. The Pacific War was the part of World War II —and preceding conflicts—that took place in the Pacific Ocean, its islands and in East Asia, between However, the tribunal did not prosecute war crimes allegations involving mid-ranking officers or more junior personnel. Those were dealt with separately in other cities throughout the Asia-Pacific region.
Japanese law does not define those convicted in the post-1945 trials as criminals, despite the fact that Japan's governments have accepted the judgments made in the trials, and in the Treaty of San Francisco (1952). Attending countries Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, Chile This is because the treaty does not mention the legal validity of the tribunal. Had Japan certified the legal validity of the war crimes tribunals in the San Francisco Treaty, the war crimes would have become open to appeal and overturning in Japanese courts. This would have been unacceptable in international diplomatic circles. The current Japanese jurists' consensus regarding the legal standing of the Tokyo tribunal is that the execution and/or incarceration of an individual as result of the post-war trials is valid, but has no relationship to Japanese criminal law.
Historical and geographical extent
Outside Japan, different societies use widely different timeframes in defining Japanese war crimes. For example, the annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910 was enforced by the Japanese military, and was followed by the deprivation of civil liberties and exploitation of the Korean people. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting The Korean people are an East Asian Ethnic group. Most Koreans speak the Korean language. Thus, some Koreans refer to "Japanese war crimes" as events occurring during the period of 1910 (or earlier) to 1945. [3]
By comparison, the Western Allies did not come into military conflict with Japan until 1941, and North Americans, Australasians, South East Asians and Europeans may consider "Japanese war crimes" to be events that occurred in 1941-45. The Western Allies were the democracies and their colonial peoples within the broader coalition of Allies during World War II. Australasia is a Region of Oceania: New Zealand, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and neighbouring Islands in the Pacific [4]
Japanese war crimes were not always carried out by ethnic Japanese personnel. The are the dominant Ethnic group of Japan. Worldwide approximately 130 million people are of Japanese descent of these approximately 127 million are residents of Japan A small minority of people in every Asian and Pacific country invaded and/or occupied by Japan collaborated with the Japanese military, or even served in it, for a wide variety of reasons, such as economic hardship, coercion, or antipathy to other imperialist powers. Collaboration is a recursive process where two or more people or organizations work together toward an intersection of common goals — for example an intellectual Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude [5]
Japan's sovereignty over Korea and Formosa, in the first half of the 20th century, was recognized by international agreements — the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) and the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty (1910) — and they were considered at the time to be integral parts of the Japanese Empire. Sovereignty is the exclusive Right to control a Government, a country, a people or oneself Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. The Treaty of Shimonoseki ( Japanese: 下関条約 "Shimonoseki Jōyaku") known as the Treaty of Maguan ( in China was signed at Year 1895 ( MDCCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty was signed on August 22, 1910 by the representatives of the Korean and Japanese Imperial Governments and was Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting However, the legality of these treaties is in question,[6] as the native populations were not consulted, there was armed resistance to Japan's annexations, and war crimes may also be committed during civil wars. A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state
Background
Japanese military culture and imperialism
Main articles: Militarism-Socialism in Showa Japan, Japanese militarism, Eugenics in Showa Japan, Xenophobia in Showa Japan
Military culture, especially during Japan's imperialist phase had great bearing on the conduct of the Japanese military before and during World War II. Japanese Militarism-Socialism, sometimes also referred to as "Japanese right socialism", "Shōwa Nationalism" or Japanese fascism, refers to a refers to the Ideology in the Empire of Japan that Militarism should dominate the political and social life of the nation and that the strength of the military is Xenophobia in Japan, including attacks against Western foreigners and their Japanese friends by ordinary citizens rose in the 1930s under the influence of Japanese military-political refers to the Ideology in the Empire of Japan that Militarism should dominate the political and social life of the nation and that the strength of the military is World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including
Centuries previously, the samurai of Japan had been taught unquestioning obedience to their lords, as well as to be fearless in battle. is the term for the military nobility of Pre-industrial Japan. The ( were powerful territorial lords who ruled most of Japan from their vast hereditary land holdings After the Meiji Restoration and the collapse of the Tokugawa Shogunate, the Emperor became the focus of military loyalty. The, also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, or Renewal, was a chain of events that led to enormous changes in Japan 's political and social structure The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the, and the, was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the Shoguns of The of Japan is the country's Monarch. He is the head of the Japanese Imperial Family. During the so-called "Age of Empire" in the late 19th century, Japan followed the lead of other world powers in developing an empire, pursuing that objective aggressively. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar
As with other imperial powers, Japanese popular culture became increasingly jingoistic through the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century. Jingoism is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as "extreme Patriotism in the form of aggressive foreign policy" The rise of Japanese nationalism was seen partly in the adoption of Shinto as a state religion from 1890, including its entrenchment in the education system. Japanese nationalism refers to the Japanese version of Nationalism, and encompasses a broad range of ideas and sentiments entertained by the Japanese people is the native religion of Japan and was once its State religion. A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially Year 1890 ( MDCCCXC) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Shinto held the Emperor to be divine because he was deemed to be a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu. An emperor (from the Latin " Imperator " is a (male Monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an Empire or another type of or is in Japanese mythology a sun goddess and perhaps the most important Shinto. This provided justification for the requirement that the emperor and his representatives be obeyed without question.
Victory in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) signified Japan's rise to the status of a major military power. The First Sino-Japanese War ( 日清戦争 Romaji: Nisshin Sensō ( 1 August 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a war fought between
Unlike the other major powers, Japan did not sign the Geneva Convention — which stipulates the humane treatment of civilians and POWs — until after World War II. The Geneva Conventions consist of four Treaties formulated in Geneva, Switzerland, that set the standards for International law for humanitarian Nevertheless, an Imperial Proclamation (1894) stated that Japanese soldiers should make every effort to win the war without violating international law. According to historian Yuki Tanaka, Japanese forces during the First Sino-Japanese War, released 1,790 Chinese prisoners without harm, once they signed an agreement not to take up arms against Japan again. [7] After the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), all 79,367 Russian Empire prisoners were released, and were paid for labour performed, in accordance with the Hague Convention. The Russo-Japanese War (日露戦争 Romaji: Nichi-Ro Sensō Русско-японская война Russko-Yaponskaya Voyna;, 10 February 1904 – 5 September The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya [8] Similarly the behaviour of the Japanese military in World War I (1914-18) was at least as humane as that of other militaries. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All
The events of the 1930s and 1940s
By the late 1930s, the rise of militarism in Japan created at least superficial similarities between the wider Japanese military culture and that of Nazi Germany's elite military personnel, such as those in the Waffen-SS. The 1930s were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The Waffen-SS ( German for "Armed SS" literally "Weapons SS" was the Combat arm of the Schutzstaffel ("Protective Squadron" Japan also had a military secret police force, known as the Kempeitai, which resembled the Nazi Gestapo in its role in annexed and occupied countries. Secret police (sometimes political police) are a Police agency which operates in Secrecy to maintain National security against internal The Kempeitai (Japanese 憲兵隊 "Corps of Law Soldiers" was the Military police arm of the Imperial Japanese Army from 1881 to 1945 The ( contraction of ge heime Sta ats' po' lizei: "Secret State Police" was the official Secret police of Nazi Germany
As in other dictatorships, irrational brutality, hatred and fear became commonplace. Perceived failure, or insufficient devotion to the Emperor would attract punishment, frequently of the physical kind. In the military, officers would assault and beat men under their command, who would pass the beating on to lower ranks, all the way down. In POW camps, this meant prisoners received the worst beatings of all. [9]
The crimes
Because of the sheer scale of suffering caused by the Japanese military during the 1930s and 1940s, it is often compared to the military of Nazi Germany during 1933–45. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Much of the controversy regarding Japan's role in World War II revolves around the death rates of prisoners of war and civilians under Japanese occupation. The historian Chalmers Johnson has written that:
- It may be pointless to try to establish which World War Two Axis aggressor, Germany or Japan, was the more brutal to the peoples it victimised. Chalmers Ashby Johnson (born 1931 is an American Author and Professor emeritus of the University of California San Diego. The Axis powers also known as the Axis alliance Axis nations Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those Countries The Germans killed six million Jews and 20 million Russians [i. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ e. Soviet citizens]; the Japanese slaughtered as many as 30 million Filipinos, Malays, Vietnamese, Cambodians, Indonesians and Burmese, at least 23 million of them ethnic Chinese. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP British Malaya loosely described a set of states on the Malay Peninsula that were colonized by the British from the 18th and the 19th until the 20th century Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially The Kingdom of Cambodia ( formerly known as Kampuchea (, transliterated: Preăh Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchea) is a country in South East The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. Both nations looted the countries they conquered on a monumental scale, though Japan plundered more, over a longer period, than the Nazis. Both conquerors enslaved millions and exploited them as forced labourers — and, in the case of the Japanese, as [forced] prostitutes for front-line troops. Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations especially in modern or early modern history in which people are employed against their will Comfort women is a Euphemism for women forced into Prostitution and Sexual slavery for Japanese military brothels during World War If you were a Nazi prisoner of war from Britain, America, Australia, New Zealand or Canada (but not Russia) you faced a 4% chance of not surviving the war; [by comparison] the death rate for Allied POWs held by the Japanese was nearly 30%. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page [10]
According to the findings of the Tokyo Tribunal, the death rate among POWs from Asian countries, held by Japan was 27. 1%. [11] The death rate of Chinese POWs was much larger because — under a directive ratified on August 5, 1937 by Emperor Hirohito — the constraints of international law on treatment of those prisoners was removed. also known as, (April 29 1901 – January 7 1989 was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order reigning from December 25 1926 until his death [12] Only 56 Chinese POWs were released after the surrender of Japan. The surrender of Japan in August 1945 brought World War II to a close [13]
Allied soldiers in Pacific and Asian theatres were guilty of the same "cruelty and callous disregard for civilized norms" as Japanese soldiers, according to historian Jeff Kingston, referring to the treatment of POWs, among other issues. The Pacific War was the part of World War II —and preceding conflicts—that took place in the Pacific Ocean, its islands and in East Asia, between [14] Kingston quoted documentary film makers Jonathan Lewis and Ben Steele, who said: "the impression of the war as a history of Japanese savagery alone has been eroded by the growing body of evidence of Allied brutality. Allied war crimes were violations of the Laws of war committed by the Allies of World War II against civilian populations or military personnel of the Axis The issue here is less whether the two sides were as bad as each other, but whether they had more in common than was ever thought at the time. . . "[15]
Mass killings
R. J. Rummel, a professor of political science at the University of Hawaii, states that between 1937 and 1945, the Japanese military murdered from nearly 3,000,000 to over 10,000,000 people, most probably 6,000,000 Chinese, Indonesians, Koreans, Filipinos, and Indochinese, among others, including Western prisoners of war. Rudolph Joseph Rummel (born October 21, 1932) is Professor emeritus of Political science at the University of Hawaii. The University of Hawaii, formally the University of Hawaii System and popularly known as UH, is a public co-educational college and university system that confers Indochina, or the Indochinese Peninsula, is a region in Southeast Asia. This democide was due to a morally bankrupt political and military strategy, military expediency and custom, and national culture. Definition According to Rummel Genocide has three different meanings "[16] According to Rummel, in China alone, during 1937-45, approximately 3. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National 9 million Chinese were killed, mostly civilians, as a direct result of the Japanese operations and 10. 2 millions in the course of the war. [17]
The most infamous incident during this period was the Nanking Massacre of 1937-38, when, according to the findings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, the Japanese Army massacred as many as 430,000 civilians and prisoners of war, although the accepted figure is somewhere in the hundreds of thousands. Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [18] Similar crime was the Changjiao massacre. The Changjiao massacre ( Chinese:厂窖惨案 was a massacre aimed at Chinese Civilians by the Japanese China Expeditionary Army In Southeast Asia, the Manila massacre, resulted in the deaths of 100,000 civilians in the Philippines and in the Sook Ching massacre, between 25,000 and 50,000 ethnic Chinese in Singapore were taken to beaches and massacred. The Manila massacre refers to the February 1945 atrocities conducted against Filipino civilians in Manila, Philippines by retreating Japanese The Sook Ching massacre (肅清大屠殺 was a systematic Extermination of perceived hostile elements among the Chinese in Singapore by the Japanese military
Historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta claims that the "Three Alls Policy" (Sankō Sakusen) -- a scorched earth strategy used by Japanese forces in China in 1942-45, and sanctioned by Hirohito himself, was in itself responsible for the deaths of "more than 2. The Three Alls Policy (三光作戦 Sankō Sakusen;) was a Japanese Scorched earth policy adopted in China during World War II, the three alls A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method (possibly more often referred to as a tactic but this is not entirely correct as there is a difference between also known as, (April 29 1901 – January 7 1989 was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order reigning from December 25 1926 until his death 7 million" Chinese civilians.
