Islamophobia is a neologism that refers to prejudice or discrimination against Islam or Muslims. A neologism (from Greek neo = "new" + logos = "word" is a word that although devised relatively recently in a specific time period has been The word prejudice refers to prejudgment making a decision before becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case or event Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion ^[1] The term itself dates back to the 1980s,^[2] but came into common usage after the September 11, 2001 attacks. ^[3] In 1997, the British Runnymede Trust defined Islamophobia as the "dread or hatred of Islam and therefore, to the fear and dislike of all Muslims," stating that it also refers to the practice of discriminating against Muslims by excluding them from the economic, social, and public life of the nation. The Runnymede Trust describes itself as a Think tank devoted to research and advocacy on the subjects of Ethnicity and Cultural diversity. Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is It includes the perception that Islam has no values in common with other cultures, is inferior to the West and is a violent political ideology rather than a religion. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos ^[4] Professor Anne Sophie Roald writes that steps were taken toward official acceptance of the term in January 2001 at the "Stockholm International Forum on Combating Intolerance", where Islamophobia was recognized as a form of intolerance alongside Xenophobia and Antisemitism. Xenophobia is an intense and/or irrational dislike and sometimes fear of people from other countries Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility ^[5]

Sources have suggested an increasing trend in Islamophobia, some of which attribute it to the September 11 attacks,^[6] while others associate it with the increased presence of Muslims in the Western world. ^[7] In May 2002 the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC), a European Union watchdog, released a report entitled "Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001", which described an increase in Islamophobia-related incidents in European member states post-9/11. The European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA is a Vienna -based agency of the European Union inaugurated on 1 March 2007 The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in ^[8] Although the term is widely recognized and used, it has not been without controversy. ^[9] Opponents argue that the term "Islamophobia" is often misused to undermine criticism of Islam. Arguments critical to religion in general or specific to monotheism such as the Existence of God, are not dealt with here ^[10]

Etymology

The term is formed of Islam, the post-classical Latin -o- connecting vowel, and the post-classical Latin combining form -phobia which is used to form nouns with the sense 'irrational fear of' or 'aversion to. ' ^[11] See List of anti-ethnic and anti-national terms for other "-phobia" coinages. List of anti-ethnic and anti-national terms, where "anti-ethnic" refers to Ethnic hatred, or sentiments of hostility towards an ethnic group and "anti-national" As opposed to being a psychological or individualistic phobia, according to associate professor of religion Peter Gottschalk, Islamophobia connotes a social anxiety about Islam and Muslims. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Social Phobia Social anxiety is a term used to describe an experience of Anxiety ( Emotional discomfort Fear, apprehension or Worry ^[12][13]

Definitions

A number of individuals and organizations have made attempts to define the concept. Kofi Annan told a UN conference on Islamophobia in 2004: "[W]hen the world is compelled to coin a new term to take account of increasingly widespread bigotry, that is a sad and troubling development. Kofi Atta Annan, GCMG (born 8 April 1938 is a Ghanaian Diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations A bigot is a person who is intolerant of opinions lifestyles or identities differing from his or her own and bigotry is the corresponding state of mind Such is the case with Islamophobia. "^[14]

In 1996, the Runnymede Trust established the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, chaired by Professor Gordon Conway, the vice-chancellor of the University of Sussex. The Runnymede Trust describes itself as a Think tank devoted to research and advocacy on the subjects of Ethnicity and Cultural diversity. The University of Sussex is a British Campus university which is situated next to the East Sussex village of Falmer, and is from Brighton Their report, Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, was launched in November 1997 by the Home Secretary, Jack Straw. John Whitaker Straw (born 3 August 1946 most commonly known as Jack Straw, is a senior British Labour Party Politician. In this report, Islamophobia was defined by the Trust as "an outlook or world-view involving an unfounded dread and dislike of Muslims, which results in practices of exclusion and discrimination. "^[15] An early documented use of the word in the United States was by Insight magazine in 1991, used to describe Russian activities in Afghanistan. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, ^[15] Other claims of early use include usage by Iranian clerics in 1979,^[16] or its use in 1921 by a painter of Etienne Dinet. ^[17]

The American writer Stephen Schwartz has defined Islamophobia as the condemnation of the entirety of Islam and its history as extremist; "denying" the existence of a moderate Muslim majority; regarding Islam as a problem for the world; treating conflicts involving Muslims as necessarily their own fault; insisting that Muslims make changes to their religion; and inciting war against Islam as a whole. Stephen (Suleiman Schwartz (born 1948) is an American Journalist, Columnist and author For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Extremism is a term used to describe the actions or ideologies of individuals or groups outside the perceived political center of a society or otherwise claimed to violate ^[18]

In a 2007 article in Journal of Sociology defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism and a continuation of anti-Asian and anti-Arab racism. Anti-Arabism or Arabophobia is Prejudice or Hostility against people of Arabic origin ^[19]

Perceptions

The Runnymede report identified eight perceptions related to Islamophobia:

1. Islam is seen as a monolithic bloc, static and unresponsive to change. A monolith is a geological feature such as a Mountain, consisting of a single massive stone or rock or a single piece of rock placed as or within a monument
2. It is seen as separate and "other. " It does not have values in common with other cultures, is not affected by them and does not influence them.
3. It is seen as inferior to the West. It is seen as barbaric, irrational, primitive, and sexist. Sexism is the belief or attitude that one Gender or Sex is inferior to or less valuable than the other and can also refer to a Hatred or distrust towards
4. It is seen as violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of terrorism, and engaged in a clash of civilizations. Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion The Clash of Civilizations is a Theory, proposed by Political scientist Samuel P
5. It is seen as a political ideology, used for political or military advantage. An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics
6. Criticisms made of "the West" by Muslims are rejected out of hand.
7. Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society.
8. Anti-Muslim hostility is seen as natural and normal. ^[20]

The above perceptions are seen as closed views on Islam. These are contrasted, in the report, with open views on Islam which, while founded on respect for Islam, permit legitimate disagreement, dialogue and critique. ^[21] According to Benn and Jawad, The Runnymede Trust notes that anti-Muslim discourse is increasingly seen as respectable, providing examples on how hostility towards Islam and Muslims is accepted as normal, even among those who may actively challenge other prevalent forms of discrimination. ^[22]

