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Istanbul Pogrom
Istanbul Pogrom
Turkish mob attacking Greek property.
Location Istanbul, Turkey
Date 6–September 7, 1955
Attack type Mob attack
Deaths 10+ killed
Suspected perpetrator(s) DP Government, conservative fractions

The Istanbul Pogrom (also known as Istanbul Riots; Greek: Σεπτεμβριανά (Events of September); Turkish: 6–7 Eylül Olayları (Events of September 6–7)), was a pogrom directed primarily at Istanbul's 150,000-strong[1] Greek minority on September 6 and 7, 1955. Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Events 3114 BC - According to the Proleptic Julian calendar the current era in the Maya Long Count Calendar started Events 1251 BC - A Solar eclipse on this date might mark the birth of legendary Heracles at Thebes Greece. Year 1955 ( MCMLV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar) Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. A pogrom is a form of Riot directed against a particular group whether ethnic religious or other and characterized by destruction of their Homes Businesses Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Events 3114 BC - According to the Proleptic Julian calendar the current era in the Maya Long Count Calendar started Events 1251 BC - A Solar eclipse on this date might mark the birth of legendary Heracles at Thebes Greece. Year 1955 ( MCMLV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar) Jews and Armenians living in the city and their businesses were also targeted in the pogrom, which was allegedly orchestrated by the Demokrat Parti-government of Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large This article is about the historical Democratic Party in Turkey. This is a chronological list of Prime Ministers of Turkey, since the establishment of that position in 1920, during the Turkish War of Independence. Ali Adnan Ertekin Menderes ( 1899 - September 17, 1961) was a Turkish liberal statesman and the first democratically elected leader The events were triggered by the false news that the house in Thessaloniki, Greece, where Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was born in 1881, had been bombed the day before. Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (19 May 1881 &ndash 10 November 1938 was an army officer revolutionary Statesman [2]

A Turkish mob, most of which was trucked into the city in advance, assaulted Istanbul’s Greek community for nine hours. Ochlocracy ( Greek: οχλοκρατία or okhlokratía; Latin: ochlocratia) is government by mob or a mass of people Although the orchestrators of the pogrom did not explicitly call for Greeks to be killed, between 13 and 16 Greeks (including two Orthodox clerics) and at least one Armenian died during or after the pogrom as a result of beatings and arsons. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world A cleric ( Ancient Greek κληρικός - klērikos clergyman (pl [3]

Thirty-two Greeks were severely wounded. In addition, dozens of Greek women were raped, and a number of men were forcibly circumcised by the mob. Male circumcision is the removal of some or all of the Foreskin (prepuce from the Penis. 4,348 Greek-owned businesses, 110 hotels, 27 pharmacies, 23 schools, 21 factories, 73 churches and over a thousand Greek-owned homes were badly damaged or destroyed. [3]

Estimates of the economic cost of the damage vary from Turkish government's estimate of 69. 5 million Turkish lira (equivalent to 24. The Lira ( Turkish Türk lirası or TL) was the currency of Turkey until 2005 8 million US$[4]), the British diplomat estimates of 100 million GBP (about 200 million US$), the World Council of Churches’ estimate of 150 million USD, and the Greek government's estimate of 500 million US$. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been The Pound Sterling ( symbol £; ISO code: GBP) subdivided into 100 pence (singular penny) is the Currency The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been The World Council of Churches ( WCC) is an international The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been [3]

The pogrom greatly accelerated emigration of ethnic Greeks from the Istanbul region, reducing the 150,000-strong Greek minority in 1924 to about 2000. "Emigrant" redirects here For the Butterflies, see Catopsilia. [1] The number seems to be recovering since then, being over 5,000 in 2006. [5]

Contents

Background

The Greeks of Istanbul

Constantinople (modern Istanbul) was the capital of the Byzantine Empire until 1453, when the city was conquered by Ottoman forces. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish A large Greek community continued to live in the city. The city’s Greek population, particularly the Phanariotes, came to play a significant role in the social and economic life of the city and in the political and diplomatic life of the Ottoman Empire in general. Phanariotes, Phanariots, or Phanariote Greeks ( Greek:Φαναριώτες Romanian: Fanarioţi, Bulgarian:Фанариоти The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish This continued after the establishment of an independent Greek state in 1829, as well. A number of ethnic Greeks served in the Ottoman diplomatic service in the 19th century.

