- This article is about the history of science in the Islamic civilization between the 8th and 15th centuries.
- For information on science in the context of Islam, see The relation between Islam and science. The relationship between Science and Islam is a matter of controversy
In the history of science, Islamic science refers to the science developed under the Islamic civilization between the 8th and 15th centuries, during what is known as the Islamic Golden Age. Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers The sociology and Philosophy of science, as well as the entire field of Science studies, have in the 20th century been preoccupied with the question of The Historiography of Science usually refers to the study of History of Science in its disciplinary aspects and practices (methods theories schools and Note The contents of this page are expected to change as consensus is reached The History of science in early cultures refers to the study of Protoscience in Ancient history, prior to the development of Science in the Middle The history of science in Classical Antiquity begins with the search for practical knowledge In the Middle Ages, Science progressed dramatically from the time of antiquity in areas as diverse as Astronomy, Medicine, and Mathematics During the Renaissance, the rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of Printing The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Astronomy is the oldest of the Natural sciences dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, Mythological, and Astrological The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times The history of Chemistry begins with the discovery of Fire, then Metallurgy which allowed purification of metals and the making of alloys as well as the exploitation Ecology is generally spoken of as a new science having only become prominent in the second half of the 20th Century This article explores the History of Geography. Ancient geography See also Ancient Greek geography Ancient Greeks environment The history of geology is concerned with the development of the natural science of geology The history of Paleontology traces the effort to understand the history of life on Earth by studying the Fossil record left behind by living organisms The modern discipline of Physics emerged in the 17th century following in traditions of inquiry established by Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, Isaac For more see Social sciences#History of the social sciences In ancient philosophy there was no difference between the Liberal arts of mathematics The history of economic thought deals with different thinkers and theories in the field of Political economy and Economics from the ancient world to the present See also History of grammar Linguistics as a study endeavors to describe and explain the human faculty of Language. While the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece and ancient India, political science is a late arrival in terms of Social sciences. The History of Psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to the Middle Ages. Sociology is a relatively new academic discipline among other Social sciences including Economics, Political science, Anthropology, and The history of technology is the history of the Invention of Tools and techniques Agronomy and the related disciplines of Agricultural science today are very different from what they were before about 1950 The history of computer science began long before the modern discipline of Computer science that emerged in the twentieth century The history of Materials science is the study of how different materials were used as influenced by the History of Earth and the Culture of the All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, Death, and Disease. This is a list of Timelines. Types of timelines Living graph Logarithmic timeline Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings [1] It is also known as Arabic science since most texts during this period were written in Arabic, the lingua franca of Islamic civilization. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language A lingua franca (from Italian, literally meaning Frankish language, see etymology under Sabir and Italian below is any Language widely For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Despite these names, not all scientists during this period were Muslim or Arab, as there were a number of notable non-Arab scientists (most notably Persians), as well as some non-Muslim scientists, contributing to science in the Islamic civilization. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding [2]
There are several different views on Islamic science among historians of science. The traditional view, as exemplified by Bertrand Russell,[3] is that Islamic science, while admirable in many technical ways, lacked the intellectual energy required for innovation and was chiefly important as a preserver of ancient knowledge and transmitter to medieval Europe. Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian The dominant view in recent times, as examplified by Toby E. Huff,[4][5] is that Islamic science made a number of advances in experimental science, but that it did not necessarily lead to a Scientific Revolution. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published Other scholars such as Robert Briffault,[6] Will Durant,[7] Fielding H. Garrison,[8] Muhammad Iqbal[9] and Hossein Nasr argue that Muslim scientists played an important role in laying the foundations for an experimental science with their introduction of an early scientific method[6][7] and an empirical, experimental and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry. Robert Briffault ( 1876 - 11 December 1948) was a French novelist historian social anthropologist and surgeon William James Durant ( November 5, 1885 &ndash November 7, 1981) was a prolific American popularizer in the fields of History Colonel Fielding Hudson Garrison, MD ( November 5, 1870 &ndash April 18, 1935) was an acclaimed medical historian, TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Seyyed Hossein Nasr ( Persian سید حسین نصر) an Iranian Science in the Islamic world has played an important role in the History of science. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. A quantitative attribute is one that exists in a range of magnitudes and can therefore be measured. Inquiry or enquiry is any process that has the aim of augmenting Knowledge, resolving Doubt, or solving a Problem. [6][7] Some scholars such as Abdus Salam[10] and George Saliba[11] have referred to medieval Islamic science as a Muslim scientific revolution,[12][13] an expression with which scholars such as Donald Routledge Hill and Ahmad Y Hassan express the view that Islam was the driving force behind the Muslim achievements,[14] and which should not be confused with the early modern Scientific Revolution which led to the emergence of modern science. Abdus Salam ( Urdu: محمد عبد السلام) ( January 29, 1926; Jhang Punjab &ndash November 21, George Saliba has been Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at the Department of Middle East and Asian Languages and Cultures Columbia University, Donald Routledge Hill (1922–1994 was an Engineer and historian of science and technology. Ahmad Y Hassan أحمد يوسف الحسن(born 1925 is a chevalier of the Légion d'honneur and a historian of Arabic and Islamic science and technology The early modern period is a term initially used by historians to refer mainly to the period roughly from 1500 to 1800 in Western Europe ( Early modern Europe) The term modern period or modern era (sometimes also modern times) is the period of history that followed the Middle Ages between c [15][16]