In some societies, Islamophobia has materialized due to the portrayal of Islam and Muslims as the national "Other", where exclusion and discrimination occurs on the basis of their religion and civilization which differs with national tradition and identity. The Other or constitutive other (also referred to as othering) is a key concept in Continental philosophy, opposed to the Same Examples include Pakistani and Algerian migrants in Britain and France respectively. ^[23] This sentiment, according to Malcolm Brown and Robert Miles, significantly interacts with racism, although Islamophobia itself is not racism. List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that ^[24] The publication "Social Work and Minorities: European Perspectives" describes Islamophobia as the new form of racism in Europe,^[25] arguing that "Islamophobia is as much a form of racism as Anti-Semitism, a term more commonly encountered in Europe as a sibling of Racism, Xenophobia and Intolerance. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility "^[26]

Another feature of Islamophobic discourse is to amalgamate nationality (i. e. Arab), religion (Islam), and politics (terrorism, fundamentalism) — while most other religions are not associated with terrorism, or even "ethnic or national distinctiveness. "^[27] Brown and Miles write that "many of the stereotypes and misinformation that contribute to the articulation of Islamophobia are rooted in a particular perception of Islam", such as the notion that Islam promotes terrorism; especially prevalent after the September 11, 2001 attacks. ^[28]

Media

According to Elizabeth Poole in the Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic studies, the media has been criticized for perpetrating Islamophobia. She cites a case study examining a sample of articles in the British press from between 1994 and 2004, which concluded that Muslim viewpoints were underrepresented and that issues involving Muslims usually depicted them in a negative light. Such portrayals, according to Poole, include the depiction of Islam and Muslims as a threat to Western security and values. ^[29] Benn and Jawad write that hostility towards Islam and Muslims are "closely linked to media portrayals of Islam as barbaric, irrational, primitive and sexist. "^[22] Egorova and Tudor cite European researchers in suggesting that expressions used in the media such as "Islamic terrorism", "Islamic bombs" and "violent Islam" have resulted in a negative perception of Islam. ^[30]

There have been several initiatives, based upon the sixty recommendations listed in the Runnymede Trust's report, aimed at increase Muslim participation in media and politics. Soon after the release of the Runnymede report, the Muslim Council of Britain was formed to serve as an umbrella body aiming to "represent Muslims in the public sphere, to lobby government and other institutions. The Muslim Council of Britain ( MCB) is associated with the MCB Charitable Foundation a Voluntary association and a Registered charity (number " The "Forum Against Islamophobia and Racism" (FAIR) was also established, designed to monitor coverage in the media and establish dialogue with media organizations. The Forum Against Islamophobia and Racism ( FAIR) is a London -based Muslim Advocacy group which campaigns against Discrimination in Following the attacks of September 11, the Islam Awareness Week and the "Best of British Islam Festival" were introduced to improve community relations and raise awareness about Islam. The Islamic Society of Britain initiated Islam Awareness Week in 1994, to raise awareness and remove misconceptions surrounding Britain ’s second largest faith group ^[31]

Trends

Islamophobia has become a topic of increasing sociological and political importance. ^[27] According to Benn and Jawad, Islamophobia has increased since British Muslims' denouncement of Salman Rushdie's "The Satanic Verses" and the September 11 attacks. Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie Kt (born 19 June 1947 is an Indian - British novelist and essayist The Satanic Verses is Salman Rushdie 's fourth Novel, first published in 1988 and inspired in part by the life of Muhammad. ^[32] Anthropologist Steven Vertovec writes that the purported growth in Islamophobia may be associated with increased Muslim presence in society and successes. Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of ^[33] He suggests a circular model, where increased hostility towards Islam and Muslims results in governmental countermeasures such as institutional guidelines and changes to legislation, which itself may fuel further Islamophobia due to increased accommodation for Muslims in public life. Vertovec concludes: "As the public sphere shifts to provide a more prominent place for Muslims, Islamophobic tendencies may amplify. "^[33]

Patel, Humphries, and Naik claim that "Islamophobia has always been present in Western countries and cultures. In the last two decades, it has become accentuated, explicit and extreme. "^[34] However, Vertovec states that some have observed that Islamophobia has not necessarily escalated in the past decades, but that there has been increased public scrutiny of it. ^[33] According to Abduljalil Sajid, one of the members of the Runnymede Trust's Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, "Islamophobias" have existed in varying strains throughout history, with each version possessing its own distinct features as well as similarities or adaptations from others. ^[35] An observatory report on Islamophobia by the Organisation of the Islamic Conference similarly states that Islamophobia has existed for as long as Islam itself. The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC is an International organization with a permanent delegation to the United Nations. ^[36]

Despite being a sizeable minority, many Muslims in India tend to complain about substantial discrimination by Hindus. Islam in India is the second-most practiced religion after Hinduism. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical ^[37] According to a recently published report to government, called the Sachar Report, Muslims are heavily under-represented in different government and social areas. ^[38][39][40] Among other facts, it found that in the province of West Bengal, where Muslims make up 27% of the population, their employment in the government sector was below 3%. West Bengal ( Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchim Bônggo poʃtʃim bɔŋgo is a state in eastern India. ^[41]

EUMC reports

The largest project monitoring Islamophobia was undertaken following 9/11 by the EU watchdog, European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC). The European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA is a Vienna -based agency of the European Union inaugurated on 1 March 2007 Their May 2002 report "Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001", written Chris Allen (UK) and Jorgen S. Chris Allen is an academic writer blogger commentator and broadcaster Nielsen of the University of Birmingham, was based on 75 reports — 15 from each EU member nation. The University of Birmingham (informally Birmingham University) is a British red brick University located in the city of Birmingham ^[42][43] The report highlighted the regularity with which ordinary Muslims became targets for abusive and sometimes violent retaliatory attacks after 9/11. Despite localized differences within each member nation, the recurrence of attacks on recognizable and visible traits of Islam and Muslims was the report's most significant finding. Incidents consisted of verbal abuse, blaming all Muslims for terrorism, forcibly removing women's hijabs, spitting on Muslims, calling children "Usama," and random assaults. The following is a timeline of acts and failed attempts that can be considered non-state Terrorism. Islam and clothing Hijab or ħijāb ( ar حجاب, pronounced) is the Arabic term for "cover" (noun based on the root حجب meaning "to Osama bin Laden, with some spelling variations is the name used in English to refer to (أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن born 10 March Muslims have been hospitalized and on one occasion paralyzed. ^[43] The report also discussed the portrayal of Muslims in the media. Inherent negativity, stereotypical images, fantastical representations, and exaggerated caricatures were all identified. The report concluded that "a greater receptivity towards anti-Muslim and other xenophobic ideas and sentiments has, and may well continue, to become more tolerated. "^[43]

