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The Italian Renaissance began the opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 14th century to about 1600, marking the transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Renaissance architecture is the architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe in which there was a Renaissance dances belong to the broad group of Historical dances While we know that people danced in Europe long before the Renaissance, the first Renaissance Literature refers to the period in European literature, which began in Italy during the 15th century and spread around Europe through Renaissance music is European music written during the Renaissance, approximately 1400 - 1600 Renaissance painting bridges the period of European art history between the art of the Middle Ages and Baroque art. Renaissance philosophy was the period of the History of philosophy in Europe that falls roughly between the Middle Ages and the Enlightenment During the Renaissance, the rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of Printing Renaissance technology is the set of European artifacts and customs spanning roughly the 14th through the 16th century Early Modern warfare is associated with the start of the widespread use of Gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement in England dating from the early 16th century to the early 17th century French Renaissance is a recent term used to describe a cultural and artistic movement in France from the late 15th century to the early 17th century The German Renaissance, part of the Northern Renaissance, was a cultural and artistic movement that spread among German thinkers in the 15th and 16th The Renaissance in the Low Countries is the cultural period that roughly corresponds to the 16th century in the Low Countries. The Northern Renaissance is the term used to describe the Renaissance in Northern Europe, or more broadly in Europe outside Italy. The Renaissance in Poland (Odrodzenie literally 'Rebirth' lasted from the late 15th century to the late 16th century and is widely considered to be the Golden Age of Polish culture This article is about the Spanish Renaissance of the 15th-16th centuries The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere The early modern period is a term used by historians to refer to the period in Western '''Europe''' and its first colonies which spans the three centuries between The term renaissance is in essence a modern one that came into currency in the nineteenth century, in the work of historians such as Jacob Burckhardt. Jacob Christoph Burckhardt ( May 25, 1818, Basel, Switzerland &ndash August 8, 1897, Basel was a Swiss Although the origins of a movement that was confined largely to the literate culture of intellectual endeavor and patronage can be traced to the earlier part of the 14th century, many aspects of Italian culture and society remained largely Medieval; the Renaissance did not come into full swing until the end of the century. The word renaissance (Rinascimento in Italian) means “rebirth”, and the era is best known for the renewed interest in the culture of classical antiquity after the period that Renaissance humanists labelled the Dark Ages. Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean Renaissance Humanism was a European intellectual movement beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century This article is about the phrase "Dark Age(s" as a characterization of the Early Middle Ages in Western Europe These changes, while significant, were concentrated in the elite, and for the vast majority of the population life was little changed from the Middle Ages.
The European Renaissance began in Tuscany, and centered in the cities of Florence and Siena. Tuscany (Toscana is a region in Italy. It has an area of 22990 km² and a population of about 3 Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Siena. It later had a great impact in Venice, where the remains of ancient Greek culture were brought together, providing humanist scholars with new texts. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Renaissance Humanism was a European intellectual movement beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century The Renaissance later had a significant effect on Rome, which was ornamented with some structures in the new all'antico mode, then was largely rebuilt by sixteenth-century popes. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and The Italian Renaissance peaked in the late 15th century as foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars. However, the ideas and ideals of the Renaissance spread into the rest of Europe, setting off the Northern Renaissance, and the English Renaissance. The Northern Renaissance is the term used to describe the Renaissance in Northern Europe, or more broadly in Europe outside Italy. The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement in England dating from the early 16th century to the early 17th century
The Italian Renaissance is best known for its cultural achievements. Italian Renaissance literature includes such figures as Petrarch, Castiglione, and Machiavelli. Renaissance Literature refers to the period in European literature, which began in Italy during the 15th century and spread around Europe through Francesco Petrarca ( July 20, 1304 – July 19, 1374) known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar Baldasare Castiglione, count of Novellata ( December 15, 1478 &ndash February 28, 1529) was an Italian Courtier, Italian Renaissance painting exercised a dominant influence on Western painting for centuries afterwards, with artists such as Michelangelo, Raphael Botticelli, and Leonardo da Vinci, and the same is true for architecture, with works such as Florence Cathedral and St. Peter's Basilica in Rome: see Renaissance architecture. See also Thematic development of Italian Renaissance painting Italian Renaissance painting is the painting of the period from the early 15th to mid 16th centuries occurring See also Western art, History of painting, Western art history, History of art, Art history, Painting, Outline of painting Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni Two biographies were published of him during his lifetime One of them by Giorgio Vasari, proposed that he was the pinnacle of all Raphael Sanzio, usually known by his first name alone (in Italian Raffaello) (April 6 or March 28 1483 – April 6 1520 was an Italian painter and Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer Renaissance architecture is the architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe in which there was a The Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore is the Cathedral church ( Duomo) of Florence, Italy. The Basilica of Saint Peter (Basilica Sancti Petri officially known in Italian as the Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano and commonly known as St Renaissance architecture is the architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe in which there was a At the same time, some present-day historians also see the era as one of economic regression and of little progress in science, which made its great leaps forward among Protestant culture in the seventeenth century. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding
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Origins
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Prehistoric Italy |
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Northern Italy in the Late Middle Ages
By the late Middle Ages, central and southern Italy, the heartland of the Roman Empire, was far poorer than the north. Italian Unification ( Italian: il Risorgimento, or "The Resurgence" was the political and social movement that unified different states of the Italian This articles covers the history of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars. After World War II and the overthrow of Mussolini's fascist regime, Italy's history was dominated by the Democrazia Cristiana (DC - Christian-Democrats The military history of Italy chronicles a vast time period lasting from the overthrow of Tarquinius Superbus in 509 BC, through the Roman Empire, Italy until the present era was a conglomeration of city-states and small independent nations Geography Southern Italy forms the lower "boot" of the Italian peninsula containing the ankle (Abruzzo and Molise and southern Lazio the toe (Calabria and the heel The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Rome was a city dominated by ancient ruins, and the Papal States were a loosely administered region with little law and order, due to the pope having relocated to Avignon under pressure from King Philip the Fair of France. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 The Papal States, State(s of the Church or Pontifical States (in Italian Stato Ecclesiastico, Stato della Chiesa, Stati della Chiesa In the History of the Roman Catholic Church, the Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1377 during which seven Popes all French, resided in Avignon Avignon (/aviɲɔ̃/ in French) ( Provençal: Avinhon in classical norm or Avignoun in Mistralian norm is a commune In the South, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia had for some time been under foreign domination.