Experiments on humans and biological warfare
Special Japanese military units conducted experiments on civilians and POWs in China. One of the most infamous was Unit 731. was a covert biological and Chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during Victims were subjected to vivisection without anesthesia, amputations, and were used to test biological weapons, among other experiments. Biological warfare (BW — known as a germ warfare, biological weapons and bioweaponry — is the use of any Pathogen ( Bacterium Anesthesia was not used because it was considered to affect results. In some victims, animal blood was injected into their bodies.
- To determine the treatment of frostbite, prisoners were taken outside in freezing weather and left with exposed arms, periodically drenched with water until frozen solid. The arm was later amputated; the doctor would repeat the process on the victim’s upper arm to the shoulder. After both arms were gone, the doctors moved on to the legs until only a head and torso remained. The victim was then used for plague and pathogens experiments. [19]
According to GlobalSecurity. org, the experiments carried out by Unit 731 alone caused 3,000 deaths. [20] Furthermore, "tens of thousands, and perhaps as many 200,000, Chinese died of bubonic plague, cholera, anthrax and other diseases. . . ", resulting from the use of biological warfare.
One of the most notorious cases of human experimentation occurred in Japan itself. At least nine out of 12 crew members survived the crash of a U.S. Army Air Forces B-29 bomber on Kyūshū, on May 5, 1945. The United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF) was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II. or Kyushu is the third-largest Island of Japan and most southwesterly of its four main islands. The bomber's commander was sent to Tokyo for interrogation, while the other survivors were taken to the anatomy department of Kyushu University, at Fukuoka, where they were subjected to vivisection and/or killed. abbreviated to, is one of Japan 's most prestigious national universities and the largest public university on the island of Kyūshū. is the capital city of Fukuoka Prefecture and is situated on the northern shore of the island of Kyūshū in Japan, across [21] On March 11, 1948, 30 people including several doctors were brought to trial by the Allied war crimes tribunal. Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Charges of cannibalism were dropped, but 23 people were found guilty of vivisection and/or wrongful removal of body parts. Five were sentenced to death, four to life imprisonment, and the rest to shorter terms. In 1950, the military governor of Japan, General Douglas MacArthur, commuted all of the death sentences and significantly reduced most of the prison terms. General MacArthur redirects here for other meanings see General MacArthur (disambiguation. All of those convicted in relation to the university vivisection were free by 1958.
In 2006, former IJN medical officer Akira Makino stated that he was ordered — as part of his training — to carry out vivisection on about 30 civilian prisoners in the Philippines between December 1944 and February 1945. was a former medic in the Imperial Japanese Navy who in 2006 became the first Japanese ex-soldier to admit to the experiments conducted on human beings in the [22] The surgery included amputations. [23]
Use of chemical weapons
See also: Changde chemical weapon attack
According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno, Emperor Hirohito authorized by specific orders (rinsanmei) the use of chemical weapons in China. The Changde chemical weapon attack refers to the use of chemical and biological weapons by Japan during the Battle of Changde in the [24] For example, during the Battle of Wuhan from August to October 1938, the Emperor authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions, despite Article 171 of the Versailles Peace Treaty and a resolution adopted by the League of Nations on May 14, condemning the use of poison gas by Japan. The Battle of Wuhan ( popularly known to Chinese as the Defense of Wuhan ( and to the Japanese as the Invasion of Wuhan ( Japanese The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 Events 1264 - Battle of Lewes: Henry III of England is captured in France making Simon de Montfort the
In 2004, Yoshimi and Yuki Tanaka discovered in the Australian National archives documents showing that cyanide gas was tested on Australian and Dutch prisoners in November 1944 on Kai islands (Indonesia). [25]
Preventable famine
Deaths caused by the diversion of resources to the Japanese military in occupied countries are also regarded as war crimes by many people. Millions of civilians in southern Asia — especially Vietnam and the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia), both of which were major rice-growing countries — died during a preventable famine in 1944–45. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially See http//enwikipediaorg/wiki/WikipediaFootnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the tags and the template below Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [26] (See, for example, the articles on the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 and Japanese occupation of Indonesia. The Vietnamese Famine of 1945 ( Vietnamese: Nạn đói Ất Dậu - Famine of the Ất Dậu Year) was a Famine that occurred in northern Imperial Japan occupied Indonesia during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of War in 1945 )
Torture of POWs
Japanese imperial forces are also reported to have utilized widespread use of torture on prisoners, usually in an effort to gather military intelligence quickly. [27] Tortured prisoners were often later executed. A former Japanese Army officer who served in China, Uno Shintaro, stated:
- The major means of getting intelligence was to extract information by interrogating prisoners. Torture was an unavoidable necessity. Murdering and burying them follows naturally. You do it so you won't be found out. I believed and acted this way because I was convinced of what I was doing. We carried out our duty as instructed by our masters. We did it for the sake of our country. From our filial obligation to our ancestors. On the battlefield, we never really considered the Chinese humans. When you're winning, the losers look really miserable. We concluded that the Yamato [i.e. Japanese] race was superior. The are the dominant native Ethnic group of Japan. It is a term that came to be used around the late 19th century to distinguish the residents of the Mainland [28]
In the Philippines, a favorite technique of Japanese torturers was electrical shocks from an automobile battery, administered with clips attached to the nose and testicles of prisoners.
Cannibalism
Many written reports and testimonies collected by the Australian War Crimes Section of the Tokyo tribunal, and investigated by prosecutor William Webb (the future Judge-in-Chief), indicate that Japanese personnel in many parts of Asia and the Pacific committed acts of cannibalism against Allied prisoners of war. Sir William Flood Webb KBE ( 21 January 1887 &ndash 11 August 1972) was a judge of the Supreme Court of Queensland and Cannibalism (from Spanish es ''caníbal'' in connection with cannibalism among the Antillean Caribs, also called anthropophagy (from Greek ἄνθρωπος In many cases this was inspired by ever-increasing Allied attacks on Japanese supply lines, and the death and illness of Japanese personnel as a result of hunger. However, according to historian Yuki Tanaka: "cannibalism was often a systematic activity conducted by whole squads and under the command of officers". [29] This frequently involved murder for the purpose of securing bodies. For example, an Indian POW, Havildar Changdi Ram, testified that: "[on November 12, 1944] the Kempeitai beheaded [an Allied] pilot. For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British Havildar was the Military 'In Charge' of a Fort during the times of Maratha Empire. I saw this from behind a tree and watched some of the Japanese cut flesh from his arms, legs, hips, buttocks and carry it off to their quarters. . . They cut it small pieces and fried it. "[30]
In some cases, flesh was cut from living people: another Indian POW, Lance Naik Hatam Ali (later a citizen of Pakistan), testified that in New Guinea:
- the Japanese started selecting prisoners and every day one prisoner was taken out and killed and eaten by the soldiers. Lance Naik (L/Nk was the equivalent rank to Lance Corporal in the British Indian Army, ranking below Naik. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and I personally saw this happen and about 100 prisoners were eaten at this place by the Japanese. The remainder of us were taken to another spot 50 miles [80 km] away where 10 prisoners died of sickness. At this place, the Japanese again started selecting prisoners to eat. Those selected were taken to a hut where their flesh was cut from their bodies while they were alive and they were thrown into a ditch where they later died. [31]
Perhaps the most senior officer convicted of cannibalism was Lt Gen. Yoshio Tachibana, who with 11 other Japanese personnel was tried in relation to the execution of U. S. Navy airmen, and the cannibalism of at least one of them, in August 1944, on Chichi Jima, in the Bonin Islands. ChichijimaportJPG|right|250px|thumb|Futami Harbor the port at Chichi-jima]] formerly known as Peel Island, is the largest Island in the Ogasawara archipelago They were beheaded on Tachibana's orders. As military and international law did not specifically deal with cannibalism, they were tried for murder and "prevention of honorable burial". Tachibana was sentenced to death. [32]
Forced labor
The Japanese military's use of forced labor, by Asian civilians and POWs also caused many deaths. During most of the history of the country the practice of slavery in Japan involved only indigenous Japanese as the export and import of slaves was significantly restricted Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations especially in modern or early modern history in which people are employed against their will According to a joint study by historians including Zhifen Ju, Mitsuyoshi Himeta, Toru Kubo and Mark Peattie, more than 10 million Chinese civilians were mobilized by the Kōa-in (Japanese Asia Development Board) for forced labour. The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere ( Kyūjitai: 大東亞共榮圈 Shinjitai: ja 大東亜共栄圏 Dai-tō-a Kyōeiken) was a concept [33] More than 100,000 civilians and POWs died in the construction of the Burma-Siam Railway. The Burma Railway, also known also as the Death Railway, the Thailand-Burma Railway and similar names is a 415 km (258 mile railway between [34]
The U. S. Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between four and 10 million romusha (Japanese: "manual laborer"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. Java (Jawa is an Island of Indonesia and the site of its Capital city Jakarta. were Forced laborers during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia in World War II. [35] About 270,000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia. Only 52,000 were repatriated to Java, meaning that there was a death rate of 80%.