Following the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922), the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, the forcible population exchange resulted in the uprooting of all Greeks in Turkey (and Turks in Greece) from where many of them had lived for centuries. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey is the first large-scale population exchange, or agreed mutual expulsion in the 20th century But due to the Greeks' strong emotional attachment to their ancient capital as well as the importance of the Ecumenical Patriarchate for Greek and worldwide orthodoxy, the Greek population of Istanbul was specifically exempted and allowed to stay in place. History Early history Christianity in Byzantium existed from the time of the Twelve Apostles, but it was in the year 330 that the Roman Emperor Nevertheless, this population began to decline, as evidenced by demographic statistics.

Punitive measures, such as the 1932 parliamentary law, barred Greek citizens living in Turkey from a series of 30 trades and professions from tailor and carpenter to medicine, law and real estate. A tailor is a person whose occupation is to sew and scissor menswear style jackets and the skirts or trousers that go with them A carpenter (builder is a skilled craftsman who performs carpentry - a wide range of Woodworking that includes constructing buildings, Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society Real estate is a legal term (in some jurisdictions notably in the USA, United Kingdom [3] The Varlık Vergisi capital gains tax imposed in 1942 also served to reduce the economic potential of Greek businesspeople in Turkey. Varlık Vergisi (literally Wealth tax or Capital tax) was a Turkish tax levied on the wealthy citizens of Turkey in 1942 with the purpose to raise funds

Context

Since 1954, a number of nationalist student and irredentist organizations, such as the National Federation of Turkish Students, the National Union of Turkish Students, and Hikmet Bilâ's (editor of the major newspaper Hürriyet) Cyprus is Turkish Party, had protested against the Greek minority and the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Irredentism is any position advocating Annexation of territories administered by another State on the grounds of common Ethnicity or prior historical possession Hürriyet (meaning Liberty) is an influential high-circulation broadsheet daily Turkish newspaper. [3]

In 1955, a state-supported propaganda campaign involving the Turkish press galvanized public opinion against the Greek minority. [3] In the weeks running up to September 6, Turkish leaders made a number of anti-Greek speeches. On August 28 Prime Minister Menderes claimed that Greek Cypriots were planning a massacre of Turkish Cypriots. In addition to the Cyprus issue, the chronic economic situation also motivated the Turkish political leadership into orchestrating the pogrom. Although a minority, the Greek population played a prominent role in the city’s business life, making it a convenient scapegoat during the economic crisis. scapegoat was a Goat that was driven off into the wilderness as part of the ceremonies of Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement in Judaism during the times [3] The pogroms were sparked by an alleged arson attack at the Turkish consulate (and birthplace of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk) in Greece’s second largest city, Thessaloniki. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (19 May 1881 &ndash 10 November 1938 was an army officer revolutionary Statesman Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia

The Pogrom

Planning

The 1961 Yassıada Trial against Menderes and Foreign Minister Fatin Rüştü Zorlu exposed the detailed planning of the pogrom. Yassıada (Greek Plati) is one of the Princes' Islands in the Sea of Marmara. Fatin Rüştü Zorlu (1910 &ndash 1961 was a Turkish Diplomat and Politician. Menderes and Zorlu mobilized the formidable machinery of the ruling Demokrat Parti (DP) and party-controlled trade unions of Istanbul. This article is about the historical Democratic Party in Turkey. Interior minister Namik Gedik was also involved. According to Zorlu's lawyer at the Yassiada trial, a mob of 300,000 was marshalled in a radius of 40 miles (60 km) around the city for the pogrom. [3]

The trial also revealed that the fuse for the consulate bomb was sent from Turkey to Thessaloniki on September 3. Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius Oktay Engin, the MAH agent, who was then in Thessaloniki under the cover of a university student, was given the mission of installing the explosives. ae Mah or ae Maonghah is the Avestan language word for both the moon and for the Zoroastrian divinity that presides over and is the hypostasis [3]

In addition, ten of Istanbul’s 18 branches of Cyprus is Turkish Party were run by DP officials. This organization played a crucial role in inciting anti-Greek activities. [3]