Contents |
Overview
Rise
- Further information: Islamic Golden Age
During the early Muslim conquests, the Muslim Arab forces, led primarily by Khalid ibn al-Walid, conquered the Sassanid Persian Empire and more than half of the Byzantine Roman Empire, establishing the Arab Empire across the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa, followed by further expansions across Pakistan, southern Italy and the Iberian Peninsula. The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Rashidun Caliphate Army or Rashidun army was the primary military body of the Rashidun Caliphate 's Armed forces during the Muslim Khālid ibn al-Walīd (592-642 ( خالد بن الوليد) also known by Sunnis as Sayf-'ullah al-Maslul (the Drawn Sword of God, God's Withdrawn The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and The Islamic conquest and rule of Sicily, Malta, and parts of Southern Italy was a process whose origin can be traced back through the general The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra As a result, the Islamic governments inherited the knowledge and skills of the ancient Middle East, of Greece, of Persia and of India [17]
The art of papermaking was obtained from two Chinese prisoners at the Battle of Talas (751), resulting in paper mills being built in Samarkand and Baghdad. See also Timeline of Middle Eastern history This article is a general overview of the history of the Middle East. The History of Greece traditionally encompasses the study of the Greek people, the areas they ruled historically and the territory now composing the modern state of The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 Papermaking is the process of making Paper, a material which is used ubiquitously today for writing and packaging China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Battle of Talas in 751 CE was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang Dynasty for control A paper mill is a Factory devoted to making Paper from wood pulp and other ingredients using a Fourdrinier Machine or similar apparatus Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques using linen rags instead of mulberry bark. Linen is a Textile made from the Fibers of the Flax plant Linum usitatissimum.
Most notable Arab scientists and Iranian scientists lived and practiced during the Islamic Golden Age, though not all scientists in Islamic civilization were Arab or Muslim. This is a list of scientists and scholars from the Arab World and Islamic Spain ( Al-Andalus) that lived from antiquity up until the beginning Classical (pre-modern Era The following is a non-comprehensive list of Iranian scientists and engineers that lived from antiquity up until the beginning of the modern The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Some argue that the term "Arab-Islamic" does not appreciate the rich diversity of eastern scholars who have contributed to science in that era. [18]
The number of important and original Arabic works written on the mathematical sciences is much larger than the combined total of Latin and Greek works on the mathematical sciences. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly [19]
Scientific method
Muslim scientists placed a greater emphasis on experimentation than previous ancient civilizations (for example, Greek philosophy placed a greater emphasis on rationality rather than empiricism),[6][7] which was due to the emphasis on empirical observation found in the Qur'an and Sunnah,[20][21][22][23] and the rigorous historical methods established in the science of hadith. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data Qur'an and Sunnah is an often quoted Islamic term regarding the sources of Islam The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which Historians use Primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history This is a sub-article of Scientific method and Hadith. The Science of hadith is the process that Muslim scholars use to evaluate hadith [20] Muslim scientists thus combined precise observation, controlled experiment and careful records[7] with a new[6] approach to scientific inquiry which led to the development of the scientific method. Scientific controls allow Experiments to study one Variable at a time and are a vital part of the Scientific method. Inquiry or enquiry is any process that has the aim of augmenting Knowledge, resolving Doubt, or solving a Problem. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena [24] In particular, the empirical observations and experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) in his Book of Optics (1021) is seen as the beginning of the modern scientific method,[25] which he first introduced to optics and psychology. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Rosanna Gorini writes:
"According to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. See also History An historian is an individual who studies and writes about History, and is regarded as an Authority on it With his book he changed the meaning of the term optics and established experiments as the norm of proof in the field. His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable. "[24]
Other early experimental methods were developed by Geber (for chemistry), Muhammad al-Bukhari (for history and the science of hadith),[20] al-Kindi (for the Earth sciences),[26] Avicenna (for medicine), Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (for astronomy and mechanics),[27] Ibn Zuhr (for surgery)[28] and Ibn Khaldun (for the social sciences). For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, popularly known as Al-Bukhari ( البخاري) or Imam Bukhari (810-870 was a famous Sunni History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology This is a sub-article of Scientific method and Hadith. The Science of hadith is the process that Muslim scholars use to evaluate hadith ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the Sciences related to the planet TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Mechanics ( Greek) is the branch of Physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to Forces or displacements Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies [29] The most important development of the scientific method, the use of experimentation and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, was introduced by Muslim scientists.