The EUMC has since released a number of publications related to Islamophobia, including "The Fight against Antisemitism and Islamophobia: Bringing Communities together (European Round Tables Meetings)" (2003) and "Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia" (2006). ^[44]

Views

Salman Rushdie was one of 12 writers who signed a statement regarding Islamophobia; "We refuse to renounce our critical spirit out of fear of being accused of "Islamophobia", a wretched concept that confuses criticism of Islam as a religion and stigmatisation of those who believe in it. Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie Kt (born 19 June 1947 is an Indian - British novelist and essayist "^[45]

The concept of Islamophobia has been criticized on several grounds. Some critics argue that it is real, but is just another form of racism and does not require its own category, while others argue that it is used to censor criticism and that its use threatens free speech. Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without Censorship or Limitation. . Novelist Salman Rushdie and others signed a manifesto entitled Together facing the new totalitarianism in March 2006 which denounced Islamophobia as "a wretched concept. Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie Kt (born 19 June 1947 is an Indian - British novelist and essayist MANIFESTO Together facing the new totalitarianism is a political statement made in response to the violence surrounding the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy Stories without links will be removed. News stories must be in English "^[45] Some opponents argue that Islamophobia is justified. ^[9] Others, such as Edward Said, consider Islamophobia as it is evinced in Orientalism to be a 'secret sharer' in a more general antisemitic Western tradition^[46][47][48] Uri Avnery argues that it is indeed a modern substitute for traditional antisemitism, writing that "(I)n the Western world, Islamophobia now occupies the place that had for centuries been reserved for anti-Semitism. Edward Wadie Saïd MRSL ( إدوارد وديع سعيد,; 1 November 1935 &ndash 25 September Orientalism refers to the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers designers and artists and can also refer to a sympathetic stance Uri Avnery (אורי אבנרי also transliterated Uri Avneri, born September 10, 1923 in Beckum, Germany as Helmut Ostermann "^[49] However, Daniel Pipes says that "'Islamophobia' deceptively conflates two distinct phenomena: fear of Islam and fear of radical Islam. Daniel Pipes (born September 9 1949 is a American historian and political commentator who particularly focuses on the Middle East and Islam. "^[50]

The concept of Islamophobia as formulated by Runnymede is criticized by professor Fred Halliday on several levels. Fred Halliday (born 1946 in Dundalk, Republic of Ireland) is a British academic and author specialising in the Middle East and International relations He writes that the target of hostility in the modern era is not Islam and its tenets as much as it is Muslims and their actions, suggesting that a more accurate term would be "Anti-Muslimism. "^[51] Poole responds by noting that many Islamophobic discourses attack what they perceive to be Islam's tenets, while Miles and Brown write that Islamophobia is usually based upon negative stereotypes about Islam which are then translated into attacks on Muslims. ^[52][53] Halliday also states that strains and types of prejudice against Islam and Muslims vary across different nations and cultures, which is not recognized in the Runnymede analysis. Miles and Brown respond by arguing that "the existence of different ‘Islamophobias’ does not invalidate the concept of Islamophobia any more than the existence of different racisms invalidates the concept of racism. "^[52] Halliday argues that the concept of Islamophobia unwittingly plays into the hands of extremists. ^[51]

British writer and academic Kenan Malik believes that the charge of Islamophobia confuses discrimination against Muslims with criticism of Islam, and that it is used to silence critics and Muslim reformers. Kenan Malik (born 1962 is an Indian born British writer lecturer and broadcaster trained in neurobiology and the history of science He writes that the extent to which Muslims are more vulnerable to social exclusion and attacks than other groups is frequently and allows for a culture of victimhood, where all failings are attributed to Islamophobia. Islamophobia is not a form of racism, in his view, because Islam is a belief system. ^[10] This analysis is criticized by Inayat Bunglawala from the Muslim Council of Britain and Abdul Wahid from the Islamist group Hizb ut-Tahrir. Inayat Bunglawala is media secretary of the Muslim Council of Britain. The Muslim Council of Britain ( MCB) is associated with the MCB Charitable Foundation a Voluntary association and a Registered charity (number Islamism ( Islam + ism; Arabic: al-'islāmiyya) a set of ideologies holding that Islam is not only Hizb ut-Tahrir (حزب التحرير Party of Liberation is an international Pan-Islamist, Sunni, vanguard political party whose goal is to combine all Muslim ^[54] Bunglawala writes that Malik's argument is limited to overt acts of violence against Muslims, without recognizing less overt forms of prejudice or discrimination. By ignoring non-violent examples of Islamophobia, Malik's commentary "makes a mockery of victims of prejudice by pretending they have not been discriminated against," according to Bunglawala. ^[54]

In the wake of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, a group of 12 writers signed a statement in the French weekly satirical newspaper Charlie Hebdo in March 2006, warning against the use of the term Islamophobia to prevent criticism of "Islamic totalitarianism. Charlie Hebdo (English Charlie Weekly) is a French Satirical political weekly Newspaper, successor of Hara-Kiri MANIFESTO Together facing the new totalitarianism is a political statement made in response to the violence surrounding the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy " The novelist Salman Rushdie was among these signatories. Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie Kt (born 19 June 1947 is an Indian - British novelist and essayist ^[45] These views are shared by Dutch law professor Afshin Ellian^[55]. Afshin Ellian (born 27 February, 1966 in Tehran, Iran) is a Dutch professor of law, Philosopher, and Poet Critics cite the case of British journalist Polly Toynbee, who was nominated in May 2003 for the title of "Most Islamophobic Media Personality of the Year" at the 'Annual Islamophobia Awards' overseen by the Islamic Human Rights Commission, for claiming that Islam ". Polly Toynbee (born Mary Louisa Toynbee on December 27, 1946) is a journalist and writer in the United Kingdom, and has been a Columnist The Islamic Human Rights Commission (IHRC is a Non-profit organization that campaigns against what it sees as violations of the Human rights of Muslims . . imposes harsh regimes that deny the most basic human rights. Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled "^[56]