The north was far more prosperous, with the states of northern Italy among the wealthiest in Europe. The Crusades had built lasting trade links to the Levant, and the Fourth Crusade had done much to destroy the Byzantine Empire as a commercial rival to the Venetians and Genoese. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the The Fourth Crusade (1202&ndash1204 was originally designed to conquer Muslim Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt. The Most Serene Republic of Genoa (Repubblica di Genova was an independent state in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast from the 11th century The main trade routes from the east passed through the Byzantine Empire or the Arab lands and onwards to the ports of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the Luxury goods bought in the Levant, such as spices, dyes, and silks were imported to Italy and then resold throughout Europe. Moreover, the inland city-states profited from the rich agricultural land of the Po valley. A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty. The Po ( Latin: Padus, Po Ligurian: Bo, Greek: Eridanus) is a river that flows 652 km(405 miles (682 km by considering From France, Germany, and the Low Countries, through the medium of the Champagne fairs, land and river trade routes brought goods such as wool, wheat, and precious metals into the region. The Champagne fairs were an annual cycle of trading Fairs held in towns in the Champagne and Brie regions of France in the Middle Ages Wool is the fiber derived from the specialized skin cells called follicles of animals in the Caprinae family principally sheep, but the hair of certain species Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Precious Metal is the eighteenth episode in the of the popular American Crime drama, which is set in Las Vegas, Nevada. The extensive trade that stretched from Egypt to the Baltic generated substantial surpluses that allowed significant investment in mining and agriculture. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Baltic Seven Islandsgif|right|thumb|330px|A contemporary transnational Euroregion encompasses the islands of the Baltic countries Thus, while northern Italy was not richer in resources than many other parts of Europe, the level of development, stimulated by trade, allowed it to prosper. Florence became one of the wealthiest cities of Northern Italy, due mainly to its woolen textile production, under the supervision of its dominant trade guild, the Arte della Lana. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers The Arte della Lana was the wool guild of Florence during the Late Middle Ages and in the Renaissance. Wool was imported from Northern Europe (and in the sixteenth century from Spain)[1] and dyes from the east were used to make high quality textiles. A dye can generally be described as a Colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied
The Italian trade routes that covered the Mediterranean and beyond were also major conduits of culture and knowledge. In medieval times works that embodied the classical learning of the Greeks had trickled into Western Europe, through Arab translations and treatises, from Toledo and from Palermo, especially in the so-called Renaissance of the 12th century. Toledo Spain locationpng|thumb|right|200px|Location of Toledo in Spain Palermo ( Sicilian: Palermu, Greek: Panormus, al-Madinah during Muslim rule is a historic City in The Renaissance of the 12th century was a period of many changes during the High Middle Ages. After the Spanish Reconquista of the fifteenth century and the resulting translations of Arabic-language works by the Arabists of the School of Salamanca, the scientific, philosophical, and mathematical thinking of the Arabs became accessible to Northern Italy. The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language This is an article about the western scholars known as Arabists, not the political movement Pan-Arabism. The School of Salamanca is the Renaissance of thought in diverse intellectual areas by Spanish theologians, rooted in the intellectual and pedagogical After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, a flood of refugee Greek scholars was important in sparking the new linguistic studies of the Renaissance, in revived academies in Florence and Venice. The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday May 29, 1453 (Julian Calendar The migration of Byzantine Greek scholars and other émigrés from Byzantium during the decline of the Byzantine empire (1203-1453 and mainly after the fall of An academy ( Greek Ἀκαδημία is an institution of higher learning research or honorary membership Humanist scholars searched monastic libraries for ancient manuscripts and recovered Tacitus and other Latin authors; with the rediscovery of Vitruvius the architectural principles of Antiquity could be observed once more, and Renaissance artists were encouraged, in the atmosphere of humanist optimism, to excel the achievements of the Ancients, like Apelles, of whom they read. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum
Thirteenth-century prosperity
In the thirteenth century, much of Europe experienced strong economic growth. The trade routes of the Italian states linked with those of established Mediterranean ports and eventually the Hanseatic League of the Baltic and northern regions of Europe to create a network economy in Europe for the first time since the third century. The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade The city-states of Italy expanded greatly during this period and grew in power to become de facto fully independent of the Holy Roman Empire; apart from the Kingdom of Naples, outside powers kept their armies out of Italy. The Italian city states were a remarkable political phenomenon of small independent states in the northern Italian peninsula between the tenth and fifteenth centuries The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in The Kingdom of Naples was an informal name of the Polity officially known as the Kingdom of Sicily which existed on the mainland of the southern Italian During this period, the modern commercial infrastructure developed, with double-entry book-keeping, joint stock companies, an international banking system, a systematized foreign exchange market, insurance, and government debt. In Accountancy, the double-entry A joint stock company (JSC is a type of business entity it is a type of Corporation or Partnership. A banker or bank is a Financial institution whose primary activity is to act as a payment agent for customers and to borrow and lend money The foreign exchange ( currency or forex or FX) market refers to the market for currencies. Insurance, in Law and Economics, is a form of Risk management primarily used to hedge against the Risk of a contingent loss Government debt (also known as public debt or national debt) is Money (or credit) owed by any level of government either Central government [2] Florence became the centre of this financial industry and the gold florin became the main currency of international trade.
The new mercantile governing class, who gained their position through financial skill, adapted to their purposes the feudal aristocratic model that had dominated Europe in the Middle Ages. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed A feature of the High Middle Ages in Northern Italy was the rise of the urban communes which had broken from the control by bishops and local counts. Communes in Europe in the Middle Ages were sworn allegiances of mutual defense (both physical defense and of traditional freedoms among community members of a town or city In much of the region, the landed nobility was poorer than the urban patriarchs in the High Medieval money economy whose inflationary rise left land-holding aristocrats impoverished. Landed nobility is a category of Nobility in various countries over the history for which Landownership was part of their noble privileges The increase in trade during the early Renaissance enhanced these characteristics. The decline of feudalism and the rise of cities influenced each other; for example, the demand for luxury goods led to an increase in trade, which led to greater numbers of tradesmen becoming wealthy, who, in turn, demanded more luxury goods. This change also gave the merchants almost complete control of the governments of the Italian city-states, again enhancing trade. One of the most important effects of this political control was security. Those that grew extremely wealthy in a feudal state ran constant risk of running afoul of the monarchy and having their lands confiscated, as famously occurred to Jacques Coeur in France. Jacques Cœur (c 1395 &ndash November 25, 1456, Chios) was a French merchant The northern states also kept many medieval laws that severely hampered commerce, such as those against usury, and prohibitions on trading with non-Christians. Usury (ˈjuːʒəri comes from the Medieval Latin usuria, "interest" or "excessive interest" from the Latin usura "interest" In the city-states of Italy, these laws were repealed or rewritten. [3]
Fourteenth-century collapse
The fourteenth century saw a series of catastrophes that caused the European economy to go into recession. The Medieval Warm Period was ending as the transition to the Little Ice Age began. The Medieval Warm Period (MWP or Medieval Climate Optimum was a time of unusually Warm Climate in the North Atlantic region lasting from about The Little Ice Age (LIA was a period of cooling occurring after a warmer era known as the Medieval Warm Period or Medieval Climate Optimum [4] This change in climate saw agricultural output decline significantly, leading to repeated famines, exacerbated by the rapid population growth of the earlier era. A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation The Hundred Years' War between England and France disrupted trade throughout northwest Europe, most notably when, in 1345, King Edward III of England repudiated his debts, contributing to the collapse of the two largest Florentine banks, those of the Bardi and Peruzzi. The Hundred Years' War (Guerre de Cent Ans was a prolonged conflict lasting from 1337 to 1453 between two royal houses for the French throne vacant with the extinction of the senior Edward III (13 November 1312 &ndash 21 June 1377 was one of the most successful English monarchs of the Middle Ages. Baldassare Peruzzi was a leading Italian architect of the earlier 16th century his son Giovanni Sallustio Peruzzi was also an architect In the east, war was also disrupting trade routes, as the Ottoman Empire began to expand throughout the region. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Most devastating, though, was the Black Death that decimated the populations of the densely populated cities of Northern Italy and returned at intervals thereafter. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia Florence, for instance, which had a pre-plague population of 45,000 decreased over the next 47 years by 25–50%. [5] Widespread disorder followed, including a revolt of Florentine textile workers, the ciompi, in 1378. The Revolt of the Ciompi was a popular revolt in late medieval Florence by wool Carders known as ciompi
It was during this period of instability that the first Renaissance figures, such as Dante and Petrarch lived, and the first stirrings of Renaissance art were to be seen in the opening half of the fourteenth century, notably in the realism of Giotto. Francesco Petrarca ( July 20, 1304 – July 19, 1374) known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar Paradoxically, some of these disasters would help establish the Renaissance. The Black Death wiped out a third of Europe's population, producing a labour shortage, so that the reduced population was much wealthier, better fed, and, significantly, had more surplus money to spend on luxury goods like art and architecture. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia As incidences of the plague began to decline in the early fifteenth century, Europe's devastated population once again began to grow. Bubonic plague is the best-known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as This new demand for products and services, and the reduced number of people able to provide them, put the lower classes in a more favourable position. Furthermore, this demand also helped create a growing class of bankers, merchants, and skilled artisans. A banker or bank is a Financial institution whose primary activity is to act as a payment agent for customers and to borrow and lend money An artisan, also called a Craftsman, is a skilled manual worker who crafts items that may be functional or strictly decorative including furniture clothing The horrors of the Black Death and the seeming inability of the Church to provide relief would contribute to a decline of church influence, another significant contributing factor to the Renaissance. Additionally, the collapse of the Bardi and Peruzzi banks would open the way for the Medici to rise to prominence in Florence. Baldassare Peruzzi was a leading Italian architect of the earlier 16th century his son Giovanni Sallustio Peruzzi was also an architect Robert Sabatino Lopez argues that the economic collapse was a crucial cause of the Renaissance. [6] According to this view, in a more prosperous era, businessmen would have quickly reinvested their earnings in order to make more money in a climate favourable to investment. However, in the leaner years of the fourteenth century, the wealthy found few promising investment opportunities for their earnings and instead chose to spend more on culture and art.