Ibn al-Haytham, a pioneer of modern optics,[30] used the scientific method to obtain the results in his Book of Optics. The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni In particular, he combined observations, experiments and rational arguments to show that his modern intromission theory of vision, where rays of light are emitted from objects rather than from the eyes, is scientifically correct, and that the ancient emission theory of vision supported by Ptolemy and Euclid (where the eyes emit rays of light), and the ancient intromission theory supported by Aristotle (where objects emit physical particles to the eyes), were both wrong. In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also In Optics, a ray is an idealized narrow Beam of light. Rays are used to model the propagation of Light through an optical system by dividing the real light Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 Emission theory or extramission theory is the proposal that Visual perception is accomplished by rays of Light emitted by the Eyes This Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Euclid ( Greek:.) fl 300 BC also known as Euclid of Alexandria, is often referred to as the Father of Geometry Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. [31] It is known that Roger Bacon was familiar with Ibn al-Haytham's work. For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O
Ibn al-Haytham developed rigorous experimental methods of controlled scientific testing in order to verify theoretical hypotheses and substantiate inductive conjectures. A test method is a definitive procedure that produces a test result A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed In Mathematics, a conjecture is a Mathematical statement which appears resourceful but has not been formally proven to be true under the rules of [32] Ibn al-Haytham's scientific method was similar to the modern scientific method in that it consisted of the following procedures:[33]
- Observation
- Statement of problem
- Formulation of hypothesis
- Testing of hypothesis using experimentation
- Analysis of experimental results
- Interpretation of data and formulation of conclusion
- Publication of findings
The development of the scientific method is considered to be fundamental to modern science and some — especially philosophers of science and practicing scientists — consider earlier inquiries into nature to be pre-scientific. Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data A problem is an obstacle which makes it difficult to achieve a desired goal objective or purpose A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or A result is the final consequence of a Sequence of actions or events (broadly incidents and accidents expressed qualitatively or quantitatively being a loss injury disadvantage Debt AIDS Trade in Africa (or DATA) is a Multinational non-government organization founded in January 2002 in London by U2 's A conclusion is a Proposition, which is arrived at after the consideration of Evidence, Arguments or Premises Logic To publish is to make content Publicly known. The term is most frequently applied to the distribution of text or images on paper or to the placing of content Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. Some consider Ibn al-Haytham to be the "first scientist" for this reason. A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices [34]
In The Model of the Motions, Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of Occam's razor, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the cosmological hypotheses that cannot be observed from Earth. Occam's razor (sometimes spelled Ockham's razor) is a principle attributed to the 14th-century English Logician and Franciscan Friar, Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 [35]
Robert Briffault wrote in The Making of Humanity:
"The debt of our science to that of the Arabs does not consist in startling discoveries or revolutionary theories; science owes a great deal more to Arab culture, it owes its existence. Robert Briffault ( 1876 - 11 December 1948) was a French novelist historian social anthropologist and surgeon The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The ancient world was, as we saw, pre- scientific. The astronomy and mathematics of the Greeks were a foreign importation never thoroughly acclimatized in Greek culture. The Greeks systematized, generalized and theorized, but the patient ways of investigation, the accumulation of positive knowledge, the minute methods of science, detailed and prolonged observation, experimental inquiry, were altogether alien to the Greek temperament. [. . . ] What we call science arose in Europe as a result of a new spirit of inquiry, of new methods of investigation, of the method of experiment, observation, measurement, of the development of mathematics in a form unknown to the Greeks. That spirit and those methods were introduced into the European world by the Arabs. "[6]
Science is the most momentous contribution of Arab civilization to the modern world, but its fruits were slow in ripening. The term modern period or modern era (sometimes also modern times) is the period of history that followed the Middle Ages between c Not until long after Moorish culture had sunk back into darkness did the giant to which it had given birth, rise in his might. The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent It was not science only which brought Europe back to life. Other and manifold influences from the civilization of Islam communicated its first glow to European life. "[36]