Johann Hari of The Independent has criticized the use of the term by organizations like Islamophobia Watch, arguing that liberal Muslims interested in reform are left unsupported because people fear being accused of Islamophobia. Johann Hari (born January 21, 1979) is a British Journalist and Writer. The Independent is a British compact Newspaper published by Tony O'Reilly 's Independent News & Media. Islamophobia Watch is a website initiated in January 2005 as a Non-profit project to document material in the Public domain which according to Islamophobia Watch Progressive Muslims have produced a considerable body of liberal thoughts within Islam (in Arabic: الإسلام الاجتهادي ^[57] Writing in the New Humanist, philosopher Piers Benn suggests that people who fear the rise of Islamophobia foster an environment "not intellectually or morally healthy", to the point that what he calls "Islamophobia-phobia" can undermine "critical scrutiny of Islam as somehow impolite, or ignorant of the religion's true nature. New Humanist is the leading Journal of Humanism, Atheism, Secularism and Freethought in the United Kingdom Piers Benn is a Lecturer in Philosophy, member of the British Humanist Association. "^[58] The New Criterion editor Roger Kimball argues that the word "Islamophobia" is a misnomer. Origin The New Criterion was founded in 1982 by The New York Times art critic Hilton Kramer. Roger Kimball (born 1953 is a conservative US art critic and social commentator "A phobia describes an irrational fear, and it is axiomatic that fearing the effects of radical Islam is not irrational, but on the contrary very well-founded indeed, so that if you want to speak of a legitimate phobia. Phobias Phobias (in the clinical meaning of the term are the most common form of Anxiety disorders An American study by the National Institute of Mental Health . . . . . we should speak instead of Islamophobia-phobia, the fear of and revulsion towards Islamophobia. "^[59]

Public discourse

Efforts against

There have been efforts against perceived Islamophobia by many organizations in many countries; some of these are detailed below.

• In 2006 the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) set up an observatory on Islamophobia which will monitor and document activities perceived as Islamophobic around the world. The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC is an International organization with a permanent delegation to the United Nations. ^[60]
• A radio talk show host from 630 WMAL on November 26, 2006 allegedly exposed the prevalence of Islamophobia by seeming to advocate a government program to force all Muslims to wear "identifying markers. Talk radio is a Radio format containing discussion about topical issues WMAL is one of the oldest radio stations in Washington DC The Citadel Broadcasting -owned outlet is a news-talk formatted station broadcasting "^[61] The hoax was revealed at the end of the program. See Jerry Klein’s 2006 Islamophobia Radio Experiment for more details. On Nov 26 2006 radio host Jerry Klein of WMAL 630 AM (covering Washington DC, Northern Virginia and Maryland) had a program
• During the accession talks regarding Turkeys possible entry to the EU, then Prime Minister of Holland, Jan Peter Balkenende, said Islamophobia must not affect the possibility of Turkey's entry to the European Union. The Prime minister of the Netherlands is the Head of government of the Netherlands and is the chair of the Dutch cabinet, and Jan Peter Balkenende (pronounced ˈjɑn ˈpetər ˈbɑɫkənɛndə) (born 7 May 1956 is a Christian Democratic politician who has been the Prime Minister of the The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in ^[62]
• 50,000 people signed a petition urging French President Jacques Chirac to "consider Islamophobia as a new form of racism, punishable by law. The President of the French Republic (Président de la République française colloquially referred to in English as the President of France, is France 's elected The statement reads that the publishing of insulting cartoons of Muhammad by the French press hurt and offended the feelings of French- Muslims. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics "^[63]
• In Tower Hamlets, a densely populated area in London with a large Muslim community, a crime reporting scheme called "Islamophobia - Don't Suffer in Silence" has been set up which police hope will raise awareness of Islamophobia and help them to understand the extent of the alleged problem. The London Borough of Tower Hamlets ( is a London borough to the east of the City of London, England and north of the River Thames in East London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. ^[64]
• The British National Union of Teachers (NUT) has issued guidance to teachers in the union advising that teachers have to "Challenge Islamophobia", and that they have a "crucial role" to play in helping to "dispel myths about Muslim communities. The National Union of Teachers ( NUT) is a Trade union for School Teachers in England and Wales. "^[65]
• Following an Islamist demonstration outside the Danish Embassy in London organized by the Al Ghurabaa organization in response to the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, the Muslim Association of Britain organized a peaceful rally in Trafalgar Square. Al Ghurabaa' ( Arabic: الغرباء; English: The Strangers) is a banned Muslim organization that operated in the United Kingdom The Muslim Association of Britain (MAB is a Muslim group in the United Kingdom established in 1997. Trafalgar Square is a square in central London, England. With its position in the heart of London it is a tourist attraction its trademark is Nelson's Organizers made available placards and T-shirts bearing the rally's official slogan, the phrase, "United against Islamophobia, united against incitement. A T-shirt (or tee shirt) is a Shirt which is pulled on over the head to cover most of a person's Torso. "^[66][67]
• Following the July 7 bombings, the British government set up a number of initiatives aimed at combating alleged Islamophobia, including the "National Forum against extremism and Islamophobia". The 7 July 2005 London bombings (also called the 7/7 bombings) were a series of coordinated bomb blasts that hit London's public transport system during ^[68] There was also plans by the British government to ban incitement to "religious hatred", however, this failed to get through the House of Commons. The House of Commons' is the Lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords ^[69][70]
• The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan issued a call in 1999 to world leaders to combat Islamophobia. Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (الأردنّ al-Urdunn) is an Arab country in Southwest Asia spanning the southern ^[71] Abdel-Elah Khatib, the Jordanian foreign minister said "The international community must consider how to confront this phenomenon of Islamophobia in order to prevent its proliferation". A minister for foreign affairs, or foreign minister, is a governmental cabinet minister who helps form the Foreign policy of a sovereign nation The international community is a vague term used in International relations to refer to all the countries of the world or to a group of them
• The Muslim Council of Britain (MCB) and the Trades Union Congress (TUC) held a seminar on how to combat Islamophobia. The Muslim Council of Britain ( MCB) is associated with the MCB Charitable Foundation a Voluntary association and a Registered charity (number The Trades Union Congress (TUC is a national trade union centre, a federation of Trade unions in the United Kingdom, representing the majority of trade The Trades Union Congress (TUC is a national trade union centre, a federation of Trade unions in the United Kingdom, representing the majority of trade ^[72]

Acts called Islamophobic

A protester at a counter-demonstration against the September 15, 2007 anti-war protest in Washington, D. The September 15 2007 anti-war protest was a march from the White House to the United States Capitol. C.