According to historian Akira Fujiwara, Emperor Hirohito personally ratified the decision to remove the constraints of international law (Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)) on the treatment of Chinese prisoners of war in the directive of 5 August 1937. also known as, (April 29 1901 – January 7 1989 was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order reigning from December 25 1926 until his death The Hague Conventions were international treaties negotiated at the First and Second Peace Conferences at The Hague, Netherlands in 1899 and Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia. Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This notification also advised staff officers to stop using the term "prisoners of war". [36] The Geneva Convention exempted POWs of sergeant rank or higher from manual labour, and stipulated that prisoners performing work should be provided with extra rations and other essentials. Sergeant is a rank used in some form by most militaries police forces and other uniformed organizations around the world However, Japan was not a signatory to the Geneva Convention at the time, and Japanese forces did not follow the convention. During World War II, such rules were largely respected in German POW camps, except in the case of Soviet POWs. After the war the Allies proceeded to for years use millions of Germans for forced labor, see Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union and Eisenhower and German POWs. Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union was considered by the Soviet Union to be part of German War reparations for the damage inflicted by Nazi Germany Canadian Novelist James Bacque has alleged that US General Dwight '''Eisenhower''' oversaw the deaths by starvation or exposure of one million German
Comfort women
The terms "comfort women" (慰安婦 ianpu?) (or "military comfort women" (従軍慰安婦 jongun-ianpu?) are euphemisms for women in Japanese military brothels in occupied countries, many of whom were recruited by force or deception, and regard themselves as having been sexually assaulted and/or sex slaves. Comfort women is a Euphemism for women forced into Prostitution and Sexual slavery for Japanese military brothels during World War A euphemism is a substitution of an agreeable or less offensive expression in place of one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the listener or in the case of doublespeak For the 2008 film of this name see The Brothel. For the television series of this name see Cathouse The Series. Sexual assault is any Assault of a sexual nature on another person Sexual slavery refers to the organised coercion of persons into various different sexual practices forced Prostitution single-owner sexual slavery [37]
In 1992, historian Yoshiaki Yoshimi published material based on his research in archives at Japan's National Institute for Defense Studies. (1946-)is a professor of modern Japanese history at Chuo University in Tokyo Yoshimi claimed that there was a direct link between imperial institutions such as the Kôa-in and "comfort stations". When Yoshimi's findings were published in the Japanese news media on January 12, 1993, they caused a sensation and forced the government, represented by Chief Cabinet Secretary Kato Koichi, to acknowledge some of the facts that same day. Kōichi Katō is the name of two House of Representatives of Japan 's members On January 17, Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa presented formal apologies for the suffering of the victims, during a trip in South Korea. was a Japanese Politician and the 78th Prime Minister from November 5, 1991 to August 9, 1993. On July 6 and August 4, the Japanese government issued two statements by which it recognized that "Comfort stations were operated in response to the request of the military of the day", "The Japanese military was, directly or indirectly, involved in the establishment and management of the comfort stations and the transfer of comfort women" and that the women were "recruited in many cases against their own will through coaxing and coercion". [38]
The controversy was re-ignited on March 1, 2007, when Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe mentioned suggestions that a U.S. House of Representatives committee would call on the Japanese Government to "apologize for and acknowledge" the role of the Japanese Imperial military in wartime sex slavery. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The United States House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. However, Abe denied that it applied to comfort stations. "There is no evidence to prove there was coercion, nothing to support it. "[39] Abe's comments provoked negative reactions overseas. For example, a New York Times editorial on March 6 said:[40]
- These were not commercial brothels. Force, explicit and implicit, was used in recruiting these women. What went on in them was serial rape, not prostitution. The Japanese Army’s involvement is documented in the government’s own defense files. A senior Tokyo official more or less apologized for this horrific crime in 1993. . . Yesterday, he grudgingly acknowledged the 1993 quasi apology, but only as part of a pre-emptive declaration that his government would reject the call, now pending in the United States Congress, for an official apology. America isn’t the only country interested in seeing Japan belatedly accept full responsibility. Korea and China are also infuriated by years of Japanese equivocations over the issue.
The same day, veteran soldier Yasuji Kaneko admitted to The Washington Post that the women "cried out, but it didn't matter to us whether the women lived or died. was a soldier of the Imperial Japanese Army during the events of the Pacific War and claimed to be part of the notorious human experimentation unit Unit 731 The Washington Post is the largest and most circulated Newspaper in Washington D We were the emperor's soldiers. Whether in military brothels or in the villages, we raped without reluctance. "[41]
On April 17, 2007, Yoshimi and another historian, Hirofumi Hayashi, announced the discovery, in the archives of the Tokyo Trials, of seven official documents suggesting that Imperial military forces, such as the Tokeitai (naval secret police), directly coerced women to work in frontline brothels in China, Indochina and Indonesia. Events 69 - After the First Battle of Bedriacum, Vitellius becomes Roman Emperor. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The was the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Military police, they were equivalent to the Imperial Japanese Army 's Kempeitai. These documents were initially made public at the war crimes trial. In one of these, a lieutenant is quoted as confessing having organized a brothel and having used it himself. Another source refers to Tokeitai members having arrested women on the streets, and after enforced medical examinations, putting them in brothels. [42]
On 12 May 2007, journalist Taichiro Kaijimura announced the discovery of 30 Netherland government documents submitted to the Tokyo tribunal as evidence of a forced massed prostitution incident in 1944 in Magelang. Events 1191 - Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Magelang is one of the largest cities of the 1130 km² Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia and also the largest town in the Kedu Plain [43]
In other cases, some victims from East Timor testified they were forced when they were not old enough to have started menstruating and repeatedly raped by Japanese soldiers. East Timor, also known as Timor-Leste (officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste) is a country in Southeast Asia. [44]
A Dutch-Indonesian "comfort woman", Jan Ruff-O'Hearn (now resident in Australia), who gave evidence to the U. S. committee, said the Japanese Government had failed to take responsibility for its crimes, that it did not want to pay compensation to victims and that it wanted to rewrite history. [45] Ruff-O'Hearn said that she had been raped "day and night" for three months by Japanese soldiers when she was 21.
To this day, only one Japanese woman published her testimony. This was done in 1971, when a former "comfort woman" forced to work for showa soldiers in Taiwan, published her memoirs under the pseudonym of Suzuko Shirota. [46]
There are different theories on the breakdown of the comfort women's place of origin. While some sources claim that the majority of the women were from Japan, others, including Yoshimi, argue as many as 200,000 women,[47] mostly from Korea and China, and some other countries such as the Philippines, Taiwan, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, Netherlands,[48] and Australia[49] were forced to engage in sexual activity. [50]
On 26 June 2007, the U. S. House of representatives Foreign Affairs Committee passed a resolution asking that Japan "should acknowledge, apologize and accept historical responsibility in a clear and unequivocal manner for its military's coercion of women into sexual slavery during the war". [51] On 30 July 2007, the House of Representatives passed the resolution, while Shinzo Abe said this decision was "regrettable". [52]
Looting
 |
The neutrality and factual accuracy of this article are disputed. Yamashita's gold, also referred to as the Yamashita treasure, is the name given to the alleged Loot stolen in Southeast Asia by Japanese forces Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page. (February 2008) |
Many historians state that violence by Japanese personnel was closely tied to looting. For example, Sterling and Peggy Seagrave, in a 2003 book on "Yamashita's Gold" — secret repositories of loot from across Southeast Asia, in the Philippines — argued that the theft was organized on a massive scale, either by yakuza gangsters such as Yoshio Kodama, or by officials at the behest of Emperor Hirohito, who wanted to ensure that as many of the proceeds as possible went to the government. Sterling Seagrave is author of The Soong Dynasty, The Marcos Dynasty, Gold Warriors and numerous other books which address unofficial and clandestine aspects Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP History Origins Despite their notoriety in modern Japan the precise origin of the Yakuza is still somewhat the subject of debate For other uses see Gangsta. A gangster is a criminal who is or at some point almost invariably becomes a member of a persistent violent Yoshio Kodama (児玉誉士夫 Kodama Yoshio; February 18, 1911 - January 17, 1984) was a prominent figure in the rise of organized also known as, (April 29 1901 – January 7 1989 was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order reigning from December 25 1926 until his death [53] The Seagraves allege that Hirohito appointed his brother, Prince Chichibu, to head a secret organisation called Kin no yuri (Golden Lily) for this purpose. Background and Family Born at Aoyama Detached Palace in Tokyo, the second son of Crown Prince Yoshihito (later Emperor Taishō) and Crown Princess
Post-1945 reactions
Soon after the war, the Allied powers indicted 25 individuals as Class-A war criminals, and 5,700 individuals were indicted as Class-B or Class-C war criminals by Allied criminal trials. Of these, 984 were initially condemned to death, 920 were actually executed, 475 received life sentences, 2,944 received some prison terms, 1,018 were acquitted, and 279 were not sentenced or not brought to trial. These numbers included 178 ethnic Taiwanese and 148 ethnic Koreans. [54] The Class-A charges were all tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, also known as "the Tokyo Trials". Other courts were formed in many different places in Asia and the Pacific.
The Tokyo Trials
The International Military Tribunal for the Far East was formed to try accused people in Japan itself.