George Sarton wrote in the Introduction to the History of Science:
"The main, as well as the least obvious, achievement of the Middle Ages was the creation of the experimental spirit and this was primarily due to the Muslims down to the 12th century. George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. "[37]
Oliver Joseph Lodge wrote in the Pioneers of Science:
"The only effective link between the old and the new science is afforded by the Arabs. Sir Oliver Joseph Lodge, FRS ( June 12, 1851 - August 22, 1940) born at Penkhull in Stoke-on-Trent and educated The dark ages come as an utter gap in the scientific history of Europe, and for more than a thousand years there was not a scientific man of note except in Arabia. This article is about the phrase "Dark Age(s" as a characterization of the Early Middle Ages in Western Europe "[38]
Muhammad Iqbal wrote in The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam:
"Thus the experimental method, reason and observation introduced by the Arabs were responsible for the rapid advancement of science during the medieval times. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam is a compilation of lectures delivered by Muhammad Iqbal on Islamic philosophy; it was published in "[9]
Scientific institutions
- Further information: Madrasah, Bimaristan, and Islamic astronomy
A number of important institutions previously unknown in the ancient world have their origins in the medieval Islamic world, with the most notable examples being: the public hospital (which replaced healing temples and sleep temples)[39] and psychiatric hospital,[40] the public library and lending library, the academic degree-granting university, the astronomical observatory as a research institute[39] (as opposed to a private observation post as was the case in ancient times),[41] and the trust (Waqf). "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- Institutions are structures and mechanisms of Social order and Cooperation governing the Behavior of a Set of Individuals A public hospital is a Hospital which is owned by a Government and receives government funding Sleep temples (also known as dream temples or Egyptian sleep temples) are regarded by some as an early instance of Hypnosis over 4000 years ago Sleep temples (also known as dream temples or Egyptian sleep temples) are regarded by some as an early instance of Hypnosis over 4000 years ago A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is A public library (also called circulating library) is a Library which is accessible by the Public and is generally funded from public sources (such A lending library is a Library from which books are lent out The earliest reference or use of the term 'lending library located in English correspondence dates back to at A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial and/or celestial events A research institute is an establishment endowed for doing Research. An observation post, temporary or fixed is a position from which soldiers can watch enemy movements to warn of approaching soldiers (such as in Trench warfare In Common law legal systems a trust is an arrangement whereby Property (including real tangible and intangible is managed by one person (or persons or organizations A waqf ( plural, awqāf; vakıf wæqəf is an inalienable religious endowment in Islam, typically devoting a building or plot of land for Muslim [42][43]
The first universities which issued diplomas were the Bimaristan medical university-hospitals of the medieval Islamic world, where medical diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be practicing doctors of medicine from the 9th century. A diploma (from Greek δίπλωµα diploma, meaning "folded paper" is a Certificate or Deed issued by an educational institution Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- Doctor of Medicine ( MD or MD, from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor meaning "Teacher of Medicine" is a doctoral Sir John Bagot Glubb wrote:[44]
"By Mamun's time medical schools were extremely active in Baghdad. Lieutenant-General Sir John Bagot Glubb KCB, CMG, DSO, OBE, better known as Glubb Pasha (born 16 April The first free public hospital was opened in Baghdad during the Caliphate of Haroon-ar-Rashid. A public hospital is a Hospital which is owned by a Government and receives government funding A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Hārūn al-Rashīd (and Persian: هارون الرشيد) also spelled Harun ar-Rashid; English: Aaron the Upright, Aaron the As the system developed, physicians and surgeons were appointed who gave lectures to medical students and issued diplomas to those who were considered qualified to practice. Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine A diploma (from Greek δίπλωµα diploma, meaning "folded paper" is a Certificate or Deed issued by an educational institution The first hospital in Egypt was opened in 872 AD and thereafter public hospitals sprang up all over the empire from Spain and the Maghrib to Persia. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or Maghrib (مَغْرِب is the fourth daily Salat in Islam, offered at sunset See Also Persian Empire History of Iran and Greater Iran (also referred to as the " Iranian Cultural Continent "