• The desecration of 148 French Muslim graves near Arras. A pig's head was hung from a headstone and profanities insulting Islam and Muslims were daubed on some graves. ^[73]
• Dr Amanda Wise and Ghali Hassan from GlobalResearch. ca have alleged that the 2005 Cronulla riots were the result of a climate of "Islamophobia" in Australia. The Cronulla Riots of 2005 were a series of racially motivated mob confrontations which originated in and around Cronulla, a beachfront suburb of Sydney ^[74][75]
• Dalil Boubakeur, a director of a Paris mosque described the vandalism on a Mosque in Paris, France as Islamophobic. Vandalism is the behaviour attributed to the Vandals in respect of Culture: ruthless Destruction or spoiling of anything beautiful or Venerable Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. ^[76]
• Giles Tremlett of The Guardian referred to the burning of a Muslim Sanctuary in the Spanish city of Ceuta, as an instance of Islamophobia. The Guardian (until 1959 The Manchester Guardian) is a British Newspaper owned by the Guardian Media Group. Ceuta is an autonomous city of Spain located on the Mediterranean, on the North African side of the Strait of Gibraltar, which ^[77]
• Halima Mautbur, from the Canadian Council on American-Islamic Relations called an attack on a hijabi Muslim woman "an Islamophobic incident". Islam and clothing Hijab or ħijāb ( ar حجاب, pronounced) is the Arabic term for "cover" (noun based on the root حجب meaning "to ^[78]
• Doudou Diène in a report prepared by the UN Commission on Human Rights released on March 7, 2006 mentioned the publishing of the cartoons at the heart of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy regarding, "The development of Islamophobia or any racism and racial discrimination . Doudou Diène (born 1941 of Senegal was United Nations Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism racial discrimination xenophobia and related intolerance The United Nations Commission on Human Rights ( UNCHR) was a functional commission within the overall framework of the United Nations. . . "^[79] On February 17, 2008 the Islamic Republic News Agency reported, that an Iranian cultural official considers Wikipedias inclusion of the Muhammad cartoon images a desecrating, divisive and Islamophobic move. Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common The Islamic Republic News Agency (خبرگزاری جمهوری اسلامی ایران or IRNA, is the official News agency of the Islamic Republic of ^[80]
• On March 8, 2006 the Islamic Human Rights Commission made a press release entitled, "Islamophobia in Prisons stretches far beyond Belmarsh" concerning prisons in Britain. The Islamic Human Rights Commission (IHRC is a Non-profit organization that campaigns against what it sees as violations of the Human rights of Muslims ^[81]
• Destruction and vandalism of Muslim graves in France were seen as Islamophobic by a report of the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia. ^[82]
• Zohreh Assemi, an Iranian American Muslim owner of a nail salon in Locust Valley, New York, was robbed, beaten, and called a "terrorist" in September of 2007 in what authorities call a bias crime. Iranian Americans are American citizens of Iranian ethnicity or heritage A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Locust Valley is a hamlet (and a Census-designated place) in Nassau County, New York on the North Shore of Long Island. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous ^[83] Assemi was kicked, sliced with a boxcutter, and had her hand smashed with a hammer. The perpatrators, who forcibly removed $2,000 from the saloon and scrawled anti-Muslim slurs on the mirrors, also told Assemi to "get out of town" and that her kind were not "welcomed" in the area. The attack followed two weeks of phone calls in which Iranian-American Zohreh Assemi was called a "terrorist" and told to "get out of town," friends and family said. ^[83]
• Vandalism of Muslim Graves in Charlton cemetery in Plumstead, London. ^[84]
• Muslim protesters alleged that the Forest Gate anti terror raid in London was Islamophobic. The 2 June 2006 Forest Gate raid saw the arrest of two men at their east London homes in Forest Gate by police acting on what they described as "specific intelligence ^[85]
• In Germany, the state of Baden-Württemberg has proposed regulations that require citizenship applicants from the member states of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference to answer questions about their attitudes on homosexuality, domestic violence and other religious issues. Baden-Württemberg is one of the 16 states ( Bundesländer) of the Federal Republic of Germany. The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC is an International organization with a permanent delegation to the United Nations. Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the same sex or to a Homosexual orientation. Domestic violence (also known as domestic abuse or spousal abuse) occurs when a family member partner or ex-partner attempts to physically or psychologically dominate ^[86]
• A BBC survey taken in the summer of 2004 found that employment applicants with Muslim names were far less likely to be called for an interview than applicants whose names did not appear to be Muslim. Old Arabic names are based on a long naming system most Arabs do not simply have given / middle / Family names but a full chain of names This study was taken by using fictitious applications to jobs using candidate descriptions that were similar in qualification and education, but under different names. The survey found that while a quarter of 'nonmuslim applicants' were invited to an interview, only 9% of the applications with Muslim names were responded to with invitations. ^[87] Groups, such as the Muslim Council of Britain have cited this as further evidence for the widespread existence of Islamophobia. The Muslim Council of Britain ( MCB) is associated with the MCB Charitable Foundation a Voluntary association and a Registered charity (number ^[88]
• In 2005, The Guardian commissioned an ICM poll which indicated an increase in Islamophobic incidents, particularly after the London bombings in July 2005. ICM is a Public opinion researcher based in the UK. It conducts surveys for in particular The Guardian, the News of the World The 7 July 2005 London bombings (also called the 7/7 bombings) were a series of coordinated bomb blasts that hit London's public transport system during ^[89][90] Another survey of Muslims, this by the Open Society Institute, found that of those polled 32% believed they had suffered religious discrimination at airports, and 80% said they had experienced Islamophobia. The Open Society Institute (OSI a private operating and grantmaking foundation aims to shape public policy to promote democratic Governance, ^[91][92]
• France, which has a strong secular tradition separating church from State,^[93] was accused of Islamophobia when the law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools was passed, which bans the wearing of conspicuous religious symbols in public schools. Separation of church and state is a Political and Legal Doctrine that Government and religious institutions are to be kept separate The Religious symbolism is the use of Symbols including Archetypes, acts artwork events or natural phenomena, by a religion The policy extends to Muslim headscarves, large Christian crosses, Jewish skullcaps, and other visible signs of religion, although the display of small^[94][95] religious symbols (such as the Star of David, crosses, and Hand of Fatimas) is permitted. The Star of David or Shield of David ( Magen David in Hebrew with nikkud or מגן דוד without academically transcribed Māḡēn Dāwīḏ by A cross is a geometrical figure consisting of two lines or bars perpendicular to each other dividing one or two of the lines in half The Hamsa (خمسة Khamsa, literally "five" חמסה Khamsa) is a symbol used in Amulets Charms and Jewelry to protect
• In a February 10, 2004 report by Al Jazeera the head of the Party of France's Muslims, Muhammad Latreche in discussing the French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools was quoted as saying that the legislation would, "institutionalise Islamophobia". February 2004 was the second month of 2004 in the Gregorian calendar. For the English-language channel see Al Jazeera English Al Jazeera (الجزيرة al-jazīrah,, meaning "The Island" The ^[96]
• In January 2006 the Dutch parliament voted in favor of a proposal to ban the burqa in public, leading to accusations of Islamophobia. A burqa (also Transliterated burkha, burka or burqua) is an enveloping outer garment worn by women in some Islamic traditions for the ^[97] Filip Dewinter, the leader of Vlaams Belang bloc has said his party is "Islamophobic. Philip Michel Frans "Filip" Dewinter (born September 11, 1962, Bruges) is a Flemish Politician in Belgium. Vlaams Belang ( English: Flemish Interest) is an anti-immigration right-wing Political party in the Flemish Community of Belgium " He said: "Yes, we are afraid of Islam. The Islamisation of Europe is a frightening thing. "^[98]
• An Arab teenage is driven to suicide because of bullying. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding He failed at the suicide attempt. He plans on living a better life. ^[99]
• After Salman Rushdie was awarded a knighthood in the Queen's Birthday Honours in June 2007, the Iranian Foreign Ministry qualified the honoring of "a hated apostate" as Islamophobic. Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie Kt (born 19 June 1947 is an Indian - British novelist and essayist In mid-June 2007 Salman Rushdie, British - Indian novelist and author of controversial novel The Satanic Verses, was bestowed the honour of being The Queen's Birthday Honours (or King's Birthday Honours when the monarch is male is a civic occasion on the celebration of the Queen's Official Birthday in which For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. A minister for foreign affairs, or foreign minister, is a governmental cabinet minister who helps form the Foreign policy of a sovereign nation ^[100]
• On the 26 August 2007 fans of the English football club Newcastle United allegedly directed Islamophobic chants at Egyptian Middlesbrough F.C. striker Mido. Events 1071 - Battle of Manzikert: The Seljuk Turks defeat the Byzantine Army at Manzikert. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Newcastle United Football Club (also known as The Magpies or The Toon) is an English football club based in Newcastle upon Middlesbrough Football Club, also known as The Boro are an English football club based in Middlesbrough, who play in the Premier League. Ahmed Hossam Hussein Abdelhamid ( Arabic: احمد حسام حسين عبد الحميد, also known as Mido (born February 23 1983 in Cairo, Egypt An FA investigation was launched but was soon dropped after it was later revealed that chants directed at him were because of his similarity to the shoe bomber Richard Reid. The Football Association, also known as simply The FA, is the governing body of football in England and the Crown Dependencies of Jersey Richard Reid may refer to Richard Reid (shoe bomber (born 1973 British man convicted of terrorism Richard Reid (cricketer (born 1958