High ranking officers who were tried included Koichi Kido and Sadao Araki. Marquis ( July 18 1889 – April 6 1977) served as Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal from 1940 to 1945 and was the closest Baron was a general in the Imperial Japanese Army before World War II. Three former (unelected) prime ministers: Koki Hirota, Hideki Tojo, and Kuniaki Koiso were convicted of Class-A war crimes. The is the usual English-language term used for the Head of government of Japan, although the literal translation of the Japanese name for the office is Prime was a Japanese Diplomat, Politician and the 32nd Prime Minister of Japan from March 9, 1936 to February 2, 1937 was a general in the Imperial Japanese Army, Governor-General of Korea and 41st Prime Minister of Japan from 22 July 1944 to 7 April Many military leaders were also convicted. Two people convicted as Class-A war criminals later served as ministers in post-war Japanese governments.
- Mamoru Shigemitsu served as foreign minister both during the war and in the post-war Hatoyama government. Mamoru Shigemitsu (重光 葵 July 29 1881 &ndash January 26, 1957) was the Japanese Minister of Foreign affairs at Ichirō Hatoyama (鳩山 一郎 Hatoyama Ichirō, born January 1 1883 in Tokyo died March 7 1959) was a Japanese
- Okinori Kaya was finance minister during the war and later served as justice minister in the government of Hayato Ikeda. Hayato Ikeda (池田 勇人 Ikeda Hayato; December 3, 1899 &ndash August 13, 1965) born in Takehara Hiroshima, was a However, these two had no direct connection to alleged war crimes committed by Japanese forces, and foreign governments never raised the issue when they were appointed.
Hirohito and all members of the imperial family implicated in the war such as Prince Chichibu, Prince Asaka, Prince Takeda and Prince Higashikuni were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by MacArthur, with the help of Bonner Fellers who allowed the major criminal suspects to coordinate their stories so that the Emperor would be spared from indictment. also known as, (April 29 1901 – January 7 1989 was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order reigning from December 25 1926 until his death Background and Family Born at Aoyama Detached Palace in Tokyo, the second son of Crown Prince Yoshihito (later Emperor Taishō) and Crown Princess The, were branches of the Japanese Imperial Family created from branches of the Fushimi-no-miya house was the 30th Prime Minister of Japan from 17 August 1945 to 9 October 1945 for a period of 54 days Bonner Frank Fellers (1896 - 1973 was a US Army officer who served during World War II as Military attaché and Psychological warfare director [55] Many historians criticize this decision. According to John Dower, "with the full support of MacArthur's headquarters, the prosecution functioned, in effect, as a defense team for the emperor"[56] and even Japanese activists who endorse the ideals of the Nuremberg and Tokyo charters, and who have labored to document and publicize the atrocities of the showa regime "cannot defend the American decision to exonerate the emperor of war responsibility and then, in the chill of the Cold war, release and soon afterwards openly embrace accused right-winged war criminals like the later prime minister Nobusuke Kishi. General MacArthur redirects here for other meanings see General MacArthur (disambiguation. Nobusuke Kishi (岸 信介 Kishi Nobusuke, November 13, 1896 &ndash August 7, 1987) was a Japanese Politician "[57] For Herbert Bix, "MacArthur's truly extraordinary measures to save Hirohito from trial as a war criminal had a lasting and profoundly distorting impact on Japanese understanding of the lost war. "[58]
Other trials
Between 1946–51, some 5,600 Japanese personnel were prosecuted in more than 2,200 trials outside Japan. Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January The judges presiding came from the United States, China, the United Kingdom, Australia, the Netherlands, France, the Soviet Union, New Zealand, India and the Philippines. A judge, or justice, is an Official who presides over a Court of law The United States of America —commonly referred to as the China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Additionally, the Chinese Communists also held a number of trials for Japanese personnel. The Communist Party of China ( CPC) ( also known as the Chinese Communist Party ( CCP) is the founding and ruling political party of the More than 4,400 Japanese personnel were convicted and about 1,000 were sentenced to death. The largest single trial was that of 93 Japanese personnel charged with the summary execution of more than 300 Allied POWs, in the Laha massacre (1942). A summary execution is a type of Extrajudicial punishment in which a person is killed on the spot without Trial. The Battle of Ambon occurred on the island of Ambon in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia on January 30 - February 3, 1942, during
The most prominent ethnic Korean convicted was Lieutenant General Hong Sa Ik, who orchestrated the organization of prisoner of war camps in south east Asia. Hong Sa-ik ( 4 March 1889 – 26 September 1946) was a Lieutenant general in the Imperial Japanese Army, and the top-ranking In 2006, the South Korean government "pardoned" 83 of the 148 convicted Korean war criminals. [59]
Official apologies
The Japanese government considers that the legal and moral positions in regard to war crimes are separate. Therefore, while maintaining that Japan violated no international law or treaties, Japanese governments have officially recognised the suffering which the Japanese military caused, and numerous apologies have been issued by the Japanese government. For example, Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama, in August 1995, stated that Japan "through its colonial rule and aggression, caused tremendous damage and suffering to the people of many countries, particularly to those of Asian nations", and he expressed his "feelings of deep remorse" and stated his "heartfelt apology". is a retired Japanese politician who served as the 81st Prime Minister of Japan from June 30, 1994 to January 11, 1996. Also, on September 29, 1972, Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka stated: "[t]he Japanese side is keenly conscious of the responsibility for the serious damage that Japan caused in the past to the Chinese people through war, and deeply reproaches itself. was a Japanese Politician and the 64th and 65th Prime Minister of Japan from July 7, 1972 to December "[60]
However, the official apologies are widely viewed as inadequate or only a symbolic exchange by many of the survivors of such crimes and/or the families of dead victims. On October 2006, while Prime Minister Shinzo Abe expressed an apology for the damage caused by its colonial rule and aggression, more than 80 Japanese lawmakers from his ruling party LDP paid visits to the Yasukuni Shrine. is a Shinto shrine located in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. It is dedicated to the Kami (spirits of Soldiers Many people aggrieved by Japanese war crimes also maintain that no apology has been issued for particular acts and/or that the Japanese government has merely expressed "regret" or "remorse". [61] On 2 March 2007, the issue was raised again by Japanese prime minister Shinzo Abe, in which he denied that the military had forced women into sexual slavery during World War II. He stated, "The fact is, there is no evidence to prove there was coercion. " Before he spoke, a group of Liberal Democratic Party lawmakers also sought to revise Yohei Kono's 1993 apology to former comfort women. [62][63] However, this provoked negative reaction from Asian and Western countries.
Some in Japan have asserted that what is being demanded is that the Japanese Prime Minister and/or the Emperor perform dogeza, in which an individual kneels and bows his head to the ground — a high form of apology in east Asian societies that Japan appears unwilling to do. Dogeza (土下座 literally to "sit down on the ground" is to sit directly on the ground and to prostrate oneself bowing while sitting [64] Some point to an act by German Chancellor Willy Brandt, who knelt at a monument to the Jewish victims of the Warsaw Ghetto, in 1970, as an example of a powerful and effective act of apology and reconciliation similar to dogeza, although not everyone agrees. The Head of government of Germany is called Chancellor (Kanzler Willy Brandt, born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm (18 December 1913 - 8 October 1992 was a German politician Chancellor of West Germany 1969&ndash1974 Warschauer Kniefall (German for " Warsaw Genuflection " refers to a gesture of humility and penance by social democratic Chancellor of The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest of the Jewish Ghettos located in the territory of General Government during World War II, established by Year 1970 ( MCMLXX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [65]
Citing Brandt's action as an example, John Borneman, associate professor of anthropology at Cornell,[66] states that, "an apology represents a non-material or purely symbolic exchange whereby the wrongdoer voluntarily lowers his own status as a person. " Borneman further states that once this type of apology is given, the injured party must forgive and seek reconciliation, or else the apology won't have any effect. The injured party may reject the apology for several reasons, one of which is to prevent reconciliation, because, "By keeping the memory of the wound alive, refusals prevent an affirmation of mutual humanity by instrumentalizing the power embedded in the status of a permanent victim. "[67]
Therefore, some argue that a nation's reluctance to accept the conciliatory gestures that Japan has made may be because that nation doesn't think that Japan has "lowered" itself enough to provide a sincere apology. On the other hand, others state their belief that that particular nation is choosing to reject reconciliation in pursuit of permanent "victimhood" status as a way to try to assert power over Japan. [68]
Compensation
There is a widespread perception that the Japanese government has not accepted the legal responsibility for compensation and, as a direct consequence of this denial, it has failed to compensate the individual victims of Japanese atrocities. In particular, a number of prominent human rights and women's rights organisations insist that Japan still has a moral and/or legal responsibility to compensate individual victims, especially the sex slaves conscripted by the Japanese military in occupied countries and known as comfort women. Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled Sexual slavery refers to the organised coercion of persons into various different sexual practices forced Prostitution single-owner sexual slavery Comfort women is a Euphemism for women forced into Prostitution and Sexual slavery for Japanese military brothels during World War
The Japanese government officially accepted the requirement for monetary compensation to victims of war crimes, as specified by the Potsdam Declaration. The Potsdam Declaration or the Proclamation Defining Terms for Japanese Surrender was a statement issued on July 26, 1945 by President of the The details of this compensation have been left to bilateral treaties with individual countries, except North Korea, because Japan recognises South Korea as the sole legitimate government of the Korean peninsula. North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. In the case of POWs from the western Allies, compensation was paid to the victims through the Red Cross. The Western Allies were the democracies and their colonial peoples within the broader coalition of Allies during World War II. The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is an International humanitarian movement with approximately 97 million volunteers worldwide who stated The total amount Japan paid was £4,500,000. The Pound Sterling ( symbol £; ISO code: GBP) subdivided into 100 pence (singular penny) is the Currency However, in a number of Asian countries, claims for compensation were either: abandoned for political reasons, or; paid by Japan, under the specific understanding that it would be used for individual compensation, but was not paid out to the victims by the governments concerned. Therefore a large number of individual victims in Asia received no compensation.
Therefore, the Japanese government's position is that the proper avenues for further claims are the governments of the respective claimants. As a result, every individual compensation claim brought to Japanese court has failed. Such was the case in regard to a British POW who was unsuccessful in an attempt to sue the Japanese government for additional money for compensation. As a result, the UK Government later paid additional compensation to all British POWs. There were complaints in Japan that the international media simply stated that the former POW was demanding compensation and failed to clarify that he was seeking further compensation, in addition to that paid previously by the Japanese government.