The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco as the oldest university in the world with its founding in 859. Guinness World Records, known until 2000 as The Guinness Book of Records (and in previous U The University of Al-Karaouine or Al-Qarawiyyin (جامعة القرويين (other transliterations of the name include Qarawiyin Kairouyine Kairaouine Qairawiyin Qaraouyine Fes or Fez ( Arabic: فاس, French Fès is the fourth largest City in Morocco, after Casablanca, Rabat Events By Place Europe January 15 - Battle of Saint-Quentin Aisne: Humfrid defeats Louis the German. [45] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in the 10th century, offered a variety of academic degrees, including postgraduate degrees, and is often considered the first full-fledged university. Al-Azhar University (pronounced "az-HAR" الأزهر الشريف, "the Noble Azhar" in Egypt, founded in 975 is the chief centre of Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing A graduate school or ("grad school" is a school that awards advanced degrees such as doctoral degrees with the general requirement that students must have earned
A number of distinct features of the modern library were introduced in the Islamic world, where libraries not only served as a collection of manuscripts as was the case in ancient libraries, but also as a public library and lending library, a centre for the instruction and spread of sciences and ideas, a place for meetings and discussions, and sometimes as a lodging for scholars or boarding school for pupils. Lodging or a holiday accommodation is a type of residential Accommodation. A boarding school is a School where some or all pupils not only study but also live during term time with their fellow students and possibly teachers The concept of the library catalog was also introduced in medieval Islamic libraries, where books were organized into specific genres and categories. A library catalog (or library catalogue) is a register of all bibliographic items found in a Library or group of libraries such as a network of libraries A genre (ˈʒɑːnrə also /ˈdʒɑːnrə/ from French "kind" or "sort" from Latin: genus (stem gener-) is a loose set [46]
Another common feature during the Islamic Golden Age was the large number of Muslim polymaths or "universal geniuses", scholars who contributed to many different fields of knowledge. A polymath ( Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής "having learned much" is a person whose knowledge is not restricted to one subject area Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Muslim polymaths were known as "Hakeems" and they had a wide breadth of knowledge in many different fields of religious and secular learning, comparable to the later "Renaissance Men", such as Leonardo da Vinci, of the European Renaissance period. In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Polymath scholars were so common during the Islamic Golden Age that it was rare to find a scholar who specialized in any single field at the time. [47] Notable Muslim polymaths included al-Biruni, al-Jahiz, al-Kindi, Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Razi, Ibn Sina, al-Idrisi, Ibn Bajja, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Tufayl, Ibn Rushd, al-Suyuti[48] Geber, al-Khwarizmi, the Banū Mūsā, Abbas Ibn Firnas, al-Farabi, al-Masudi, al-Muqaddasi, Alhacen, Omar Khayyám, al-Ghazali, al-Khazini, Avempace, al-Jazari, Ibn al-Nafis, Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, Ibn al-Shatir, Ibn Khaldun, and Taqi al-Din, among many others. Al-Jāḥiẓ (in Arabic الجاحظ (real name Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri) (born in Basra, c ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abu Abd Allah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani al-Sabti or simply El Idrisi ( Arabic أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي Latin: Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Imam Jalaluddin Al-Suyuti (c For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. The Banū Mūsā brothers (بنو موسى "Sons of Mūsā" were three 9th century Persian Scholars of Baghdad, active in the House Abbas Ibn Firnas (810 &ndash 887 AD) was also known as Abbas Qasim Ibn Firnas and العباس بن فرناس ( Arabic language) TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn íbn Ali al-Mas'udi (transl) (born c Muhammad ibn Ahmad Shams al-Din Al-Muqaddasi (محمد بن أحمد شمس الدين المقدسي also Transliterated as Al-Maqdisi and el-Mukaddasi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf al-Shami al-Asadi ( Arabic: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي السعدي Turkish: Takiyuddin) (1526&ndash1585 [47]
Peer review
The first documented description of a peer review process is found in the Ethics of the Physician written by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854–931) of al-Raha, Syria, who describes the first medical peer review process. Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting an author's scholarly work research or Ideas to the scrutiny of others who are Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Medical peer review is the process by which a committee of physicians examines the work of a peer and determines whether the physician under review has met accepted standards of care in His work, as well as later Arabic medical manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would review the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. See also Critic. A review is an evaluation of a publication such as a movie, Video game, Musical composition If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient. In law a lawsuit is a civil action brought before a Court in which the party commencing the action the Plaintiff, seeks a legal or equitable remedy [49]
Decline
- Further information: Islamic Golden Age