Views called Islamophobic

• Carl Ernst, a scholar of Islamic studies, and the Council on American-Islamic Relations has alleged that Robert Spencer is "Islamophobic". Carl W Ernst (b 1950 is the Kenan Distinguished Professor of Islamic studies at the Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill This is a sub-article to Religious education, Academic discipline, and Islam. The Council on American-Islamic Relations ( CAIR) is a Civil liberties and advocacy group for Muslims in North America that was Robert Bruce Spencer (born 1962 is an American author who writes articles and books relating to Islam and Islamic terrorism. ^[101][102] Spencer responded to this labeling, and invited Ernst to debate. ^[103]
• The Council on American-Islamic Relations has stated that the views of Ann Coulter are Islamophobic. Ann Hart Coulter (born December 8 1961 is an American Political commentator, Syndicated columnist, and best-selling Author. ^[104]
• Oliver Duff of The Independent said in 2006 that the British National Party attempted to use increasing Islamophobia to make gains in local elections. The Independent is a British compact Newspaper published by Tony O'Reilly 's Independent News & Media. The British National Party (BNP is a Far-right and whites only political party in the United Kingdom. ^[105]
• Liz McGregor and John Hooper of The Guardian, has alleged that the views and writings of Oriana Fallaci, an Italian journalist and author of "The Force of Reason", was "Islamaphobic" [sic]. The Guardian (until 1959 The Manchester Guardian) is a British Newspaper owned by the Guardian Media Group. Oriana Fallaci ( 29 June 1929 - 15 September 2006) was an Italian Journalist, Author, and political interviewer The Force of Reason (La forza della ragione is a 2004 book by Italian author Oriana Fallaci. ^[106]
• The Islamic Human Rights Commission gave U. The Islamic Human Rights Commission (IHRC is a Non-profit organization that campaigns against what it sees as violations of the Human rights of Muslims S Attorney General John Ashcroft a nomination for their 2003 "Islamophobe of the year" award for publicly saying, "Islam is a religion in which God requires you to send your son to die for him. In most Common law jurisdictions the Attorney General, or Attorney-General, is the main legal advisor to the government and in some jurisdictions may in addition John David Ashcroft (born May 9 1942) is an American Politician who was the 79th United States Attorney General. Christianity is a faith in which God sends his son to die for you"^[107][108]
• The Islamic Human Rights Commission made Daniel Pipes a nominee for their 2004 and 2005 "Islamophobe of the year" awards. The Islamic Human Rights Commission (IHRC is a Non-profit organization that campaigns against what it sees as violations of the Human rights of Muslims Daniel Pipes (born September 9 1949 is a American historian and political commentator who particularly focuses on the Middle East and Islam. ^[109]
• A December 2005 interview by Vlaams Belang frontman Filip Dewinter with the American-Jewish newsweekly The Jewish Week included a question if "Jews should vote for a party that espouses xenophobia". Vlaams Belang ( English: Flemish Interest) is an anti-immigration right-wing Political party in the Flemish Community of Belgium Philip Michel Frans "Filip" Dewinter (born September 11, 1962, Bruges) is a Flemish Politician in Belgium. This article is about the weekly newspaper published in New York City Dewinter responded by saying: "Xenophobia is not the word I would use. If it absolutely must be a ‘phobia,’ let it be ‘Islamophobia. ’"^[110]
• The UK Minister Peter Hain's statement that Britain's Muslim community is "isolationist" was met with accusations of Islamophobia, as well as Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi's public claim that Western civilization is superior to Islam. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest (born 29 September 1936 is an Italian politician, Entrepreneur, Real estate and Insurance Tycoon, Bank and Media proprietor ^[111]
• Some suggestions in the United Kingdom debate over veils (which concerned the circumstances in which Muslim women should be required to remove the Niqab) were considered Islamophobic by MP John McDonnell. The United Kingdom debate over veils began in October 2006 when the MP and government minister Jack Straw wrote in his local newspaper The A niqāb ( Arabic: نِقاب‎) is a Veil which covers the face worn by some Muslim women as a part of sartorial hijāb. John Martin McDonnell (born 8 September 1951 in Liverpool, England) is a British politician and Labour Member of Parliament for ^[112]
• CAIR and the Associated Press called United States Rep. The Associated Press ( AP) is an American News agency. The AP is a Cooperative owned by its contributing Newspapers radio Virgil H. Goode, Jr. (R-VA) islamophobic for his Dec. Virgil Hamlin Goode Jr (surname rhymes with mood, not would) born October 17, 1946, is an American politician and a Republican 2006 letter stating that Rep-elect Keith Ellison's desire to use the Qur'an during the swearing in ceremonies was a threat to "the values and beliefs traditional to the United States of America" and for saying "I fear that in the next century we will have many more Muslims in the United States if we do not adopt the strict immigration policies. Keith Maurice Ellison (born August 4, 1963) is an American Lawyer and Politician belonging to the Democratic-Farmer-Labor "^[113][114]
• Maclean's publishing of literature written by Mark Steyn's was found Islamophobic by the Ontario Human Rights Commission, who condemned it. Mark Steyn, born in Canada in 1959, is a self-described conservative writer and commentator about politics arts and culture The Ontario Human Rights Commission (OHRC was established in the Canadian province of Ontario in 1961 to administer the Ontario In a response, Maclean said that is not "biased against a particular community". ^[115]
• Concerning the US state of North Carolina’s position (as expressed by their attorney general’s office) in the ongoing case of ACLU of N.C. & Syidah Matteen v. State of North Carolina that the only swearing-in for testimony in court that was valid had to be on a Christian Bible (and that all others must choose to affirm), CAIR's Legal Director in Washington D. North Carolina ( is a state located on the Atlantic Seaboard in the southeastern United States ACLU of NC & Syidah Mateen v State of North Carolina is a court case in the state of North Carolina within the United Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin C, Arsalan Iftikhar, said “This shows there's a lot of anti-Muslim sentiment, especially here in the United States. ”^[116]
• Statements that incite Islamophobia from Franklin Graham, Pat Robertson and Benny Hinn, according to John Esposito. William Franklin Graham III (born July 14, 1952) known publicly as Franklin Graham, is an American Christian evangelist Marion Gordon "Pat" Robertson (born March 22 1930 is a controversial Televangelist from the United States. Toufik Benedictus "Benny" Hinn (توفيق بندكتوس "بني" الحن born December 3, 1952) is a Televangelist, best known John Louis Esposito (born 19 May 1940 Brooklyn, New York City) is a professor of International Affairs and Islamic Studies at Georgetown University read relevant quotes. ^[117]