In his 2005 book, Speros Vryonis documents the direct role of the Demokrat Parti organization and government-controlled trade unions in amassing the rioters that swept Istanbul. Most of the rioters came from western Asia Minor. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black His case study of Eskişehir shows how the party there recruited 400 to 500 workers from local factories, who were carted by train with third class-tickets to Istanbul. Eskişehir ( eskē'shehēr, Eskişehir "Old City" Latin: Dorylaeum; Greek: Δορύλαιον Dorylaion) is a city These recruits were promised the equivalent of US$ 6, which was never paid. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been They were accompanied by Eskişehir police, who were charged with coordinating the destruction and looting once the contingent was broken up into sub-groups of 40–50 men, and the leaders of the party branches. Police are agents or agencies usually of the executive, empowered to enforce the law and to effect public and social order through the legitimatized use of force [3]

Execution

Municipal and government trucks were placed in strategic points all around the city to distribute the tools of destruction; shovels, pickaxes, crowbars, ramming rods and petrol; while 4,000 private taxis were requisitioned to transport the perpetrators. A shovel is a Tool for lifting and moving loose material such as Coal, Gravel, Snow, Soil, or Sand and is an A pickaxe is a Hand tool with a hard head attached Perpendicular to the handle A crowbar, pry bar, or prybar, more informally a jimmy, jimmy bar, jemmy ( British Isles) or gooseneck is A taxis (plural taxes, ˈtæksiːz is an Innate behavioural response by an Organism to a directional stimulus. [3]

A protest rally on the night of September 6, organized by the authorities in Istanbul, on the Cyprus issue and the alleged arson attack in Thessaloniki at the house where Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was born, was the cover for amassing the rioters. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (19 May 1881 &ndash 10 November 1938 was an army officer revolutionary Statesman At 17. 00, the pogrom started and from its original centre in Taksim Square, the trouble rippled out during the evening through the old suburb of Pera, the smashing and looting of Greek commercial property, particularly along Yuksek Kaldirim street. Taksim Square (Taksim Meydanı situated in the European part of Istanbul, Turkey, is a major shopping tourist and leisure district famed for its restaurants Beyoğlu is a district located on the European side of İstanbul, Turkey, separated from the old city (historic peninsula of Constantinople) by the By 18. 00, many of the Greek shops on Istanbul's main shopping street, Istiklal Caddesi, were ransacked. İstiklal Avenue ( Turkish: İstiklal Caddesi, Greek: Μεγάλη Οδός του Πέραν, French: Grand Rue de Pera Many commercial streets were littered with merchandise and fittings torn out of Greek-owned businesses.

According to the account of one eyewitness, a Greek dentist, the mob chanted "Death to the Gavurs" (English: infidels), "Massacre the Greek traitors", "Down with Europe" and "Onward to Athens and Thessaloniki" as they executed the pogrom. This article is on the Islamic religious term For the pejorative racial slur see Kaffir (ethnic slur. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's

The riot died down by midnight with the intervention of the Turkish Army and martial law was declared. The Turkish Army ( Turkish: Türk Kara Kuvvetleri) is a branch of the Turkish Armed Forces. Eyewitnesses reported, however, that army officers and policemen had earlier participated in the rampages and in many cases urged the rioters on.

Personal violence

While the pogromists were not instructed to kill their targets, sections of the mob went much further than scaring or intimidating local Greeks. Between 13 and 16 Greeks and one Armenian (including two clerics) died as a result of the pogrom. 32 Greeks were severely wounded. Men and women were raped, and according to the account of the Turkish writer Aziz Nesin, men, mainly priests, were subjected to forced circumcision by frenzied members of the mob and an Armenian priest died after the procedure. Rape, also referred to as Sexual assault, is an Assault by a person involving Sexual intercourse with or Sexual penetration of another person Aziz Nesin (b Mehmet Nusret, December 20, 1915 &mdash July 6, 1995) was a popular Turkish Humorist and Male circumcision is the removal of some or all of the Foreskin (prepuce from the Penis. A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities Nesin wrote:

A man who was fearful of being beaten, lynched or cut into pieces would imply and try to prove that he was both a Turk and a Muslim. "Pull it out and let us see," they would reply. The poor man would peel off his trousers and show his "Muslimness" and "Turkishness": And what was the proof? That he had been circumcised. If the man was circumcised, he was saved. If not, he was doomed. Indeed, having lied, he could not be saved from a beating. For one of those aggressive young men would draw his knife and circumcise him in the middle of the street and amid the chaos. A difference of two or three centimetres does not justify such a commotion. That night, many men shouting and screaming were Islamized forcefully by the cruel knife. Among those circumcised there was also a priest. [6]

Material damage

The physical and material damage was considerable and over 4,348 Greek-owned businesses, 110 hotels, 27 pharmacies, 23 schools, 21 factories, and 73 churches and over 1,000 Greek-owned homes were badly attacked or destroyed.