A small number of claims have also been brought in US courts, though these have also been rejected.
During the treaty negotiation with South Korea, the Japanese government proposed that it pay monetary compensation to individual Korean victims, in line with the payments to western POWs. The Korean government instead insisted that Japan pay money collectively to the Korean government, and that is what occurred. The South Korean government then used the funds for economic development. The content of the negotiations was not released by the Korean government until 2004, although it was public knowledge in Japan.
There are those that insist that because the governments of China and Taiwan abandoned their claims for monetary compensation, then the moral and/or legal responsibility for compensation belongs with these governments. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. Such critics also point out that even though these governments abandoned their claims, they signed treaties that recognised the transfer of Japanese colonial assets to the respective governments. Therefore, to claim that these governments received no compensation from Japan is incorrect, and they could have compensated individual victims from the proceeds of such transfers. However, others dispute that Japanese colonial assets in large proportion were built or stolen with extortion or force in occupied countries as artworks collected (or stolen) by Nazis during WWII throughout Europe.
The Japanese government, while admitting no legal responsibility for the so-called "comfort women", set up the Asian Women's Fund in 1995, which gives money to people who claim to have been forced into prostitution during the war. Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Though the organisation was established by the government, legally, it has been created such that it is an independent charity. The activities of the fund have been controversial in Japan, as well as with international organisations supporting the women concerned. [10] Some argue that such a fund is part of an ongoing refusal by the Japanese government to face up to its responsibilities, while others say that the Japanese government has long since finalised its responsibility to individual victims and is merely correcting the failures of the victims' own governments.
The reality is that without a sincere and unequivocal apology from the government of Japan, the majority of surviving Comfort Women refused to accept these funds. [69]
Intermediate compensation
The term "intermediate compensation" (or intermediary compensation) was applied to the removal and reallocation of Japanese industrial (particularly military-industrial) assets to Allied countries. It was conducted under the supervision of Allied occupation forces. At the end of World War II, Japan was occupied by the Allied Powers, led by the United States with contributions also from Australia, British This reallocation was referred to as "intermediate" because it did not amount to a final settlement by means of bilateral treaties, which settled all existing issues of compensation. By 1950, the assets reallocated amounted to 43,918 items of machinery, valued at ¥165,158,839 (in 1950 prices). The proportions in which the assets were distributed were: China, 54. 1%; the Netherlands, 11. 5%; the Philippines 19%, and; the United Kingdom, 15. 4%.
Compensation under the San Francisco Treaty
Compensation from Japanese overseas assets
Japanese overseas assets refers to all assets owned by the Japanese government, firms, organisation and private citizens, in colonised or occupied countries. Attending countries Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, Chile In accordance with Clause 14 of the San Francisco Treaty, Allied forces confiscated all Japanese overseas assets, except those in China, which were dealt with under Clause 21. It is considered that Korea was also entitled to the rights provided by Clause 21.
Japanese overseas assets in 1945 Country/region Value (1945, ¥15=US$1) Korea 70,256,000,000 Taiwan 42,542,000,000 North East China 146,532,000,000 North China 55,437,000,000 Central South China 36,718,000,000 Others 28,014,000,000 Total ¥379,499,000,000
Compensation to Allied POWs
Clause 16 of the San Francisco Treaty stated that Japan would transfer its assets and those of its citizens in countries which were at war with any of the Allied Powers or which were neutral, or equivalents, to the Red Cross, which would sell them and distribute the funds to former prisoners of war and their families. Accordingly, the Japanese government and private citizens paid out £4,500,000 to the Red Cross.
Allied territories occupied by Japan
Clause 14 of the treaty stated that Japan would enter into negotiations with Allied powers whose territories were occupied by Japan and suffered damage by Japanese forces, with a view to Japan compensating those countries for the damage.
Accordingly, the Philippines and South Vietnam received compensation in 1956 and 1959 respectively. Burma and Indonesia were not original signatories, but they later signed bilateral treaties in accordance with clause 14 of the San Francisco Treaty.
Japanese compensation to countries occupied during 1941-45 Country Amount in Yen Amount in US$ Date of treaty Burma 72,000,000,000 200,000,000 November 5, 1955 Philippines 198,000,000,000 550,000,000 May 9, 1956 Indonesia 80,388,000,000 223,080,000 January 20, 1958 Vietnam 14,400,000,000 38,000,000 May 13, 1959 Total ¥364,348,800,000 US$1,012,080,000
The last payment was made to the Philippines on July 22, 1976. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany) Year 1955 ( MCMLV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar) Events 1457 BC - Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 250 - Emperor Decius begins a widespread persecution of Christians in Rome. Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1497 - Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola. The year 1959 ( MCMLIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Godfrey of Bouillon is elected the first Defender of the Holy Sepulchre of The Kingdom of Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
Debate in Japan
There is a widespread perception, outside Japan, that there is a reluctance inside Japan to discuss such events and/or admit that there were war crimes. However, the controversial events of the Japanese imperial era are openly debated in the media, with the various political parties and ideological groups taking quite different positions. What differentiates Japan from Germany and Austria is that in Japan, there is no restriction to the freedom of speech in regard to this matter, while in Germany, Austria and some other European countries, Holocaust denial is a criminal offence. Holocaust denial is the claim that the Genocide of Jews during World War II —usually referred to as The Holocaust —did not occur in the
Until the 1970s, such debates were considered a fringe topic in the media. This article is about the Decade 1970-1979 For the Year 1970 see 1970. In the Japanese media, the opinions of the political centre and left tend to dominate the editorials of newspapers, while the right tend to dominate magazines. An editorial, leader (UK or leading article (UK is an article in a Newspaper or Magazine that expresses the opinion of the Editor Debates regarding war crimes were confined largely to the editorials of tabloid magazines where calls for the overthrow of "Imperialist America" and revived veneration of the Emperor coexisted with pornography. A tabloid is a Newspaper industry term which refers to a smaller newspaper format per spread to a weekly or semi-weekly alternative newspaper that focuses on local-interest American Empire is a term referring to the political economic military and cultural influence of the United States. In 1972, to commemorate the normalisation of relationship with China, Asahi Shimbun, a major liberal newspaper, ran a series on Japanese war crimes in China including the Nanking Massacre. The is the second most circulated out of the five national Newspapers in Japan; the other four are the Yomiuri Shimbun, the Mainichi Shimbun This opened the floodgates to debates which have continued ever since. The 1990s are generally considered to be the period in which such issues become truly mainstream, and incidents such as the Nanking Massacre, Yasukuni Shrine, comfort women, the accuracy of school history textbooks, and the validity of the Tokyo Trials were debated, even on television. The 1990s collectively refers to the years between and including 1990 and 1999 is a Shinto shrine located in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. It is dedicated to the Kami (spirits of Soldiers The Japanese history textbook controversies are about Government -approved History Textbooks used in the Secondary education ( Junior high
As the consensus of Japanese jurists is that Japanese forces did not technically commit violations of international law, many right wing elements in Japan have taken this to mean that war crimes trials were examples of victor's justice. Uyoku dantai (ja 右翼団体 lit "right wing groups" are Japanese nationalist right-wing groups The label " victor's justice " (in German,) to a situation in which they believe that a victorious nation is applying different rules to judge what is right They see those convicted of war crimes as "Martyrs of Shōwa" (昭和殉難者 Shōwa Junnansha?), Shōwa being the name given to the rule of Hirohito. This interpretation is vigorously contested by Japanese peace groups and the political left. In the past, these groups have tended to argue that the trials hold some validity, either under the Geneva Convention (even though Japan hadn't signed it), or under an undefined concept of international law or consensus. Alternatively, they have argued that, although the trials may not have been technically valid, they were still just, somewhat in line with popular opinion in the West and in the rest of Asia.
By the early 21st century, the revived interest in Japan's imperial past had brought new interpretations from a group which has been labelled both "new right" and "new left". This group points out that many acts committed by Japanese forces, including the Nanjing Incident (they generally do not use the word "massacre"), were violations of the Japanese military code. It is suggested that had war crimes tribunals been conducted by the post-war Japanese government, in strict accordance with Japanese military law, many of those who were accused would still have been convicted and executed. Therefore, the moral and legal failures in question were the fault of the Japanese military and the government, for not executing their constitutionally-defined duty.
The new right/new left also takes the view that the Allies committed no war crimes against Japan, because Japan was not a signatory to the Geneva Convention, and as a victors, the Allies had every right to demand some form of retribution, to which Japan consented in various treaties.
However, under the same logic, the new right/new left considers the killing of Chinese who were suspected of guerilla activity to be perfectly legal and valid, including some of those killed at Nanjing, for example. They also take the view that many Chinese civilian casualties resulted from the scorched earth tactics of the Chinese nationalists. A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method (possibly more often referred to as a tactic but this is not entirely correct as there is a difference between Though such tactics are arguably legal, the new right/new left takes the position that some of the civilian deaths caused by these scorched earth tactics are wrongly attributed to the Japanese military.
Similarly, they take the position that those who have attempted to sue the Japanese government for compensation have no legal and/or moral case.
The new right/new left also takes a less sympathetic view of Korean claims of victimhood, because prior to annexation by Japan, Korea was a tributary of the Qing Dynasty and, according to them, the Japanese colonisation, though undoubtedly harsh, was better than the previous rule in terms of human rights and economic development. A tributary is a Stream or River which flows into a mainstem (or parent river Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China
They also argue that, the Kantōgun (also known as the Kwantung Army) was at least partly culpable. The, also known as the Guandong Army ( 관동군 was an Army group of the Imperial Japanese Army in the early twentieth century Although the Kantōgun was nominally subordinate to the Japanese high command at the time, its leadership demonstrated significant self-determination, as shown by its involvement in the plot to assassinate Zhang Zuolin in 1928, and the Manchurian Incident of 1931, which led to the foundation of Manchukuo in 1932. Zhāng Zuòlín ( Traditional Chinese: 張作霖 Simplified Chinese: 张作霖, Pinyin: Zhāng Zuòlín Wade-Giles: Chang Tso-lin On September 18, 1931, near Mukden (now Shenyang) in southern Manchuria, a section of railroad owned by Japan 's South Manchuria Manchukuo (ja [[wikt満州国 満州国]] Manshūkoku lit "State of Manchuria " was a Puppet state in Manchuria and eastern Moreover, at that time, it was the official policy of the Japanese high command to confine the conflict to Manchuria. But in defiance of the high command, the Kantōgun invaded China proper, under the pretext of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident. The Marco Polo Bridge Incident ( 盧溝橋事變; also known as 七七事變 七七盧溝橋事變 or the Lugouqiao Incident) was a Battle between However, the Japanese government not only failed to court martial the officers responsible for these incidents, but it also accepted the war against China, and many of those who were involved were even promoted. (Some of the officers involved in the Nanking Massacre were also promoted. )
Whether or not Hirohito himself bears any responsibility for such failures is a sticking point between the new right and new left. Officially, the imperial constitution, adopted under Emperor Meiji, gave full powers to the Emperor. The (3 November 1852 — 30 July 1912 or Meiji the Great was the 122nd emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession reigning from 3 February Article 4 prescribed that "The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution" and article 11 prescribed that "The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and the Navy".