Another popular explanation for the Italian Renaissance is the thesis, first advanced by historian Hans Baron,[7] that states that the primary impetus of the early Renaissance was the long-running series of wars between Florence and Milan. Hans Baron (1900-1988 was an acclaimed German historian of political thought and literature in the Italian Renaissance By the late fourteenth century, Milan had become a centralized monarchy under the control of the Visconti family. Visconti was the family name of two important Italian noble dynasties of the Middle Ages. Giangaleazzo Visconti, who ruled the city from 1378 to 1402, was renowned both for his cruelty and for his abilities, and set about building an empire in Northern Italy. Gian Galeazzo Visconti (November 1351 – September 3, 1402) son of Galeazzo II Visconti and Bianca di Savoia, was the first Duke of Milan He launched a long series of wars, with Milan steadily conquering neighbouring states and defeating the various coalitions led by Florence that sought in vain to halt the advance. This culminated in the 1402 siege of Florence, when it looked as though the city was doomed to fall, before Giangaleazzo suddenly died and his empire collapsed.
Baron's thesis suggests that during these long wars, the leading figures of Florence rallied the people by presenting the war as one between the free republic and the despotic monarchy, between the ideals of the Greek and Roman Republics and those of the Roman Empire and Medieval kingdoms. For Baron, the most important figure in crafting this ideology was Leonardo Bruni. Leonardo Bruni (or Leonardo Aretino) (c 1369 &ndash March 9 1444) was a leading humanist, Historian and a Chancellor This time of crisis in Florence was the period when most of the major early Renaissance figures were coming of age, such as Ghiberti, Donatello, Masolino, and Brunelleschi, and that they were inculcated with this republican ideology. Lorenzo Ghiberti (born Lorenzo di Bartolo) (1378 &ndash December 1, 1455) was an Italian artist of the early Renaissance best known Donatello ( Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi; c 1386 &ndash December 13, 1466) was a famous early Renaissance Italian Masolino da Panicale (also known as Tommaso di Cristoforo Fini) ( Panicale, Umbria c Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 – April 15, 1446) was one of the foremost architects and engineers of the Italian Renaissance. These and other figures later went on to advocate republican ideas that were to have an enormous impact on the Renaissance.
Development
International relations
Northern Italy was divided into a number of warring city-states, the most powerful being Milan, Florence, Pisa, Siena, Genoa, Ferrara, and Venice. The Italian city states were a remarkable political phenomenon of small independent states in the northern Italian peninsula between the tenth and fifteenth centuries Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany Pisa is a city in Tuscany, central Italy, on the right bank of the mouth of the Arno River on the Ligurian Sea. Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Siena. Genoa ( Genova, ˈdʒɛːnova in Italian; Zena in Genoese and Ligurian; Genua in Latin and archaically in English Ferrara is a city in Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy, capital city of the Province of Ferrara. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the High Medieval Northern Italy was further divided by the long running battle for supremacy between the forces of the Papacy and of the Holy Roman Empire: each city aligned itself with one faction or the other, yet was divided internally between the two warring parties, Guelfs and Ghibellines. The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in The Guelphs and Ghibellines were factions supporting respectively the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire in central and northern Italy The Guelphs and Ghibellines were factions supporting respectively the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire in central and northern Italy Warfare between the states was common, invasion from outside Italy confined to intermittent sorties of Holy Roman Emperors. The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states Renaissance politics developed from this background. Since the thirteenth century, as armies became primarily composed of mercenaries, prosperous city-states could field considerable forces, despite their low populations. A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by In the course of the fifteenth century, the most powerful city-states annexed their smaller neighbors. Florence took Pisa in 1406, Venice captured Padua and Verona, while the Duchy of Milan annexed a number of nearby areas including Pavia and Parma. Pisa is a city in Tuscany, central Italy, on the right bank of the mouth of the Arno River on the Ligurian Sea. Padua ( Padova 'padova Latin: Patavium, Padoa) is a city in the Veneto, northern Italy. Verona is a city and provincial capital in Veneto, Northern Italy. The Duchy of Milan was a state in northern Italy from 1394 to 1797 Pavia (pronounced Pavìa,) the ancient Ticinum, is a town and Comune of south-western Lombardy, northern Italy, 35 km south Parma is a City in the Italian region of Emilia-Romagna near Modena famous for its Architecture and the fine countryside around it
The first part of the Renaissance saw almost constant warfare on land and sea as the city-states vied for preeminence. On land, these wars were primarily fought by armies of mercenaries known as condottieri, bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe, but especially Germany and Switzerland, led largely by Italian captains. Condottieri (singular condottiero, rarely condottiero) were Mercenary leaders employed by the Italian City-states from the Late Middle The mercenaries were not willing to risk their lives unduly, and war became one largely of sieges and maneuvering, occasioning few pitched battles. It was also in the interest of mercenaries on both sides to prolong any conflict, to continue their employment. Mercenaries were also a constant threat to their employers; if not paid, they often turned on their patron. If it became obvious that a state was entirely dependent on mercenaries, the temptation was great for the mercenaries to take over the running of it themselves—this occurred on a number of occasions. [8]
At sea, Italian city-states sent many fleets out to do battle. The main contenders were Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, but after a long conflict the Genoese succeeded in reducing Pisa. Venice proved to be a more powerful adversary, and while at first relatively equal, the Genoese fleet was eliminated in the battle of Chioggia at the mouth of the Venetian lagoon, 1380; henceforth Venice was pre-eminent on the seas. The naval Battle of Chioggia took place in June 1380 in the Lagoon off Chioggia, Italy between the Venetian and the Genoese fleets As Venetian territories in the Aegean were lost one by one to the Turks, and the Black Sea trade was closed to them, Venetian interests turned towards the terrafirma as the Venetian Renaissance opened.
On land, decades of fighting saw Florence and Milan emerge as the dominant players, and these two powers finally set aside their differences and agreed to the Peace of Lodi in 1454, which saw relative calm brought to the region for the first time in centuries. The Treaty of Lodi, also known as the Peace of Lodi or the Treaty of Venice was a peace agreement between Milan and Venice signed on April 9 This peace would hold for the next forty years, and Venice's unquestioned hegemony over the sea also led to unprecedented peace for much of the rest of the fifteenth century. In the beginning of the fifteenth century, adventurer and traders such as Niccolò Da Conti (1395–1469) traveled as far as Southeast Asia and back, bringing fresh knowledge on the state of the world, presaging further European voyages of exploration in the years to come. Niccolò Da Conti (also Nicolò de' Conti) (1395&ndash1469 was a Venetian merchant and explorer born in Chioggia, who traveled to India and
Florence under the Medici
Until the late fourteenth century, Florence's leading family were the House of Albizzi. The Albizzi family was a Florentine family based in Arezzo and rivals of the Medici and Alberti families Their main challengers were the Medicis, first under Giovanni de' Medici, later under his son Cosimo. There were many Medici known as Giovanni de' Medici: Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici (1360-1429 (founder of the Medici dynasty Giovanni Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici (September 27 1389 &ndash August 1 1464 was the first of the Medici political dynasty de facto rulers of The Medici controlled the Medici bank—then Europe's largest bank—and an array of other enterprises in Florence and elsewhere. The Medici Bank (1397 &ndash 1494 was the largest and most respected bank in Europe during the 15th century. In 1433, the Albizzi managed to have Cosimo exiled. [9] The next year, however, saw a pro-Medici Signoria elected and Cosimo returned. The Signoria was the Government of Medieval and Renaissance Florence. The Medici became the town's leading family, a position they would hold for the next three centuries. Florence remained a republic until 1537, traditionally marking the end of the High Renaissance in Florence, but the instruments of republican government were firmly under the control of the Medici and their allies, save during the intervals after 1494 and 1527. Cosimo and Lorenzo only rarely held official posts, but were the unquestioned leaders.