ABC News has reported that "[p]ublic views of Islam are one casualty of the post-Sept. 11, 2001 conflict: Nearly six in 10 Americans think the religion is prone to violent extremism, nearly half regard it unfavorably, and a remarkable one in four admits to prejudicial feelings against Muslims and Arabs alike. "^[118] They also report that 27 percent of Americans admit feelings of prejudice against Muslims. ^[118] According to Gallup polls, 40 percent of Americans admit to prejudice against Muslims, and 39 percent believe Muslims should carry special identification. ^[119]

Incidents on aircraft

Some incidents with Muslim passengers on aircraft have given rise to the expression "Flying while Muslim". Flying while Muslim or Muslim while flying, is an expression referring to the problems Muslim passengers on Airplanes can face in the aftermath of the ^[120]

• On 16 August 2006 British passengers on-board a flight from Malaga to Manchester requested the removal of two men of Asian descent from a plane. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. According to a spokesman for the Civil Guard in Malaga, "These men had aroused suspicion because of their appearance and the fact that they were speaking in a foreign language thought to be an Arabic language, and the pilot was refusing to take off until they were escorted off the plane. A foreign language is a Language not spoken by the people of a certain place for example English is a foreign language in Japan. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language " A security sweep of the plane found no explosives or any item of a terrorist nature. Monarch Airlines booked the men, who were Urdu speakers, into a hotel room, gave them a free meal and sent them home on a later plane. Monarch Airlines is a British charter and scheduled Airline based in Luton, England. The men later responded, "Just because we're Muslim, does not mean we are suicide bombers. " The Islamic Human Rights Commission blamed "ever-increasing Islamophobia" related to the "war on terror" for the incident. ^{[121][122][123]}
• A passenger traveling to the British Virgin Islands on a plane bound for the United States from Manchester in the UK was forced off the plane prior to takeoff. The British Virgin Islands ( BVI) is a British overseas territory, located in the Caribbean to the east of Puerto Rico. Takeoff is the phase of Flight in which an Aircraft goes through a transition from moving along the ground ( Taxiing) to flying in the air usually The man, a British-born Muslim residing in the United States, said he was singled out because he was a Muslim pilot and was left feeling "demoralized and humiliated. I must have met the profile on the day. I have an Arabic name, I am a Muslim, I'm from Britain and I know how to fly. "^[124][125]
• On 21 November 2006, six imams were forcefully removed from a US Airways flight at Minneapolis St. Paul International Airport for alleged security reasons. Events 164 BC - Judas Maccabaeus, son of Mattathias of the Hasmonean family restores the Temple in Jerusalem. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. An imam (إمام plural ائمة A'immah, امام is an Islamic leader often the leader of a Mosque and/or community US Airways Inc is the fifth largest Airline in the United States. Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport is the largest and busiest airport in the five-state Upper Midwestern region of Minnesota, Iowa, The event led to an outcry from Muslim organizations in America saying that what happened showed the growing prejudice against Muslims in America. ^[126] Investigations by the airline and police so far have reported that the airline and ground crews responded to security concerns properly in removing the men from the plane. ^[127] See Flying Imams controversy for more details regarding this incident. The Flying Imams controversy (sometimes humorously referred to as sheiks on a plane, a reference to the movie Snakes on a Plane) is a controversy concerning