For historian Akira Fujiwara, the thesis that the emperor as an organ of responsibility could not reverse cabinet decisions is a myth (shinwa) fabricated after the war. [70] Others argue that Hirohito deliberately styled his rule in the manner of the British constitutional monarchy, and he always accepted the decisions and consenses reached by the high command. A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is According to this position, the moral and political failure rests primarily with the Japanese High Command and the Cabinet, most of whom were later convicted at the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal as class-A war criminals, apart all members of the imperial family such as prince Chichibu, prince Asaka, prince Higashikuni, prince Fushimi and prince Takeda. Background and Family Born at Aoyama Detached Palace in Tokyo, the second son of Crown Prince Yoshihito (later Emperor Taishō) and Crown Princess was the 30th Prime Minister of Japan from 17 August 1945 to 9 October 1945 for a period of 54 days The, were branches of the Japanese Imperial Family created from branches of the Fushimi-no-miya house
Controversial reinterpretations outside Japan
Some activists outside Japan are also attempting controversial reinterpretations of Japanese imperialism. For example, the views of a South Korean ex-military officer and right wing commentator, Ji Man-Won, have caused controversy in Korea and further abroad. South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː Ji has praised Japan for "modernising" Korea, and has said of women forced to become sex slaves: "most of the old women claiming to be former comfort women, or sex slaves to the Japanese military during World War II, are fakes. The idea of modernization comes from a view of societies as having a standard Evolutionary pattern as described in the Social evolutionism theories Comfort women is a Euphemism for women forced into Prostitution and Sexual slavery for Japanese military brothels during World War " In East Asia, such views are widely regarded as being offensive, libellous of the women concerned, and as representing historical revisionism in a similar fashion to the Holocaust deniers of Europe. For the critical reexamination of historical facts see Historical revisionism. Holocaust denial is the claim that the Genocide of Jews during World War II —usually referred to as The Holocaust —did not occur in the
Later investigations
As with investigations of Nazi war criminals, official investigations and inquiries are still ongoing. During the 1990s, the South Korean government started investigating some individuals who had allegedly become wealthy while collaborating with the Japanese military. The 1990s collectively refers to the years between and including 1990 and 1999 South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː In South Korea, it is also alleged that, during the political climate of the Cold War, many such individuals and/or their associates or relatives were able to acquire influence with the wealth they had acquired collaborating with the Japanese and assisted in the covering-up, or non-investigation, of war crimes in order not to incriminate themselves. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the With the wealth they had amassed during the years of collaboration, they were able to further benefit their families by obtaining higher education for their relatives.
Non-government bodies and individuals have also undertaken their own investigations. For example, in 2005, a South Korean freelance journalist, Jung Soo-woong, located in Japan some descendants of people involved in the 1895 assassination of Empress Myeongseong (Queen Min), the last Empress of Korea. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1895 ( MDCCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year AssassiNation is the sixth album by Krisiun, released in 2006 on Century Media. Empress Myeongseong ( October 19, 1851 &ndash October 8, 1895) was the first official wife of King Gojong, the 26th king of the Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. The assassination was conducted by the Dark Ocean Society, perhaps under the auspices of the Japanese government, because of the Empress's involvement in attempts to reduce Japanese influence in Korea. The was an influential ultranationalist group and secret society active in Meiji, Taishō and early Shōwa period Japan. Jung recorded the apologies of the individuals.
As these investigations continue more evidence is discovered each day. It has been claimed that the Japanese government intentionally destroyed the reports on Korean comfort women. [71][72] Some have cited Japanese inventory logs and employee sheets on the battlefield as evidence for this claim. For example, one of the names on the list was of a comfort woman who stated she was forced to be a prostitute by the Japanese. She was classified as a nurse along with at least a dozen other verified comfort women who were not nurses or secretaries. Currently, the South Korean government is looking into the hundreds of other names on these lists. [73]
Sensitive information regarding the Japanese occupation of Korea is often difficult to obtain. Many argue that this is due to the fact that the Government of Japan has gone out of its way to cover up many incidents that would otherwise lead to severe international criticism. [74][75][76] On their part, Koreans have often expressed their abhorrence of Human experimentations carried out by the Imperial Japanese Army where people often became fodder as human test subjects in such macabre experiments as liquid nitrogen tests or biological weapons development programs (See articles: Unit 731 and Shiro Ishii). Human subject research (HSR or human subject use (HSU involves the use of human beings as research subjects The Imperial Japanese Army ( IJA) ( Kyūjitai: 大日本帝國陸軍 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国陸軍 Romaji: Dai-Nippon Teikoku Liquid nitrogen (liquid density at the Triple point is 0707 g/mL is the liquid produced industrially in large quantities by Fractional distillation of Biological warfare (BW — known as a germ warfare, biological weapons and bioweaponry — is the use of any Pathogen ( Bacterium was a covert biological and Chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during was a Microbiologist and the Lieutenant general of Unit 731, a Biological warfare unit of the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second Though some vivid and disturbing testimonies have survived, they are largely denied by the Japanese Government even to this day.
Major incidents
- Alexandra Hospital massacre
- Andaman Islands
- Banka Island Massacre
- Batu Lintang POW/internment camp
- Bataan Death March
- Burma Railway
- Changjiao Massacre
- Changteh Chemical Weapon Attack
- Comfort women
- Hell ships
- Japanese human experimentations
- Kaimingye germ weapon attack
- Kalagon Massacre
- Laha Massacre
- Manila Massacre
- Nanking Massacre
- Parit Sulong Massacre
- Panjiayu Massacre
- Sandakan Death Marches
- Sook Ching Massacre
- Three Alls Policy
- Tol Plantation Massacre
- Unit 100
- Unit 200
- Unit 516
- Unit 543
- Unit 731
- Unit 773
- Unit Ei 1644
- Unit 1855
- Unit 2646
- Unit 8604
- Unit 9420
- Wake Island massacre
- War crimes in Manchukuo
See also
- Anti-Japanese sentiment
- Command responsibility
- Japan-China Joint Declaration On Building a Partnership of Friendship and Cooperation for Peace and Development
- Japanese fascism
- Japanese militarism
- Japanese nationalism
- Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China
- List of war apology statements issued by Japan
References
Notes
- ^ China Weekly Review October 22, 1938
- ^ See, for example: Wai Keng Kwok, 2001, "Justice Done? Criminal and Moral Responsibility Issues In the Chinese Massacres Trial Singapore, 1947" (Genocide Studies Program Working Paper No. The Battle of Singapore was fought in the South-East Asian theatre of World War II when the Empire of Japan invaded the Allied stronghold The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (8293 km² on 139 islands are a group of islands situated in the Bay of Bengal at about 780 miles from Kolkata, 740 miles from The Banka Island massacre took place on 16 February 1942, when Japanese soldiers Machine gunned 22 Australian Military nurses Batu Lintang camp (also known as Lintang Barracks and Kuching POW camp) at Kuching, Sarawak on the island of Borneo was a The Bataan Death March (also known as The Death March of Bataan) took place in the Philippines in 1942 and was later accounted as a Japanese war The Burma Railway, also known also as the Death Railway, the Thailand-Burma Railway and similar names is a 415 km (258 mile railway between The Changjiao massacre ( Chinese:厂窖惨案 was a massacre aimed at Chinese Civilians by the Japanese China Expeditionary Army The Changde chemical weapon attack refers to the use of chemical and biological weapons by Japan during the Battle of Changde in the Comfort women is a Euphemism for women forced into Prostitution and Sexual slavery for Japanese military brothels during World War The term hell ship mainly refers to the ships used by the Imperial Japanese Navy to transport Allied Prisoners of war (POWs out of the Philippines Japanese war crimes occurred during the period of Japanese imperialism. The Kaimingjie germ weapon attack was a Japanese Biological warfare bacterial germ strike against Kaimingjie an area of the port of Ningbo in the The Battle of Ambon occurred on the island of Ambon in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia on January 30 - February 3, 1942, during The Manila massacre refers to the February 1945 atrocities conducted against Filipino civilians in Manila, Philippines by retreating Japanese Parit Sulong is a small village in Johor, Malaysia on the Simpang Kiri River 30 km east of Muar. The Panjiayu tragedy (潘家峪惨案 was a massacre conducted by Imperial Japanese Army on January 25, 1941 in Panjiayu, Hebei, The Sandakan Death Marches were a series of forced marches from Sandakan to Ranau which resulted in the deaths of more than 3600 Indonesian The Sook Ching massacre (肅清大屠殺 was a systematic Extermination of perceived hostile elements among the Chinese in Singapore by the Japanese military The Three Alls Policy (三光作戦 Sankō Sakusen;) was a Japanese Scorched earth policy adopted in China during World War II, the three alls The Battle of Rabaul, on the island of New Britain, in the Australian Territory of New Guinea, in January and February 1942, represented Unit 100 was a secret Imperial Japanese Army facility that focused on the development of Biological weapons during World War II. Unit 200 was a secret military medical unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that researched Biological warfare and other topics through Human experimentation Unit 516 was a top secret Japanese Chemical weapons facility operated by the Kempeitai, in Qiqihar, Manchukuo. Unit 543 was a secret Imperial Japanese Army facility at Hailar that focused on the development of Biological weapons during World War II was a covert biological and Chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during Unit 773 was a secret Imperial Japanese Army facility that focused on the development of Biological weapons during World War II. Unit Ei 1644 (栄1644部隊 also known as "Unit 1644" was a medical research unit of the Japanese Imperial Army based in Nanjing, China. Unit 1855 was a secret Imperial Japanese Army facility that focused on the development of Biological weapons during World War II. Unit 2646 (or Unit 80) was a secret Imperial Japanese Army facility that focused on the development of Biological weapons during World War II Unit 8604 or Nami Unit was a secret military medical unit of the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA that researched Biological warfare and other topics through Formed in 1942 to support the Japanese Southern Army, Unit 9420 or Oka Unit consisted of two units the Umeoka Unit specialising in the plague, and the The Battle of Wake Island began simultaneously with the Attack on Pearl Harbor and ended on December 23, 1941, with the surrender of the American War crimes in Manchukuo were committed during the rule of the Empire of Japan in Northeast China, either directly or through its Puppet state of Manchukuo Anti-Japanese sentiment involves Hatred, grievance distrust Dehumanization, Intimidation, Fear, Hostility, and/or general dislike Command responsibility, sometimes referred to as the Yamashita standard or the Medina standard, is the doctrine of hierarchical accountability in cases of China-Japan Joint Declaration on Building a Partnership of Friendship and Cooperation for Peace and Development ( Chinese: 中日关于建立致力与和平与发展友好合作伙伴关系的联合宣言 The general term Japanese fascism has been used to refer to Japanese nationalist thinking its ideological foundation and the outlines of its political implementation refers to the Ideology in the Empire of Japan that Militarism should dominate the political and social life of the nation and that the strength of the military is Japanese nationalism refers to the Japanese version of Nationalism, and encompasses a broad range of ideas and sentiments entertained by the Japanese people The Joint Communiqué of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China was signed in Beijing on September 29, 1972. 1960s 22 June 1965. Minister of Foreign Affairs Shiina Etsusaburo. 18, Yale University), p. 27. Access date: April 23, 2007.