Cosimo de' Medici was highly popular among the citizenry, mainly for bringing an era of stability and prosperity to the town. One of his most important accomplishments was negotiating the Peace of Lodi with Francesco Sforza ending the decades of war with Milan and bringing stability to much of Northern Italy. The Treaty of Lodi, also known as the Peace of Lodi or the Treaty of Venice was a peace agreement between Milan and Venice signed on April 9 Francesco I Sforza ( July 23, 1401 - March 8, 1466) was an Italian Condottiero, the founder of the Sforza dynasty in Cosimo was also an important patron of the arts, directly and indirectly, by the example he set.
Cosimo was succeeded by his sickly son Piero de' Medici, who died after five years in charge of the city. Piero de' Medici (the Gouty, Italian Piero "il Gottoso" (1416 &ndash December 2 1469 was the de facto ruler of In 1469 the reins of power passed to Cosimo's twenty-one-year-old grandson Lorenzo, who would become known as "Lorenzo the Magnificent. Lorenzo de' Medici (January 1 1449 &ndash 9 April 1492 was an Italian statesman and de facto ruler of the Florentine Republic during the Italian Renaissance " Lorenzo was the first of the family to be educated from an early age in the humanist tradition and is best known as one of the Renaissance's most important patrons of the arts. Under Lorenzo, the Medici rule was formalized with the creation of a new Council of Seventy, which Lorenzo headed. The republican institutions continued, but they lost all power. Lorenzo was less successful than his illustrious forebears in business, and the Medici commercial empire was slowly eroded. Lorenzo continued the alliance with Milan, but relations with the papacy soured, and in 1478, Papal agents allied with the Pazzi family in an attempt to assassinate Lorenzo. The Pazzi family were Tuscan nobles who were Bankers in Florence in the 14th century Although the plot failed, Lorenzo's young brother, Giuliano, was killed, and the failed assassination led to a war with the Papacy and was used as justification to further centralize power in Lorenzo's hands. Giuliano de' Medici (1453&ndash April 26, 1478) was the second son of Piero de' Medici (the Gouty [10]
Spread of the Renaissance
Renaissance ideals first spread from Florence to the neighbouring states of Tuscany such as Siena and Lucca. Tuscany (Toscana is a region in Italy. It has an area of 22990 km² and a population of about 3 Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Siena. Lucca is a city in Tuscany, northern central Italy, situated on the river Serchio in a fertile plain near (but not on the Ligurian Sea The Tuscan culture soon became the model for all the states of Northern Italy, and the Tuscan variety of Italian came to predominate throughout the region, especially in literature. In 1447 Francesco Sforza came to power in Milan and rapidly transformed that still medieval city into a major centre of art and learning that drew Leone Battista Alberti. Francesco I Sforza ( July 23, 1401 - March 8, 1466) was an Italian Condottiero, the founder of the Sforza dynasty in Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Leon Battista Alberti ( February 14, 1404 &ndash April 25, 1472) was an Italian author artist Architect, Poet Venice, one of the wealthiest cities due to its control of the Mediterranean Sea, also became a centre for Renaissance culture, especially architecture. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the Smaller courts brought Renaissance patronage to lesser cities, which developed their characteristic arts: Ferrara, Mantua under the Gonzaga, Urbino under Federico da Montefeltro. Ferrara is a city in Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy, capital city of the Province of Ferrara. Mantua (Màntova in the local dialect of Lombard language Mantua is a city in Lombardy, Italy and capital of the province of the The Gonzaga family ruled Mantua in Northern Italy from 1328 to 1708. Urbino is a walled city in the Marche region in Italy, south-west of Pesaro, a World Heritage Site notable for a remarkable historical Federico da Montefeltro, also known as Federico III da Montefeltro ( Castello di Petroia, June 7, 1422 &ndash Ferrara, September In Naples, the Renaissance was ushered in under the patronage of Alfonso I who conquered Naples in 1443 and encouraged artists like Francesco Laurana and Antonello da Messina and writers like the poet Jacopo Sannazaro and the humanist scholar Angelo Poliziano. Naples ( Napoli, Neapolitan: Nàpule) is a historic City in southern Italy, the Capital of the Alfonso the Magnanimous (also Alphonso; Catalan: Alfons) (1396 &ndash 27 June 1458) was the King of Aragon (as Francesco Laurana (de la Vrana, (c 1430 &ndash before 12 March 1502) was a Dalmatian born sculptor and Medallist in Croatia Antonello da Messina, properly Antonello di Giovanni di Antonio (c Jacopo Sannazaro or Sannazzaro ( 28 July 1458 - April 27, 1530) was an Italian poet humanist and epigrammist Angelo Ambrogini, best known as Poliziano ( July 14, 1454 &ndash September 24, 1494) was a Florentine Classical
In 1417 the Papacy returned to Rome, but that once imperial city remained poor and largely in ruins through the first years of the Renaissance. [11] The great transformation began under Pope Nicholas V, who became pontiff in 1447. See also Antipope Nicholas V. Pope Nicholas V (Italian Niccolò V; November 15, 1397 &ndash March He launched a dramatic rebuilding effort that would eventually see much of the city renewed. The humanist scholar Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini became pope as Pius II in 1458. Pope Pius II, born Enea Silvio Piccolomini ( Latin Aeneas Sylvius; October 18, 1405 &ndash August 14, 1464) As the papacy fell under the control of the wealthy families from the north, such as the Medici and the Borgias the spirit of Renaissance art and philosophy came to dominate the Vatican. Pope Sixtus IV continued Nicholas' work, most famously ordering the construction of the Sistine Chapel. Pope Sixtus IV ( July 21, 1414 &ndash August 12, 1484) born Francesco Della Rovere, was Pope from 1471 to 1484 Sistine Chapel (Cappella Sistina is the best-known Chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the Pope in Vatican City. The popes also became increasingly secular rulers as the Papal States were forged into a centralized power by a series of "warrior popes". The Papal States, State(s of the Church or Pontifical States (in Italian Stato Ecclesiastico, Stato della Chiesa, Stati della Chiesa
The nature of the Renaissance also changed in the late fifteenth century. The Renaissance ideal was fully adopted by the ruling classes and the aristocracy. In the early Renaissance artists were seen as craftsmen with little prestige or recognition. By the later Renaissance the top figures wielded great influence and could charge great fees. A flourishing trade in Renaissance art developed. While in the early Renaissance many of the leading artists were of lower- or middle-class origins, increasingly they became aristocrats. [12]
Wider population
As a cultural movement, the Italian Renaissance affected only a small part of the population. Northern Italy was the most urbanized region of Europe, but three quarters of the people were still rural peasants. [13] For this section of the population, life was essentially unchanged from the Middle Ages. [14] Classic feudalism had never been prominent in Northern Italy, and most peasants worked on private farms or as sharecroppers. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed Sharecropping is a system of agriculture or agricultural production in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crop produced on the land (e Some scholars see a trend towards refeudalization in the later Renaissance as the urban elites turned themselves into landed aristocrats. [15]
The situation was very different in the cities. These were dominated by a commercial elite; as exclusive as the aristocracy of any Medieval kingdom. It was this group that was the main patron of and audience for Renaissance culture. Below them there was a large class of artisans and guild members who lived comfortable lives and had significant power in the republican governments. This was in sharp contrast to the rest of Europe where artisans were firmly in the lower class. Literate and educated, this group did participate in the Renaissance culture. [16] The largest section of the urban population was the urban poor of semi-skilled workers and the unemployed. Like the peasants the Renaissance had little effect on them. Historians debate how easy it was to move between these groups during the Italian Renaissance. Examples of individuals who rose from humble beginnings can be instanced, but Burke notes two major studies in this area that have found that the data do not clearly demonstrate an increase in social mobility. See also Economic mobility Social mobility is the degree to which in a given society an individual's family's or group's social status Most historians feel that early in the Renaissance social mobility was quite high, but that it faded over the course of the fifteenth century. [17] Inequality in society was very high. An upper-class figure would control hundreds of times more income than a servant or labourer. Some historians feel that this unequal distribution of wealth was important to the Renaissance, as art patronage relies on the very wealthy. [18]
The Renaissance was not a period of great social or economic change, only of cultural and ideological development. It only touched a small fraction of the population, and in modern times this has led many historians, such as any that follow historical materialism, to reduce the importance of the Renaissance in human history. Historical materialism is the methodological approach to the study of society economics and history which was first articulated by Karl Marx ( 1818 - 1883 These historians tend to think in terms of "Early Modern Europe" instead. The early modern period is a term used by historians to refer to the period in Western '''Europe''' and its first colonies which spans the three centuries between
End of the Italian Renaissance
-
For more details on this topic, see Northern Renaissance. The Northern Renaissance is the term used to describe the Renaissance in Northern Europe, or more broadly in Europe outside Italy.