See also

• Alliance of Civilizations
• Anti-Arabism
• Clash of Civilizations
• Islamophobia Watch
• Persecution of Muslims
• War against Islam
• Religious intolerance
• Anti-Christian sentiment
• Anticlericalism
• Antireligion
• Antitheism
• Civil rights
• Discrimination against atheists
• Religious persecution
• Religious segregation

Notes

References

• Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies. (2003). Ed. Cashmore, E. Routledge.  
• Benn, T. ; Jawad, H. (2004). Muslim Women in the United Kingdom and Beyond: Experiences and Images. Brill. Brill is a Village and Civil parish within Aylesbury Vale district in Buckinghamshire, England, close to the border with ISBN 9004125817.  
• Egorova, Y. ; Parfitt, T. (2003). Jews, Muslims, and Mass Media: Mediating the 'Other'. London: Routledge Curzon. ISBN 0415318394.  
• Haddad, Y. (2002). Muslims in the West: From Sojourners to Citizens. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195148053.  
• Johnson, M. R. D. ; Soydan, H; Williams, C. (1998). Social Work and Minorities: European Perspectives. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415169623.  
• Miles, R. ; Brown, M. (2003). Racism. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415296765.  

Further reading

• van Driel, B. (2004). Confronting Islamophobia In Educational Practice. Trentham Books. ISBN 1858563402.  
• Gottschalk, P. ; Greenberg, G. (2007). Islamophobia: Making Muslims the Enemy. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield publishers. ISBN 978-0742552869.  
• Greaves, R. (2004). Islam and the West Post 9/11. Ashgate publishing Ltd. ISBN 0754650057.  
• Kaplan, Jeffrey (2006). Islamophobia in America?: September 11 and Islamophobic Hate Crime, Terrorism and Political Violence (Routledge), 18:1, 1 - 33.
• Kincheloe, Joe L. and Shirley R. Steinberg (2004). The Miseducation of the West: How the Schools and Media Distort Our Understanding of Islam. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Press. (Arabic Edition, 2005).
• Pynting, Scott; Mason, Victoria (2007). The resistible rise of Islamophobia: Anti-Muslim racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001. Journal of Sociology, The Australian Sociological Association. 43(1): 61–86.
• Quraishi, M. (2005). Muslims and Crime: A Comparative Study. Ashgate publishing Ltd. ISBN 075464233X.  
• Ramadan, T. (2004). Western Muslims and the Future of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019517111X.  

External links

• Forum against Islamophobia and Racism
• Islamophobia.org
• "Islamophobia", Islamicawareness. net
• Islamophobia Watch
• "From Aladdin to Lost Ark, Muslims get angry at 'bad guy' film images" -The Guardian, 25 January 2007
• Speech against Islamophobia and racism at CUPE National Conference in Vancouver, Canada
• Muslims and Islam in European History Textbooks
• Grant Bangladeshi Hindu migrants refugee status, but deport Bangladeshi Muslims: Rajnath Singh
• "Rally against incitement and Islamophobia in London", eyetopic. The Guardian (until 1959 The Manchester Guardian) is a British Newspaper owned by the Guardian Media Group. co. uk, February 11, 2006.
• Chris Allen (UK) Islamophobia resources: writing, articles & publications
• Dr. Chris Allen is an academic writer blogger commentator and broadcaster Louay Safi's Articles on Islamophobia
• Brooks, James. "Deep roots of Islamophobia Islamonline. net.
• Deane, Claudia and Fears, Darryl. Negative Perception Of Islam Increasing, The Washington Post, March 9, 2006.
• El Fadl, Khaled Abou. Dr Khaled Abou El Fadl (born 1963 in Kuwait) is a professor of law at the UCLA School of Law where he teaches Islamic law, immigration human rights international "On revising bigotry", chapter from The Conference on the Books: The Search for Beauty in Islam, Scholars of the House.
• Gray, Muriel. Muriel Gray (born August 30 1958 in East Kilbride) is a Scottish Journalist and broadcaster. "How can we have respect for Islam when we are too fearful to criticise it?", The Glasgow Herald, February 5, 2006.
• Hassan, Fardusa. "Beauty queen enters Islamophobia debate", The Guardian, August 31, 2006.
• Hassan, Ghali. The Road to the Muslim Holocaust, Globalresearch. ca, February 7, 2006.
• Khan, Ali. The Essentialist Terrorist (how puritanical Islam is protrayed as essentially violent).
• Lamont, Norman. Norman Stewart Hughson Lamont Baron Lamont of Lerwick, PC (born 8 May 1942 is a former Conservative MP for Kingston-upon-Thames, England "Down with multiculturalism, book-burning and fatwas", The Daily Telegraph, May 8, 2002.
• Marud, Abdal-Hakim. "Muslims and the European Right", Masud. co. uk, first delivered as a lecture on April 30, 2000.
• Nacos, Brigitte L., Fueling Our Fears: Stereotyping, Media Coverage, and Public Opinion of Muslim Americans. Brigitte L Nacos is a part time Lecturer in Political science at Columbia University. 2006
• O'Keefe, Derrick. Maclean's magazine goes over-the-top with racist cover story, Seven Oaks Magazine, October 27, 2006.
• Pipes, Daniel. Daniel Pipes (born September 9 1949 is a American historian and political commentator who particularly focuses on the Middle East and Islam. "Islamophobia?", New York Sun, October 25, 2005. Events 1147 - The Portuguese, under Afonso I, and Crusaders from England and Flanders conquer Lisbon after a Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
• Ramji, Rubina. "From Navy Seals to The Siege: Getting to Know the Muslim Terrorist, Hollywood Style" The Journal of Religion and Film, Vol. 9, No. 2, October 2005
• Riyanto, Geger. "The Genealogy of today's Islamophobia", The Jakarta Post, October 27, 2006.
• Walter Laqueur. Walter Zeev Laqueur (born 26 May 1921) is an American historian and political commentator The Origins of Fascism: Islamic Fascism, Islamophobia, Antisemitism, Oxford University Press blog.
• Barry Van, Confronting Islamophobia in Educational Practice ISBN 1-85856-340-2
• Castle, Stephen. "Islamophobia takes a grip across Europe", The Independent, December 18, 2006. The Independent is a British compact Newspaper published by Tony O'Reilly 's Independent News & Media.