Islamic science and the numbers of Islamic scientists were traditionally believed to have begun declining from the 12th or 13th centuries. It was believed that, though the Islamic civilization would still produce scientists, that they became the exception, rather than the rule (see List of Islamic scholars). Scholars in Islamic studies are both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars who work in one or more fields of Islamic studies. Recent scholarship, however, has come to question this traditional picture of decline, pointing to continued astronomical activity as a sign of a continuing and creative scientific tradition through to the 16th century, of which the work of Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375) in Damascus is considered the most noteworthy example. Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer [50][51] This was also the case for other areas of Islamic science, such as medicine, exemplified by the works of Ibn al-Nafis and Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu, and the social sciences, exemplified by Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah (1370), which itself points out that science was declining in Iraq, al-Andalus and Maghreb but continuing to flourish in Persia, Syria and Egypt. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu (1385-1468 ( Ottoman Turkish:شرف الدّین صابونجی اوغلی was a medieval Ottoman Surgeon and Physician The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The Muqaddimah, or the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun ( Arabic: ar مقدّمة ابن خلدون Amazigh: Tazwarit n Ibn Xldun For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. [52]
One reason given for the scientific decline was when the orthodox Ash'ari school of theology challenged the more rational Mu'tazili school of theology, with al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers(Tahafut al-falasifa) being the most notable example. The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ) in Arabic (تهافت الفلاسفة is the title of a landmark 11th century Polemic in Islamic This interpretation was introduced by the Hungarian Orientalist Ignaz Goldziher, who believed that there was an intrinsic antagonism between Islamic orthodoxy and the traditions of Greek science. Oriental studies is the academic field of study that embraces Near Eastern and Far Eastern societies and cultures languages peoples history and archaeology in recent Ignác (Yitzhaq Yehuda Goldziher ( June 22, 1850 – November 13, 1921) often credited as Ignaz Goldziher was a Hungarian Orientalist [53]. Recent scholarship has questioned this traditional view, however, with a number of scholars pointing out that the Ash'ari school supported science but were only opposed to speculative philosophy and that some of the greatest Muslim scientists such as Alhazen, Biruni, Ibn al-Nafis and Ibn Khaldun were themselves followers of the Ash'ari school. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized [48][52] Other reasons for the decline of Islamic science include conflicts between the Sunni and Shia Muslims, and invasions by Crusaders and Mongols on Islamic lands between the 11th and 13th centuries, especially the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire The Mongols destroyed Muslim libraries, observatories, hospitals, and universities, culminating in the destruction of Baghdad, the Abbasid capital and intellectual centre, in 1258, which marked the end of the Islamic Golden Age. The Battle of Baghdad in 1258 was a victory for the Mongol leader Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan. [54]
From the 13th century, some traditionalist Muslims believed that the Crusades and Mongol invasions may have been a divine punishment from God against Muslims deviating from the Sunnah, a view that was held even by the famous polymath Ibn al-Nafis. Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” [55] Such traditionalist views as well as numerous wars and conflicts at the time are believed to have created a climate which made Islamic science less successful than before. Another reason given for this decline is the disruption to the cycle of equity based on Ibn Khaldun's famous model of Asabiyyah (the rise and fall of civilizations), which points to the decline being mainly due to political and economic factors rather than religious factors. `Asabiyya or asabiyah ( Arabic: عصبية ʕaṣabīya) refers to Social solidarity with an emphasis on Unity, group consciousness A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements [52] With the fall of Islamic Spain in 1492, the scientific and technological initiative of the Islamic world was inherited by Europeans and laid the foundations for Europe's Renaissance and Scientific Revolution. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published [56]
Influence on European science
- Further information: Latin translations of the 12th century
Contributing to the growth of European science was the major search by European scholars for new learning which they could only find among Muslims, especially in Islamic Spain and Sicily. Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe were numerous affecting such varied areas as art, architecture, medicine, argriculture, music The Renaissance of the 12th century saw a major search by European scholars for new learning which led them to the Arabic fringes of Europe especially to Islamic Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The Islamic conquest and rule of Sicily, Malta, and parts of Southern Italy was a process whose origin can be traced back through the general These scholars translated new scientific and philosophical texts from Arabic into Latin. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.