The end of the Renaissance is as imprecisely marked as its starting point. For many, the rise to power in Florence of the austere monk Girolamo Savonarola in 1494-1498 marks the end of the city's flourishing; for others, the triumphant return of the Medici marks the beginning of the late phase in the arts called Mannerism. Girolamo Savonarola ( September 21, 1452 &ndash May 23, 1498) was an Italian Dominican priest and leader of Florence from Mannerism is a period of European art which emerged from the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520. Savonarola rode to power on a widespread backlash over the secularism and indulgence of the Renaissance –[19] his brief rule saw many works of art destroyed in the "Bonfire of the Vanities" in the centre of Florence. Bonfire of the Vanities (Falò delle vanità refers to the burning of objects that are deemed to be occasions of sin. With the Medici returned to power, now as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, the counter movement in the church continued. The rulers of Tuscany have varied over time sometimes being Margraves the rulers of handfuls of border counties and sometimes the heads of the most important family In 1542 the Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition was formed and a few years later the Index Librorum Prohibitorum banned a wide array of Renaissance works of literature. The term Inquisition can refer to any one of several institutions charged with trying and convicting heretics within the Roman Catholic Church and The Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books" was a list of publications prohibited by the Roman Catholic Church.
Just as important was the end of stability with a series of foreign invasions of Italy known as the Italian Wars that would continue for several decades. These began with the 1494 invasion by France that wreaked widespread devastation on Northern Italy and ended the independence of many of the city-states. Most damaging was the May 6, 1527, Spanish and German troops' sacking Rome that for two decades all but ended the role of the Papacy as the largest patron of Renaissance art and architecture. Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance. [11]
While the Italian Renaissance was fading, the Northern Renaissance adopted many of its ideals and transformed its styles. A number of Italy's greatest artists chose to emigrate. The most notable example was Leonardo da Vinci who left for France in 1516, but teams of lesser artists invited to transform the Château de Fontainebleau created the school of Fontainebleau that infused the style of the Italian Renaissance in France. Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer The Palace of Fontainebleau, located 345 miles from the centre of Paris, is one of the largest French royal Châteaux The palace as it is today is the work of many The Ecole de Fontainebleau refers to two periods of artistic production in France during the late Renaissance centered around the royal Château de Fontainebleau From Fontainebleau, the new styles, transformed by Mannerism, brought the Renaissance to Antwerp and thence throughout Northern Europe. Mannerism is a period of European art which emerged from the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520. ||-||-||-||} Antwerp ( Dutch:, French: Anvers) is a City and Municipality in Belgium and the capital of the
This spread north was also representative of a larger trend. No longer was the Mediterranean Europe's most important trade route. In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, and from that date the primary route of goods from the Orient was through the Atlantic ports of Lisbon, Seville, Nantes, Bristol, and London. Dom Vasco da Gama, 1st Count of Vidigueira ('vaʃku dɐ 'gɐmɐ ( Sines or Vidigueira, Alentejo, Portugal, ca These areas quickly surpassed Italy in wealth and power.
Culture
Literature and poetry
The thirteenth-century Italian literary revolution helped set the stage for the Renaissance. Prior to the Renaissance, the Italian language was not the literary language in Italy. Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. A literary language is a register of a Language that is used in Literary Writing. It was only in the 13th century that Italian authors began writing in their native language rather than Latin, French, or Provençal. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Provençal ( Provençau) is one of several dialects of Occitan spoken by a minority of people mostly in Provence (in southern France The 1250s saw a major change in Italian poetry as the Dolce Stil Novo (Sweet New Style, which emphasized Platonic rather than courtly love) came into its own, pioneered by poets like Guittone d'Arezzo and Guido Guinizelli. Dolce Stil Novo (Italian for "sweet new style" modern Italian nuovo) is the name given to the most important literary movement of 13th century Amor Platonicus The term amor platonicus was coined as early as the 15th century by the Florentine scholar Marsilio Ficino Courtly love was a Medieval European conception of ennobling love which found its genesis in the ducal and princely courts of Aquitaine, Provence Guittone d'Arezzo ( Arezzo, c 1235 - 1294 was a Tuscan Poet and the founder of the Tuscan School Guido Guinizzelli (c 1230-1240 died before 1276 was an Italian poet and 'founder' of the Dolce Stil Novo. Especially in poetry, major changes in Italian literature had been taking place decades before the Renaissance truly began.
With the printing of books initiated in Venice by Aldus Manutius, an increasing number of works began to be published in the Italian language in addition to the flood of Latin and Greek texts that constituted the mainstream of the Italian Renaissance. Aldus Manutius (1449/1450 – February 6, 1515) the Latinized name of Teobaldo Mannucci, sometimes called Aldus Manutius the Elder to distinguish The source for these works expanded beyond works of theology and towards the pre-Christian eras of Imperial Rome and Ancient Greece. Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca This is not to say that no religious works were published in this period: Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy reflects a distinctly medieval world view. The Divine Comedy Christianity remained a major influence for artists and authors, with the classics coming into their own as a second primary influence. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings "Classical literature" redirects here For literature in Classical languages outside the Graeco-Roman sphere see Ancient literature.