"I was in the street that day and I remember very clearly," said Mehmet Ali Zeren, 70. "In a jewelry store, one guy had a hammer and he was breaking pearls one by one. ". "Good people, good friends (the Greeks) but the army wanted to evaporate non-Turks"

Church property

Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras in the ruins of the church of Saint Constantine
Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras in the ruins of the church of Saint Constantine

In addition to commercial targets, the mob clearly targeted property owned or administered by the Greek Orthodox Church. "Patriarch of Constantinople" redirects here For the institutional church itself see Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Aristocles Spyrou / Αριστοκλής Σπύρου) ( March 25, 1886 - July 7, 1972) was the 268th Ecumenical Patriarch of The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world 73 churches and 23 schools were vandalized, burned or destroyed, as were 8 asperses and 3 monasteries. This article concerns the buildings occupied by monastics. For the life inside monasteries and its historical roots see Monasticism. This represented about 90 percent of the church property portfolio in the city. The ancient Byzantine church of Panagia in Veligradiou was vandalised and burned down. Panagia ( Greek: Παναγία All-holy) also transliterated Panayia or Panaghia, is one of the titles of Mary the mother of Jesus The church at Yedikule was badly vandalised, as was the church of St. The Walls of Constantinople are a series of stone walls that have surrounded and protected the city of Constantinople (today Istanbul in Turkey) since its Constantine of Psammathos. At Zoodochos Pege church in Balıklı, the tombs of a number of ecumenical patriarchs were smashed open and desecrated. "Patriarch of Constantinople" redirects here For the institutional church itself see Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The abbot of the monastery, Bishop Gerasimos of Pamphilos, was severely beaten during the pogrom and died from his wounds some days later in Balıklı Hospital. The word abbot, meaning Father, is a title given to the head of a Monastery in various traditions including Christianity. In one church arson attack, Father Chrysanthos Mandas was burned alive. The Metropolitan of Liloupolis, Gennadios, was badly beaten and went mad. In Hierarchical Christian churches the rank of metropolitan bishop, or simply metropolitan, pertains to the Diocesan bishop or Elsewhere in the city, Greek cemeteries came under attack and were desecrated. A cemetery is a place in which dead bodies and cremated remains are buried. Some reports also testified that relics of saints were burned or thrown to dogs. A relic is an object or a personal item of religious significance carefully preserved with an air of Veneration as a tangible memorial

Witnesses

An eyewitness account was provided by journalist Noel Barber of the London Daily Mail on 14 September 1955:

“ The church of Yedikule was utterly smashed, and one priest was dragged from bed, the hair torn from his head and the beard literally torn from his chin. Noel Barber (1909-1988 was a British novelist and journalist Many of his novels considered exotic, are about his experiences as leading foreign correspondent for London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. The Daily Mail is a British newspaper currently published in a tabloid format Events 81 - Domitian becomes Emperor of the Roman Empire upon the death of his brother Titus. Year 1955 ( MCMLV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar) Another old Greek priest [Fr Mantas] in a house belonging to the church and who was too ill to be moved was left in bed, and the house was set on fire and he was burned alive. At the church of Yeniköy, a lovely spot on the edge of the Bosporus, a priest of 75 was taken out into the street, stripped of every stitch of clothing, tied behind a car and dragged through the streets. The Bosporus or Bosphorus, also known as the Istanbul Strait, (İstanbul Boğazı (Βόσπορος is a Strait that forms the boundary between the They tried to tear the hair of another priest, but failing that, they scalped him, as they did many others. ”