- ^ See, for example, Yutaka Kawasaki, “Was the 1910 Annexation Treaty Between Korea and Japan Concluded Legally?” Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law, v.3, no. 2 (July 1996) Access date: February 15, 2007.
- ^ See, for example: Craig Symonds, “War, Politics, and Grand Strategy in the Pacific, 1941-1945”, Air University Review, November-December 1979 (Access date: February 15, 2007): “most American historians, date the war from December 1941”. See also Edward Drea, "Introduction", in Edward Drea, Greg Bradsher, Robert Hanyok, James Lide, Michael Petersen & Daqing Yang, 2006, Researching Japanese War Crimes Records (National Archives and Records Administration, Washington D. C. ; p. 15): "The atrocities at Nanjing occurred four years before the United States entered the war. At that time, the U. S. government did not have a large military or diplomatic intelligence network in China. A handful of trained military or embassy personnel reported on events, sometimes second-hand; compared with the sensational press coverage, the official U. S. documentation was scant. As a result, with the exception of the records produced during the postwar Class A war crimes trial of the commanding general of Japanese forces deemed responsible for the Rape of Nanking, there are few materials on this subject at the National Archives. " See also, Ben-Ami Shillony, "Book Review, Book Title: A History of Japan, 1582-1941 Internal and External Worlds, Author: L. M. Cullen Professor of History, Trinity College, Dublin", (Institute of Historical Research, February 2004) (Access date: February 15, 2007); Grant K. Goodman, "Review 'The Kempei Tai in the Philippines: 1941-1945' by Ma. Felisa A. Syjuco" Pacific Affairs, v. 64, no. 2 (Summer, 1991), pp. 282-283 (Access date: February 15, 2007); United Nations Human Rights Committee, "Fifty-Ninth Session, 24 March - 11 April 1997, Decisions, Communication No. 601/1994" (April 3, 1997) (Access date: February 15, 2007);Gary K. Reynolds, 2002, U.S. Prisoners of War and Civilian American Citizens Captured and Interned by Japan in World War II: The Issue of Compensation by Japan(Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress, December 17, 2002) Access date: February 15, 2007).
- ^ de Jong, Louis [2002]. Louis ("Loe" de Jong (born 24 April, 1914 in Amsterdam &ndash died 15 March, 2005 in Amsterdam was a Dutch The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War, translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman, Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206, Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press, 40, 42, 45, 203-204, 305-307, 311-312, 328, 373-374, 386, 391, 393, 429, 488. ISBN 90 6718 203 6.
- ^ Kawasaki, Ibid.
- ^ Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, pp 72-3
- ^ Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, Japanese War crimes in WW II, 1996, p. 72
- ^ de Jong, Louis [2002]. Louis ("Loe" de Jong (born 24 April, 1914 in Amsterdam &ndash died 15 March, 2005 in Amsterdam was a Dutch The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War, translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman, Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206, Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press, 289 311 417. ISBN 90 6718 203 6.
- ^ Johnson, Looting of Asia, [1]
- ^ Yuki Tanaka, 1996, Hidden Horrors, p. 2-3
- ^ Akira Fujiwara, Nitchû Sensô ni Okeru Horyo Gyakusatsu, Kikan Sensô Sekinin Kenkyû 9, 1995, p. 22
- ^ Tanaka, ibid. , Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2001, p. 360
- ^ Jeff Kingston, "Images of a common brutality" (Japan Times, February 24, 2002) Accessed: 26/05/2007. (Kingston is a history professor at Temple University Japan. University Japan Campus (Abbreviated TUJ, Japanese テンプル大学ジャパンキャンパス) is an international campus of Temple University in Philadelphia )
- ^ Cited by Kingston, 2007.
- ^ Rummell, Statistics, [2]
- ^ China's Bloody Century
- ^ Chang, p. 102
- ^ Byrd, Gregory Dean, General Ishii Shiro: His Legacy is that of a Genius and Madman, p. ? (PDF document), [3]
- ^ GlobalSecurity.org, 2005 "Biological Weapons Program". Downloaded November 26, 2006
- ^ The Denver Post, June 1, 1995, cited by Gary K. Reynolds, 2002, "U.S. Prisoners of War and Civilian American Citizens Captured and Interned by Japan in World War II: The Issue of Compensation by Japan" (Library of Congress)
- ^ BBC "Japanese doctor admits POW abuse" Downloaded November 26 2006, 12:52 GMT
- ^ Kyodo News Agency, "Ex-navy officer admits to vivisection of war prisoners in Philippines," reported in Yahoo! Asia News: [4]
- ^ Yoshimi annd Matsuno, Dokugasusen kankei shiryô II, Kaisetsu 1997
- ^ Japan tested chemical weapons on Aussie POW: new evidence, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/member/nn20040727a9.html
- ^ de Jong, Louis [2002]. Louis ("Loe" de Jong (born 24 April, 1914 in Amsterdam &ndash died 15 March, 2005 in Amsterdam was a Dutch "III Starvation in the Indies", The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War, translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman, Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206, Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press, 227-281. ISBN 90 6718 203 6.
- ^ de Jong, Louis [2002]. Louis ("Loe" de Jong (born 24 April, 1914 in Amsterdam &ndash died 15 March, 2005 in Amsterdam was a Dutch The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War, translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman, Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206, Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press, 167 170-173 181-184 196 204-225 309-314 323-325 337-338 341 343 345-346 380 407. ISBN 90 6718 203 6.
- ^ Haruko Taya Cook & Theodore F. Cook, Japan at War 1993 ISBN 1-56584-039-9, p. 153
- ^ Tanaka, Hidden horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II, Westview press, 1996, p. 127.
- ^ Lord Russell of Liverpool (Edward Russell), The Knights of Bushido, a short history of Japanese War Crimes, Greenhill books, 2002, p. Baron Russell of Liverpool, of Liverpool in the County Palatine of Lancaster is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. 236.
- ^ Ibid. , p. 121.
- ^ ''Case No. 21 Trial Of General Tomoyuki Yamashita[, United States Military Commission, Manila, (8th October-7th December, 1945), and the Supreme Court Of The United States (Judgments Delivered On 4th February, 1946). Part VI] (Retrieved on December 18, 2006); Jeanie M. Welch, "Without a Hangman, Without a Rope: Navy War Crimes Trials After World War II", International Journal of Naval History, v.1, No. 1, April 2002, p.5-6
- ^ Zhifen Ju, Japan's atrocities of conscripting and abusing north China draftees after the outbreak of the pacific war, 2002
- ^ links for research, Allied POWs under the Japanese
- ^ Library of Congress, 1992, "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942-50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942-45" Access date: February 9, 2007.
- ^ Fujiwara, Nitchû sensô ni okeru horyo gyakusatsu, 1995
- ^ CNN.com - Japanese comfort women ruling overturned - March 29, 2001
- ^ Yoshiaki Yoshimi, 2001-02, Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military during World War II. Columbia University Press
- ^ Washington Post, "Japan's Abe: no proof of WWII sex slaves"
- ^ New York Times, "No comfort", March 6, 2007. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/06/opinion/06tues3.html, accessed March 8, 2007
- ^ Washington Post, Ibid.
- ^ Evidence documenting sex-slave coercion revealed, [5]
- ^ Files: Females forced into sexual servitude in wartime Indonesia http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070512a6.html
- ^ East Timor former sex slaves speak out http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070428f1.html
- ^ Todd Cardy, 2007, "Japanese PM's denial upsets 'comfort woman'" (News. com. au; March 5, 2007). Access date: March 7, 2007)
- ^ Memoir of comfort woman tells of 'hell for women'
- ^ http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/03/29/japan.comfort.women/index.htm & http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2006/10/15/congress_backs_off_of_wartime_japan_rebuke/
- ^ Comfort Women Were 'Raped': U.S. Ambassador to Japan
- ^ Abe ignores evidence, say Australia's 'comfort women'
- ^ Yoshimi, ibid. , http://hnn.us/articles/printfriendly/9954.html, http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp77.html and http://hnn.us/articles/13533.html] [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=10155
- ^ U. S. Panel OKs sex slave resolution, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070628a1.html
- ^ U.S. House passes sex slave resolution | The Japan Times Online
- ^ LRB · Chalmers Johnson: The Looting of Asia
- ^ Dower, John (2000). Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II, p. 447
- ^ Kumao Toyoda, Senso saiban yoroku, 1986, p. 170-172, H. Bix, Hirohito and the making of modern Japan, 2000, p. 583, 584
- ^ Dower,Embracing defeat, 1999, p. 326
- ^ Dower, ibid. , p. 562.