In the early Italian Renaissance, much of the focus was on translating and studying classic works from Latin and Greek. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Renaissance authors were not content to rest on the laurels of ancient authors, however. Many authors attempted to integrate the methods and styles of the ancient greats into their own works. Among the most emulated Romans are Cicero, Horace, Sallust, and Virgil. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Quintus Horatius Flaccus, ( Venosa, December 8, 65 BC - Rome, November 27, 8 BC known in the English-speaking world as Horace For the philosopher see Sallustius; for other uses see Sallust (disambiguation. Publius Vergilius Maro ( October 15, 70 BCE &ndash September 21, 19 BCE later called Virgilius, and known in English as Virgil or Among the Greeks, Aristotle, Homer, and Plato were now being read in the original for the first time since the fourth century, though Greek compositions were few. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece
The literature and poetry of the Renaissance was largely influenced by the developing science and philosophy. The humanist Francesco Petrarch, a key figure in the renewed sense of scholarship, was also an accomplished poet, publishing several important works of poetry. Francesco Petrarca ( July 20, 1304 – July 19, 1374) known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar He wrote poetry in Latin, notably the Punic War epic Africa, but is today remembered for his works in the Italian vernacular, especially the Canzoniere, a collection of love sonnets dedicated to his unrequited love Laura. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC and were probably the largest wars yet of the ancient Africa is an epic poem in Latin Hexameters by the 14th century Italian poet Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca Vernacular refers to the Native language of a country or a locality Il Canzoniere (English "Song Book" also known as the Rime Sparse (English "Scattered Rhymes" is a poetical collection by the Italian The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. He was the foremost writer of sonnets in Italian, and translations of his work into English by Thomas Wyatt established the sonnet form in that country, where it was employed by William Shakespeare and countless other poets. The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. Thomas Wyatt may refer to Thomas Henry Wyatt (1807-1880 British architect Thomas Wyatt (poet (1503-1542 English poet William Shakespeare ( baptised
Petrarch's disciple, Giovanni Boccaccio, became a major author in his own right. His major work was the Decameron, a collection of 100 stories told by ten storytellers who have fled to the outskirts of Florence to escape the black plague over ten nights. The Decameron (subtitle Prencipe Galeotto) is a collection of 100 Novellas by Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio, probably begun in The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia The Decameron in particular and Boccaccio's work in general were a major source of inspiration and plots for many English authors in the Renaissance, including Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare. The Decameron (subtitle Prencipe Galeotto) is a collection of 100 Novellas by Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio, probably begun in Geoffrey Chaucer (c 1343 – 25 October 1400? was an English author poet Philosopher, bureaucrat, courtier and Diplomat. William Shakespeare ( baptised
Aside from Christianity, classical antiquity, and scholarship, a fourth influence on Renaissance literature was politics. Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean The political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli's most famous works are Discourses on Livy, Florentine Histories and finally The Prince, which has become so well-known in Western society that the term "Machiavellian" has come to refer to the realpolitik advocated by the book. The Discourses on Livy ( Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio, Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Florentine Histories (Istorie fiorentine is a historical account by Niccolò Machiavelli first published in 1532 Il Principe ( The Prince) is a political Treatise by the Florentine public servant and political theorist Realpolitik ( German: de real “realistic” “practical” or “actual” and de Politik “politics” refers to politics or diplomacy based primarily However, what is ordinarily called "Machiavellianism" is a simplified textbook view of this single work rather than an accurate term for his philosophy. Further, it is not at all clear that Machiavelli himself was the apologist for immorality as whom he is often portrayed: the basic problem is the apparent contradiction between the monarchism of the Prince and the republicanism of the Discourses. Regardless, along with many other Renaissance works, The Prince remains a relevant and influential work of literature today.
Philosophy
One role of Petrarch is as the founder of a new method of scholarship, Renaissance Humanism. Renaissance Humanism was a European intellectual movement beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century Francesco Petrarca ( July 20, 1304 – July 19, 1374) known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar Humanism was an optimistic philosophy that saw man as a rational and sentient being, with the ability to decide and think for himself. This was an implicit rejection of the Roman Catholic Church's vision of souls as the only absolute reality, which was then seen as mystical and imaginary. Humanism saw man as inherently good by nature, which was in tension with the Christian view of man as the original sinner needing redemption. Original sin is according to a doctrine in Catholic theology, humanity's state of Sin resulting from the Fall of Man. It provoked fresh insight into the nature of reality, questioning beyond God and spirituality, and provided for knowledge about history beyond Christian history.
Petrarch encouraged the study of the Latin classics and carried his copy of Homer about, at a loss to find someone to teach him to read Greek. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. An essential step in the humanist education being propounded by scholars like Pico della Mirandola was the hunting down of lost or forgotten manuscripts that were known only by reputation. Count Giovanni Pico della Mirandola ( February 24, 1463 - November 17, 1494) was an Italian Renaissance Philosopher. These endeavors were greatly aided by the wealth of Italian patricians, merchant-princes and despots, who would spend substantial sums building libraries. A library is a collection of information sources resources and services and the structure in which it is housed it is organized for use and maintained by a public body an institution Discovering the past had become fashionable and it was a passionate affair pervading the upper reaches of society. I go, said Cyriac of Ancona, I go to awake the dead. Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli or Cyriacus of Ancona ( 31 July 1391 — 1453/55 was a restlessly itinerant Italian humanist and Antiquarian As the Greek works were acquired, manuscripts found, libraries and museums formed, the age of the printing press was dawning. A museum is a "permanent institution in the service of society and of its development open to the public which acquires conserves researches communicates and exhibits the A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image The works of Antiquity were translated from Greek and Latin into the contemporary modern languages throughout Europe, finding a receptive middle-class audience, which might be, like Shakespeare, "with little Latin and less Greek".
While concern for philosophy, art and literature all increased greatly in the Renaissance the period is usually seen as one of scientific backwardness. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language The reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed as an animate spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or mathematics. At the same time philosophy lost much of its rigour as the rules of logic and deduction were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference.
Science
It would not be until the Renaissance moved to Northern Europe that science would be revived, with such figures as Copernicus, Francis Bacon, and Descartes. During the Renaissance, the rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of Printing Francis Bacon 1st Viscount St Alban KC QC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626 was an English Philosopher, Statesman, and author Eventually, Galileo brought scientific thought back to Italy. Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher
Sculpture and painting
In painting, the false dawn of Giotto's Trecento realism, his fully three-dimensional figures occupying a rational space, and his humanist interest in expressing the individual personality rather than the iconic images, was followed by a retreat into conservative late Gothic conventions. In Christian eschatology, the Last Judgment or Day of the Lord is the judgment by God of every human who ever lived Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni Two biographies were published of him during his lifetime One of them by Giorgio Vasari, proposed that he was the pinnacle of all Renaissance painting bridges the period of European art history between the art of the Middle Ages and Baroque art. The Trecento (Italian for 300 or from "mille trecento" 1300 refers to the 14th century in Italian cultural history This article is about Gothic art See also Gothic architecture Gothic art was a Medieval art movement that lasted about 200 The Italian Renaissance in painting began anew, in Florence and Tuscany, with the frescos of Masaccio, then the panel paintings and frescos of Piero della Francesca and Paolo Uccello which began to enhance the realism of their work by using new techniques in perspective, thus representing three dimensions in two-dimensional art more authentically. Masaccio (born Tommaso Cassai or in some accounts Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Mone; December 21, 1401 &ndash autumn 1428 was the first great A panel painting is a Painting on a panel made of wood either a single piece or a number of pieces joined together Fresco (plural either frescos or frescoes) is any of several related Painting types done on Plaster on walls or Piero della Francesca (c 1412 &ndash October 12, 1492) was an Italian artist of the Early Renaissance. Paolo Uccello (born Paolo di Dono, 1397 &ndash December 10 1475) was an Italian painter who was notable for his pioneering work on visual Perspective (from Latin perspicere to see through in the graphic arts such as drawing is an approximate representation on a flat surface (such as paper of an image as it is perceived In mathematics the dimension of a Space is roughly defined as the minimum number of Coordinates needed to specify every point within it Piero della Francesca wrote treatises on scientific perspective. The creation of credible space allowed artists to also focus on the accurate representation of the human body and on naturalistic landscapes. Masaccio's figures have a plasticity unknown up to that point in time. Masaccio (born Tommaso Cassai or in some accounts Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Mone; December 21, 1401 &ndash autumn 1428 was the first great Compared to the flatness of Gothic painting, his pictures were revolutionary. At the turn of the 16th century, especially in Northern Italy, artists also began to use new techniques in the manipulation of light and darkness, such as the tone contrast evident in many of Titian's portraits and the development of sfumato and chiaroscuro by Leonardo da Vinci and Giorgione. Tiziano Vecelli or Tiziano Vecellio (c 1485 &ndash August 27 1576 better known as Titian, was the leading painter of the 16th-century Venetian Sfumato is the Italian term for a Painting technique which overlays translucent layers of colour to create perceptions of depth volume and form Chiaroscuro ( Italian for light-dark) is a term in Art for a contrast between light and dark Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer Giorgione (c 1477 &ndash 1510 is the familiar name of Giorgio Barbarelli da Castelfranco, an Italian painter a seminal artist of the High Renaissance The period also saw the first secular (non- religious) themes. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos There has been much debate as to the degree of secularism in the Renaissance, which had been emphasized by early 20th-century writers like Jacob Burckhardt, based on, among other things, the presence of a relatively small number of mythological paintings. Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs Those of Botticelli, notably the The Birth of Venus and Primavera, are now among the best known, although he was deeply religious (becoming a follower of Savonarola) and the great majority of his output was of traditional religious paintings or portraits. The Birth of Venus is a Painting by Sandro Botticelli. It depicts the goddess Venus, having emerged from the Sea as a full grown The Primavera is a painting by the Italian Renaissance painter Sandro Botticelli, c
In sculpture, Donatello's (1386–1466) study of classical sculpture lead to his development of classicizing positions (such as the contrapposto pose) and subject matter (like the unsupported nude – his second sculpture of David was the first free-standing bronze nude created in Europe since the Roman Empire. Donatello ( Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi; c 1386 &ndash December 13, 1466) was a famous early Renaissance Italian Contrapposto is an Italian term meaning "counterpoise" used in the Visual arts to describe a human figure standing with most of its weight on one foot This article is about the sculpture by Donatello for other uses see David (disambiguation. ) The progress made by Donatello was influential on all who followed; perhaps the greatest of whom is Michelangelo, whose David of 1500 is also a male nude study; more naturalistic than Donatello's and with greater emotional intensity. Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni Two biographies were published of him during his lifetime One of them by Giorgio Vasari, proposed that he was the pinnacle of all David is a Masterpiece of Renaissance Sculpture sculpted by Michelangelo from 1501 to 1504 Both sculptures are standing in contrapposto, their weight shifted to one leg.