One significant eyewitness was Ian Fleming, the James Bond author, who was in Istanbul covering the International Police Conference as a special representative for the London Sunday Times. Ian Lancaster Fleming ( May 28, 1908 – August 12, 1964) was a British author, Journalist and Second World War James Bond 007 is a Fictional character created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming, who featured him in twelve Novels and two Short story The International Criminal Police Organization, better known by its telegraphic address Interpol is an organization facilitating international police cooperation His account, entitled "The Great Riot of Istanbul", appeared in that paper on 11 September 1955. Events 9 - The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ends 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul

Secondary action

While the pogrom was predominantly an Istanbul affair, there were some outrages in other Turkish cities. On the morning of 7 September 1955 In İzmir (Smyrna), a mob overran the İzmir National Park, where an international exhibition was taking place, and burned the Greek pavilion. İzmir, historically Smyrna, is the third most populous city of Turkey and the country's largest port after İstanbul. This article is on the Ancient Greek city of Smyrna principally in connection with the ruins remaining to this day Moving next to the Church of Saint Fotini, built two years earlier to serve the needs of the Greek officers (serving at NATO Regional Headquarters), the mob destroyed it completely. The North Atlantic Treaty The homes of the few Greek families and officers were then looted.

Documentation

Considerable contemporary documentation showing the extent of the destruction is provided by the photographs taken by Demetrios Kaloumenos, then official photographer of the Ecumenical Patriarchate. History Early history Christianity in Byzantium existed from the time of the Twelve Apostles, but it was in the year 330 that the Roman Emperor Setting off just hours after the pogrom began, Kaloumenos set out with his camera to capture the damage and smuggled the film to Greece.

Reactions

Although the Menderes government attempted to blame Turkish Communists for the pogrom, most foreign observers were aware of who was to blame. Communist Party of Turkey may refer to Communist Party of Turkey (historical Communist Party of Turkey (Official In a letter of 15 November 1955 to prime minister Menderes, Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras graphically described the crimes inflicted on his flock. Events 655 - Battle of Winwaed: Penda of Mercia is defeated by Oswiu of Northumbria. Aristocles Spyrou / Αριστοκλής Σπύρου) ( March 25, 1886 - July 7, 1972) was the 268th Ecumenical Patriarch of “The very foundation of a civilisation which is the heritage of centuries, the property of all mankind, has been gravely attacked”, he wrote, adding: “All of us, without any defence, spent moments of agony, and in vain sought and waited for protection from those responsible for order and tranquillity”.

The chargé d’affaires at the British Embassy in Ankara, Michael Stewart, directly implicated Menderes’ Demokrat Parti in the execution of the attack. In diplomacy chargé d’affaires ( French for “charged with (in charge of matters” is the title of two classes of diplomatic agents who head a diplomatic The United Kingdom has a large network of diplomatic missions around the world Ankara is the capital of Turkey and the country's second largest city after İstanbul. Michael Stewart may refer to Michael Stewart Baron Stewart of Fulham, British Cabinet Minister Michael Stewart (playwright, playwright “There is fairly reliable evidence that local Demokrat Parti representatives were among the leaders of the rioting in various parts of Istanbul, notably in the Marmara islands, and it has been argued that only the Demokrat Parti had the political organisation in the country capable of demonstrations on the scale that occurred,” he reported, refusing to assign blame to the party as a whole or Menderes personally, however. The Princes' Islands ( Turkish: Prens Adaları Islands or more commonly Kizil Adalar Islands as they are officially named classical Greek:

Although British Ambassador to Ankara Bowker advised British Foreign Secretary Harold Macmillan that the United Kingdom should “court a sharp rebuff by admonishing Turkey”, only a note of distinctly mild disapproval was dispatched to Menderes. An ambassador is the highest ranking Diplomat who represents their country (Maurice Harold Macmillan 1st Earl of Stockton, OM, PC (10 February 1894 &ndash 29 December 1986 was a British Conservative Politician The context of the Cold War led Britain and the U.S. to absolve the Menderes government of the direct political blame that it was due. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The efforts of Greece to internationalize the human rights violations through international organizations such as the UN and NATO found little sympathy. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The North Atlantic Treaty British NATO representative Cheetham deemed it “undesirable” to probe the pogrom. US representative Edwin Martin thought the effect on the alliance was exaggerated, and the French, Belgians and Norwegians urged the Greeks to “let bygones be bygones”. The Martin Brothers were Pottery manufacturers in London who are considered to represent the transition from decorative Victorian Ceramics The government of France is a Semi-presidential system determined by the French Constitution of the fifth Republic, in which the nation declares Belgium has a population of about 10666866 citizens as of January 2008 Norwegians See also History of Norway and Demography of Norway. Indeed, the North Atlantic Council issued a statement that the Turkish government had done everything that could be expected. North Atlantic Council is the most senior political governing body of NATO established by Article 9 of the North Atlantic Treaty.