- ^ Bix, ibid. , p. 585, 583
- ^ The Korea Times, "Truth Commission Should Be Truthful", Michael Breen, http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/opinion/200611/kt2006111619251454330.htm
- ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (quoted on the Taiwan Documents Project), Joint Communiqué of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China, [6]
- ^ Online NewsHour: I'm Sorry - December 1, 1998
- ^ New York Times, "Japan's Abe Denies Proof of World War II Sex Slaves". Associated Press. March 1, 2007. http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/world/AP-Japan-Sex-Slaves.html?ref=world, accessed March 1, 2007
- ^ Washington Post, "Japan's Abe: No Proof of WWII Sex Slaves". By Hiroko Tabuchi. The Associated Press. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/01/AR2007030100578.html Accessed: March 1, 2007.
- ^ Freeman, Laurie A. , "Japan's Press Clubs as Information Cartels," Japan Policy Research Institute, (April, 1996), [7]. Discusses impending visit in 1990 to Japan by Korean president Roh Tae Woo in which Japanese cabinet secretary Ozawa Ichiro reportedly said, "it is because we have reflected on the past that we cooperate with Korea economically. Is it really necessary to grovel on our hands and knees and prostrate ourselves any more than we already have?". This alleged remark is called the dogeza hatsugen (prostration comment).
- ^ Facing History and Ourselves, Willy Brandt's Silent Apology, [8].
- ^ www. cornell. edu, [9]
- ^ Borneman, Apologies Contribute to Peace?
- ^ McCormack, Gavan, "Difficult Neighbors: Japan, North Korea and the Quest for a New East Asian Order," Modern Asia Series, Harvard University Asia Center, (May 3, 2004), Access date: December 8, 2007.
- ^ . Official homepage of US Congressman of 15th district California. http://www.house.gov/apps/list/press/ca15_honda/comfortwomentestimony.html, accessed March 8, 2007
- ^ Fujiwara, Shôwa tennô no jû-go nen sensô, Aoki Shoten, 1991, p. 122
- ^ BBC NEWS | World | Asia-Pacific | Korean WWII sex slaves fight on
- ^ The Seoul Times
- ^ Digital Chosunilbo (English Edition) : Daily News in English About Korea
- ^ http://goldsea.com/Asiagate/609/17wartime.html
- ^ BBC NEWS | World | Asia-Pacific | Korean WWII sex slaves fight on
- ^ The Seoul Times
Books
- Barnaby, Wendy. The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare, Frog Ltd, 1999. ISBN 1-883319-85-4 ISBN 0-7567-5698-7 ISBN 0-8264-1258-0 ISBN 0-8264-1415-X
- Bass, Gary Jonathan. Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Trials. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.
- Bayly, C. A. & Harper T. Forgotten Armies. The Fall of British Asia 1941-5 (London: Allen Lane) 2004
- Bix, Herbert. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. New York: HarperCollins, 2000.
- Bergamini, David. Japan's Imperial Conspiracy, William Morrow, New York, 1971.
- Brackman, Arnold C. The Other Nuremberg: the Untold Story of the Tokyo War Crimes Trial. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1987.
- Chang, Iris. The Rape of Nanking, Perseus books LLC, 1997. ISBN 0-465-06835-9
- Cook, Haruko Taya; Theodore F. Cook (1993). Japan at War: An Oral History. New Press. ISBN 1-56584-039-9. - Compilation of interviews with Japanese survivors of World War II, including several who describe war crimes that they were involved with.
- Dower, John W. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. Embracing Defeat Japan in the Wake of World War II written by John W New York: New Press, 1999.
- Dower, John W. (1987). War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon. Pantheon Books is an American imprint with Editorial independence that is part of the Knopf Publishing Group which was acquired by Random House ISBN 0-394-75172-8.
- Endicott, Stephen and Edward Hagerman. The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea, Indiana University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-253-33472-1
- Frank, Richard B. (1999). Richard B Frank (born 1947 in Kansas) is an American lawyer and military historian Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire. New York: Penguin Books.
- Gold, Hal. Unit 731 Testimony, Charles E Tuttle Co. , 1996. ISBN 4-900737-39-9
- Handelman, Stephen and Ken Alibek. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World--Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It, Random House, 1999. ISBN 0-375-50231-9 ISBN 0-385-33496-6
- Harries, Meirion; Susie Harries (1994). Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army. New York: Random House. Random House Inc is the world's largest English-language general trade book publisher ISBN 0-679-75303-6.
- Harris, Robert and Jeremy Paxman. A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Random House, 2002. ISBN 0-8129-6653-8
- Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45 and the American Cover-Up, Routledge, 1994. ISBN 0-415-09105-5 ISBN 0-415-93214-9
- Holmes, Linda Goetz (2001). Unjust Enrichment: How Japan's Companies Built Postwar Fortunes Using American POWs. Mechanicsburg, PA, USA: Stackpole Books.
- Horowitz, Solis. "The Tokyo Trial" International Conciliation 465 (November 1950), 473-584.
- Kratoksa, Paul (2005). Asian Labor in the Wartime Japanese Empire: Unknown Histories. M. E. Sharpe and Singapore University Press. ISBN 0765612631.
- Lael, Richard L. (1982). The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility. Wilmington, Del, USA: Scholarly Resources.
- Latimer, Jon, Burma: The Forgotten War, London: John Murray, 2004. ISBN 0-7195-6576-6
- Lord, of Liverpool Russell (2006). The Knights of Bushido: A Short History of Japanese War Crimes. Greenhill Books. ISBN 1-85367-651-9.
- Maga, Timothy P. (2001). Judgment at Tokyo: The Japanese War Crimes Trials. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-2177-9.
- Minear, Richard H. (1971). Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press.
- Neier, Aryeh. War Crimes: Brutality, Genocide, Terror and the Struggle for Justice," Times Books, Random House, New York, 1998.
- Piccigallo, Philip R. (1979). The Japanese on Trial: Allied War Crimes Operations in the East, 1945-1951. Austin, Texas, USA: University of Texas Press.
- Rees, Laurence. Horror in the East, published 2001 by the British Broadcasting Company
- Seagrave, Peggy & Seagrave, Sterling. Gold Warriors: The Covert History of Yamashita's Treasure, Verso Books, 2003. ISBN 1-85984-542-8
- Sherman, Christine (2001). War Crimes: International Military Tribunal. Turner Publishing Company. ISBN 1563117282. -Detailed account of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East proceedings in Tokyo
- Tsurumi, Kazuko (1970). Social change and the individual;: Japan before and after defeat in World War II. Princeton, USA: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09347-4.
- Williams, Peter. Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II, Free Press, 1989. ISBN 0-02-935301-7
- Yamamoto, Masahiro (2000). Nanking: Anatomy of an Atrocity. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-96904-5. - A rebuttal to Iris Chang's book on the Nanking massacre.
Audio/visual media
- The History Channel. (2000) Japanese War Crimes: Murder Under The Sun [Video documentary (DVD & VHS)]. A & E Home Video.
External links
- Battling Bastards of Bataan
- "Biochemical Warfare - Unit 731". Alliance for Preserving the Truth of Sino-Japanese War. No date.
- "Cannibalism". Dan Ford, "Japan at War, 1931-1945" September 2007.
- "Confessions of Japanese war criminals". No date.
- Chalmers Johnson, "The Looting of Asia" in London Review of Books, 2003-11-20
- "History of Japan's biological weapons program" Federation of American Scientists, 2000-04-16
- Ji Man-Won's website (in Korean) Various dates. The London Review of Books (or LRB) is a Fortnightly British literary and political magazine Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, The Federation of American Scientists ( FAS) is a non-profit organization formed in 1945 by scientists from the Manhattan Project who felt that scientists engineers 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Events 1178 BC - A Solar eclipse may have marked the return of Odysseus, legendary King of Ithaca, to his kingdom
- Justin McCurry, "Japan's sins of the past" in The Guardian, 2004-10-28
- "Nanking 1937", Princeton University, 1997-11-09
- Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group (IWG) U. The Guardian (until 1959 The Manchester Guardian) is a British Newspaper owned by the Guardian Media Group. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Princeton University is a private Coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all S. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). The United States National Archives and Records Administration ( NARA) is an independent agency of the United States federal government charged No date.
- "No Riot Apology" Sky News (UK), 2005-04-17
- "The Other Holocaust" No date. Sky News is a rolling TV news channel providing 24 hour news coverage including the latest breaking news Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 69 - After the First Battle of Bedriacum, Vitellius becomes Roman Emperor.
- "Rape of Queen MIN" 2002
- R.J. Rummel, "Statistics Of Japanese Democide: Estimates, Calculations, And Sources" University of Hawaii, 2002
- Shane Green. "The Asian Auschwitz of Unit 731" in The Age, 2002-08-29
- "Statement by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama" 1995-08-15
- "Synopses of Yokohama Trials of War Crimes against Japanese Defendants (UC Berkeley WCSC)"
- Steven Butler, "A half century of denial: the hidden truth about Japan's unit 731" in US News & World Report 1995-07-31
- Borneman, John. The University of Hawaii, formally the University of Hawaii System and popularly known as UH, is a public co-educational college and university system that confers See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. The Age is a Broadsheet daily Newspaper, which has been published in Melbourne, Australia since 1854 See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 708 - Copper coins are minted in Japan for the first time (Traditional Japanese date: August 10, 708) Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed USNews & World Report is an influential weekly American Newsmagazine published in Washington D Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Events 30 BC - Battle of Alexandria: Mark Antony achieves a minor victory over Octavian 's forces but most of his army subsequently Can Public Apologies Contribute to Peace? An Argument for Retribution. Cornell University. Retrieved on 2006-07-29. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1014 - Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars: Battle of Kleidion: Byzantine emperor Basil II inflicts a decisive defeat
- Fasces Japan labor camp of Nishimatsu安野発電所強制連行
| Imperial Japanese Army special research units |
|---|
| Unit 100 (Shenyang) | Unit 516 (Qiqihar) | Unit 543 (Hailar) | Unit 731 (Pingfang) / Unit 200 (Manchuria) / Unit 8604 or Nami Unit (Guangzhou) | Unit 773 (Songo) | Unit Ei 1644 (Nanjing) | Unit 1855 (Nanjing) | Unit 2646 or Unit 80 (Hailar) | Unit 9420 or Oka Unit (Singapore) |
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