The period known as the High Renaissance represents the culmination of the goals of the earlier period, namely the accurate representation of figures in space rendered with credible motion and in an appropriately decorous style. The High Renaissance, in the History of art, denotes the culmination of the art of the Italian Renaissance between 1450 and 1527 The most famous painters from this phase are Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. Raphael Sanzio, usually known by his first name alone (in Italian Raffaello) (April 6 or March 28 1483 – April 6 1520 was an Italian painter and Their images are among the most widely known works of art in the world. Leonardo's Last Supper, Raphael's The School of Athens and Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel Ceiling are the textbook materpieces of the period. The School of Athens, or it Scuola di Atene in Italian, is one of the most famous Paintings by the Italian Renaissance artist The Sistine Chapel ceiling, painted by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512 is one of the most renowned artworks of the High Renaissance.
High Renaissance painting evolved into Mannerism, especially in Florence. Mannerism is a period of European art which emerged from the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520. Mannerist artists, who consciously rebelled against the principles of High Renaissance, tend to represent elongated figures in illogical spaces. Modern scholarship has recognized the capacity of Mannerist art to convey strong (often religious) emotion where the High Renaissance failed to do so. Some of the main artists of this period are Pontormo, Bronzino, Rosso Fiorentino, Parmigianino and Raphael's pupil Giulio Romano. Jacopo Carucci ( May 24, 1494 — January 2, 1557) usually known as Jacopo da Pontormo, Jacopo Pontormo or simply Agnolo di Cosimo ( November 17, 1503 &ndash November 23, 1572) usually known as Il Bronzino, or Agnolo Bronzino (mistaken Giovanni Battista di Jacopo (1494-1540 known as Rosso Fiorentino (meaning "the Red Florentine" in Italian or Il Rosso, was an Italian Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola ( 11 January 1503 - 24 August 1540) also known as Francesco Mazzola or more commonly as Giulio Romano (c 1499 &ndash November 1, 1546) was an Italian painter and architect.
Architecture
In Florence, the Renaissance style was introduced with a revolutionary but incomplete monument in Rimini by Leone Battista Alberti. Renaissance architecture is the architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe in which there was a Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany Leon Battista Alberti ( February 14, 1404 &ndash April 25, 1472) was an Italian author artist Architect, Poet Some of the earliest buildings showing Renaissance characteristics are Filippo Brunelleschi's church of San Lorenzo and the Pazzi Chapel. Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 – April 15, 1446) was one of the foremost architects and engineers of the Italian Renaissance. The Basilica di San Lorenzo ( Basilica of St Lawrence) is one of the largest churches of Florence, Italy, situated at the centre of the city’s The Pazzi Chapel ( Italian: Cappella dei Pazzi) in Florence is considered to be one of the masterpieces of Renaissance architecture. The interior of Santo Spirito expresses a new sense of light, clarity and spaciousness, which is typical of the early Italian Renaissance. Its architecture reflects the philosophy of Humanism, the enlightenment and clarity of mind as opposed to the darkness and spirituality of the Middle Ages. Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal The revival of classical antiquity can best be illustrated by the Palazzo Rucellai. Palazzo Rucellai is a fifteenth-century Palace in Florence, Italy, designed by Leon Battista Alberti between 1446 and 1451 and executed Here the pilasters follow the superposition of classical orders, with Doric capitals on the ground floor, Ionic capitals on the piano nobile and Corinthian capitals on the uppermost floor. A pilaster is a slightly-projecting flattened Column built into or applied to the face of a wall A classical order is one of the ancient styles of building design in the classical tradition, distinguished by their proportions and their characteristic profiles and details The Doric order was one of the three '''orders''' or organizational systems of Ancient Greek or Classical architecture; the other two Canonical The Ionic order column forms one of the three '''orders''' or '''organizational systems''' of Classical architecture, the other two canonic orders being the The piano nobile is the principal Floor of a large House, usually built in one of the styles of classical renaissance architecture. The Corinthian order is one of the Classical orders of Greek and Roman Architecture, characterized
In Mantua, Leone Battista Alberti ushered in the new antique style, though his culminating work, Sant'Andrea, was not begun until 1472, after the architect's death. Leon Battista Alberti ( February 14, 1404 &ndash April 25, 1472) was an Italian author artist Architect, Poet The Basilica di Sant'Andrea is a Renaissance church in Mantua, Lombardy ( Italy)
The High Renaissance, as we call the style today, was introduced to Rome with Donato Bramante's Tempietto at San Pietro in Montorio (1502) and his original centrally-planned St. Peter's Basilica (1506), which was the most notable architectural commission of the era, influenced by almost all notable Renaissance artists, including Michelangelo and Giacomo della Porta. Donato Bramante (1444 – March 11, 1514) was an Italian Architect, who introduced the Early Renaissance style to Milan and the High Renaissance Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Donato Bramante (1444 – March 11, 1514) was an Italian Architect, who introduced the Early Renaissance style to Milan and the High Renaissance San Pietro in Montorio is a church in Rome, which includes in its courtyard The Tempietto (a small commemorative martyrium) built by Donato Bramante The Basilica of Saint Peter (Basilica Sancti Petri officially known in Italian as the Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano and commonly known as St Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni Two biographies were published of him during his lifetime One of them by Giorgio Vasari, proposed that he was the pinnacle of all Giacomo della Porta (c 1533 &ndash 1602 was an Italian architect and sculptor who worked for many important buildings in Rome including St The beginning of the late Renaissance in 1550 was marked by the development of a new column order by Andrea Palladio. Andrea Palladio ( November 30, 1508 – August 19, 1580) was an Italian Architect, widely considered the most influential Colossal columns that were two or more stories tall decorated the facades. A facade or façade (fəˈsɑːd is generally one side of the exterior of a Building, especially the front but also sometimes the sides and rear
Music
In Italy in the 14th century there was an explosion of musical activity that corresponded in scope and level of innovation to the activity in the other arts. Renaissance music is European music written during the Renaissance, approximately 1400 - 1600 Although musicologists typically group the music of the Trecento (music of the 1300s) with the late medieval period, it included features which align with the early Renaissance in important ways: an increasing emphasis on secular sources, styles and forms; a spreading of culture away from ecclesiastical institutions to the nobility, and even to the common people; and a quick development of entirely new techniques. Musicology ( Greek: μουσική = "music" and λόγος = "word" or "reason" is the scholarly study of Music The Trecento (Italian for 300 or from "mille trecento" 1300 refers to the 14th century in Italian cultural history The term medieval music encompasses European music written during the Middle Ages. The principal forms were the Trecento madrigal, the caccia, and the ballata. The Madrigal is an Italian musical form of the 14th century. The form flourished ca In Music, a canon is a contrapuntal composition that employs a Melody with one or more imitations of the melody played after a given duration (e The ballata (plural ballate) is an Italian poetic and Musical form, which was in use from the late 13th to the 15th century Overall, the musical style of the period is sometimes labelled as the "Italian ars nova. Ars nova was a stylistic period in Music of the Late Middle Ages, centered in France, which encompassed the period roughly from the preparation "