More outspoken was the World Council of Churches, given the damage wrought on 90 percent of Istanbul’s Greek Orthodox churches, and a delegation was sent to Istanbul to inspect the havoc. The World Council of Churches ( WCC) is an international

Aftermath

As private insurance did not exist in Turkey at the time, the only hope the pogrom's victims had for compensation was from the Turkish state. Insurance, in Law and Economics, is a form of Risk management primarily used to hedge against the Risk of a contingent loss Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Although Turkish President Celal Bayar announced that “the victims of the destruction shall be compensated”, there was little political will or financial means to carry out such a promise. Mahmut Celal Bayar ( May 16, 1883 &ndash August 22, 1986) was a Turkish Politician, Statesman and the third In the end, Greeks ended up receiving about 20 percent of their claims due to the fact that the assessed values of their properties had already been vastly reduced.

Tensions continued and in 1958–1959, Turkish nationalist students embarked on a campaign encouraging the boycott of all Greek businesses. The task was completed eight years later in 1964 when the Ankara government reneged on the 1930 Greco-Turkish Ankara Convention, which established the right of Greek etablis (Greeks who were born and lived in Istanbul but held Greek citizenship) to live and work in Turkey. Deported with two day’s notice, the Greek community of Istanbul shrunk from 80,000 (or 100,000 by some accounts) persons in 1955 to only 48,000 in 1965. Deportation, not to be confused with Extradition, generally means the expulsion of someone from a place or Country. Today, the Greek community numbers about 5,000, mostly older, Greeks.

After the military coup of 1960, Menderes and Zorlu were charged, at the Yassiada Trial in 1960–61, with violating the constitution. Yassıada (Greek Plati) is one of the Princes' Islands in the Sea of Marmara. The trial also made reference to the pogrom, for which they were blamed. While the accused were denied fundamental rights regarding their defence, they were found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging. Hanging is the lethal suspension of a person by a ligature The Oxford English Dictionary states that hanging in this sense is "specifically to put to death

Oktay Engin, the agent who attempted the arson in Salonica, had continued to work at MİT for years until 1992 when he was promoted to the office of governor for Nevşehir Province. The National Intelligence Organization, or Millî İstihbarat Teşkilâtı ( MİT) in Turkish, is the governmental intelligence organization of Nevşehir is a province in central Turkey with its capital in Nevşehir.

In August 1995, the US Senate passed a special resolution marking the September 1955 pogrom, calling on the President of the United States Bill Clinton to proclaim 6 September as a Day of Memory for the victims of the pogrom. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19 1946 served as the forty-second President of the United States Events 3114 BC - According to the Proleptic Julian calendar the current era in the Maya Long Count Calendar started

Notes

  1. ^ a b Gilson, 2005.
  2. ^ Dilek Güven, “6–7 Eylül Olayları (1)”, Radikal, 6 September 2005
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Vryonis, 2005.
  4. ^ Turkish currency exchange rates 1923–1990
  5. ^ According to figures presented by Prof. Vyron Kotzamanis to a conference of unions and federations representing the ethnic Greeks of Istanbul, the ethnic Greek population of Istanbul was then [July 2006] above the 5,000-person mark. "Ethnic Greeks of Istanbul convene", Athens News Agency, 2 July 2006.
  6. ^ Aziz Nesin, quoted in: Vryonis, 2005, as quoted in: Gilson, 2005. Aziz Nesin (b Mehmet Nusret, December 20, 1915 &mdash July 6, 1995) was a popular Turkish Humorist and

References

See also

The Cyprus dispute is a territorial conflict between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots and also Republic of Cyprus and Turkey over Cyprus, an Foreign relations of the Republic of Turkey are the Turkish government's policies in its external relations with the International community. Turkey's application to acceede to the European Union (previously the European Communities) was made on 14 April 1987 A pogrom is a form of Riot directed against a particular group whether ethnic religious or other and characterized by destruction of their Homes Businesses
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