From the early 15th century to the middle of the 16th century, the center of innovation in sacred music was in the Low Countries, and a flood of talented composers came to Italy from this region. The Low Countries, the historical region of de Nederlanden, are the countries on low-lying land around the delta of the Rhine, Scheldt Many of them sang in either the papal choir in Rome or the choirs at the numerous chapels of the aristocracy, in Rome, Venice, Florence, Milan, Ferrara and elsewhere; and they brought their polyphonic style with them, influencing many native Italian composers during their stay. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Ferrara is a city in Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy, capital city of the Province of Ferrara. In Music, polyphony is a texture consisting of two or more independent Melodic voices, as opposed to music with just one voice ( Monophony
The predominant forms of church music during the period were the mass and the motet. For other uses see Mass (disambiguation The Mass, a form of sacred musical composition, is a choral composition that In Western music, motet is a word that is applied to a number of highly varied choral musical compositions By far the most famous composer of church music in 16th century Italy was Palestrina, the most prominent member of the Roman School, whose style of smooth, emotionally cool polyphony was to become the defining sound of the late 16th century, at least for generations of 19th- and 20th century musicologists. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (between 3 February 1525 and 2 February 1526 - 2 February 1594 was an Italian Composer of the Renaissance. The Roman school is the education system of the Ancient Rome. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar Other Italian composers of the late 16th century focused on composing the main secular form of the era, the madrigal: and for almost a hundred years these secular songs for multiple singers were distributed all over Europe. A madrigal is a type of Secular vocal music composition written during the Renaissance and early Baroque eras Composers of madrigals included Jacques Arcadelt, at the beginning of the age, Cipriano de Rore, in the middle of the century, and Luca Marenzio, Philippe de Monte, Carlo Gesualdo, and Claudio Monteverdi at the end of the era. Jacques Arcadelt (also Jacob Arcadelt) (1504 or 1505 &ndash October 14, 1568) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the middle to late Renaissance Cypriano de Rore or Cipriano de Rore (1515 or 1516 – between September 11 and September 20 1565 was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance, active Luca Marenzio (also Marentio) ( October 18 ? 1553? &ndash August 22, 1599) was an Italian composer of the late Renaissance Philippe de Monte (1521 – July 4, 1603) sometimes known as Philippus de Monte, was a Flemish composer of the late Renaissance. This article is about the composer for the Italian town see Gesualdo (town.
Italy was also a centre of innovation in instrumental music. By the early 16th century keyboard improvisation came to be greatly valued, and numerous composers of virtuoso keyboard music appeared. Many familiar instruments were invented and perfected in late Renaissance Italy, such as the violin, the earliest forms of which came into use in the 1550s. The violin is a bowed String instrument with four strings usually tuned in Perfect fifths It is the smallest and highest-pitched member
By the late 16th century Italy was the musical centre of Europe. Almost all of the innovations which were to define the transition to the Baroque period originated in northern Italy in the last few decades of the century. Baroque music describes an era and a set of styles of European classical music which were in widespread use between approximately 1600 and 1750. In Venice, the polychoral productions of the Venetian School, and associated instrumental music, moved north into Germany; in Florence, the Florentine Camerata developed monody, the important precursor to opera, which itself first appeared around 1600; and the avant-garde, manneristic style of the Ferrara school, which migrated to Naples and elsewhere through the music of Carlo Gesualdo, was to be the final statement of the polyphonic vocal music of the Renaissance. The Venetian polychoral style was a type of music of the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras which involved spatially separate Choirs singing in alternation In music history the Venetian School is a term used to describe the Composers working in Venice from about 1550 to around 1610; it also describes The Florentine Camerata was a group of humanists Musicians Poets and Intellectuals in late Renaissance Florence who gathered In Poetry, the term monody has become specialized to refer to a poem in which one person laments another's death Opera is an art form in which Singers and Musicians perform a Dramatic work (called an opera which combines a text (called a Libretto Mannerism is a period of European art which emerged from the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520. Naples ( Napoli, Neapolitan: Nàpule) is a historic City in southern Italy, the Capital of the This article is about the composer for the Italian town see Gesualdo (town.
Notes
- ^ Jensen, De Lamar. Renaissance Europe. p. 95.
- ^ Burke, Peter. The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy. p. 232.
- ^ ibid, p. 93.
- ^ ibid, p. 97; see also Andrew B. Appleby's "Epidemics and Famine in the Little Ice Age. " Journal of Interdisciplinary History. Vol. 10 No. 4.
- ^ Olea, Ricardo A, Christakos, George, "Duration of Urban Mortality for the 14th-Century Black Death Epidemic", Human Biology, Jun 2005. The population level of Florence is controversial see also Ziegler (1969, pp. 51-52), Chandler 1987, pp. 16-18, and Gottfried 1983, p. 46
- ^ Lopez, Robert Sabatino. "Hard Times and Investment in Culture. "
- ^ Baron, Hans. "The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance". Princeton University Press, March 01, 1966. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 1966 ( MCMLXVI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the 1966 Gregorian calendar. ISBN 0-6910-0752-7
- ^ Jensen, p. 64.
- ^ Crum , Roger J. Severing the Neck of Pride: Donatello's "Judith and Holofernes" and the Recollection of Albizzi Shame in Medicean Florence . Artibus et Historiae, Volume 22, Edit 44, 2001. pp. 23-29.
- ^ ibid, p. 80.
- ^ a b Burke, p. 271.
- ^ Burke, p. 271.
- ^ ibid, p. 256.
- ^ Jensen, p. 105.
- ^ Burke, p. 246.
- ^ Jensen, p. 104.
- ^ Burke, p. 255.
- ^ Pullan, Brian S. "History of Early Renaissance Italy". New York, Allen Lane, 1973.
- ^ Cast, David. "Review: Fra Girolamo Savonarola: Florentine Art and Renaissance Historiography by Ronald M. Steinberg". The Art Bulletin, Volume 61, No. 1, March 1979. pp. 134-136.
References
- Baron, Hans. The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966.
- Burckhardt, Jacob (1878), The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, trans. Jacob Christoph Burckhardt ( May 25, 1818, Basel, Switzerland &ndash August 8, 1897, Basel was a Swiss The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy ( Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien) is an 1860 work on the Italian Renaissance by Swiss historian S. G. C Middlemore[1]
- Burke, Peter. The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
- Cronin, Vincent, The Florentine Renaissance (1967) ISBN 0-00-211262-0; The Flowering of the Renaissance (1969) ISBN 0-7126-9884-1; The Renaissance (1992) ISBN 0-00-215411-0
- Hagopian, Viola L. Vincent Cronin (born May 24, 1924 in Tredegar, Wales) is a British historical cultural and biographical writer whose works have "Italy", in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd. , 1980. ISBN
- Hay, Denys. The Italian Renaissance in Its Historical Background. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
- Jensen, De Lamar (1992), Renaissance Europe (ISBN)
- Lopez, Robert Sabatino, The Three Ages of the Italian Renaissance Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1970.
- Pullan, Brian S. History of Early Renaissance Italy. London: Lane, 1973.
- Raffini, Christine, Marsilio Ficino, Pietro Bembo, Baldassare Castiglione: Philosophical, Aesthetic, and Political Approaches in Renaissance Platonism. Renaissance and Baroque Studies and Texts, v. 21, Peter Lang Publishing, 1998. ISBN 0-8204-3023-4
External links
- Renaissance House. Victoria and Albert Museum. The Victoria and Albert Museum (often abbreviated as the V&A) in London is the world's largest museum of decorative arts and design housing a permanent collection Retrieved on 2007-06-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 781 BC - The first historic Solar eclipse is recorded in China.
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