One of the most productive translators in Spain was Gerard of Cremona, who translated 87 books from Arabic to Latin,[57] including Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī's On Algebra and Almucabala, Jabir ibn Aflah's Elementa astronomica,[58] al-Kindi's On Optics, Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī's On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions, al-Farabi's On the Classification of the Sciences,[59] the chemical and medical works of Razi,[60] the works of Thabit ibn Qurra and Hunayn ibn Ishaq,[61] and the works of Arzachel, Jabir ibn Aflah, the Banū Mūsā, Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam, Abu al-Qasim, and Ibn al-Haytham (including the Book of Optics). Gerard of Cremona ( Italian: Gerardo da Cremona; Latin: Gerardus Cremonensis; c Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī hīsāb al-ğabr wa’l-muqābala ( Arabic for "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing" Abu Muhammad Jabir ibn Aflah (أبو محمد جابر بن أفلح born 1100 in Seville, Spain &ndash died 1150 was an Arab Muslim astronomer ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi (836 in Harran, Mesopotamia &ndash February 18, 901 in Baghdad) was an Arab astronomer, mathematician Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Hunein Bit Ishak أبو زيد حنين بن إسحاق العبادي; known in Latin as Johannitius (809-873 was a famous and influential Abu Muhammad Jabir ibn Aflah (أبو محمد جابر بن أفلح born 1100 in Seville, Spain &ndash died 1150 was an Arab Muslim astronomer The Banū Mūsā brothers (بنو موسى "Sons of Mūsā" were three 9th century Persian Scholars of Baghdad, active in the House (c 850 – c 930 (ابو كامل for short was an Egyptian Muslim mathematician during the Islamic Golden Age. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni [57]
Other Arabic works translated into Latin during the 12th century include the works of Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī and Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (including The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing),[58] the works of Abu al-Qasim (including the al-Tasrif),[62][57] Muhammad al-Fazari's Great Sindhind (based on the Surya Siddhanta and the works of Brahmagupta),[63] the works of Razi and Avicenna (including The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine),[64] the works of Averroes,[62] the works of Thabit ibn Qurra, al-Farabi, Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī, Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and his nephew Hubaysh ibn al-Hasan,[65] the works of al-Kindi, Abraham bar Hiyya's Liber embadorum, Ibn Sarabi's (Serapion Junior) De Simplicibus,[62] the works of Qusta ibn Luqa,[66] the works of Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti, Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, and al-Ghazali,[57] the works of Nur Ed-Din Al Betrugi, including On the Motions of the Heavens,[67][60] Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi's medical encyclopedia, The Complete Book of the Medical Art,[60] Abu Mashar's Introduction to Astrology,[68] the works of Maimonides, Ibn Zezla (Byngezla), Masawaiyh, Serapion, al-Qifti, and Albe'thar. Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī hīsāb al-ğabr wa’l-muqābala ( Arabic for "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing" TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia Abu abdallah Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari (d 796 or 806 was a Muslim Philosopher, Mathematician and Astronomer. The Surya Siddhanta is a treatise of Indian astronomy. Later Indian mathematicians and astronomers such as Aryabhata and Varahamihira Brahmagupta ( (598–668 was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The Book of Healing ( Arabic: الشفاء Al-Shefa, Latin: Sanatio) is a scientific and philosophical The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European (836 in Harran, Mesopotamia &ndash February 18, 901 in Baghdad) was an Arab astronomer, mathematician TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Hunein Bit Ishak أبو زيد حنين بن إسحاق العبادي; known in Latin as Johannitius (809-873 was a famous and influential ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c ( Hebrew: אברהם בר חייא הנשיא Abraham son of Hiyya "the Prince") (1070 Barcelona, Catalonia &ndash 1136 Qusta ibn Luqa (820-912 ( Costa ben Luca, Constabulus) was a Melkite physician scientist and translator of Byzantine Greek extraction Maslama al-Majriti ( Arabic أبو القاسم مسلمة بن أحمد المجريطي) (b Ja'far ibn Muḥammad Abū Ma'shar al-Balkhī ( 10 August 787 in Balkh, Afghanistan &ndash 9 March 886 in al-Wasit Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (died 982-994 also known as Masoudi or Latinized as Haly Abbas, was a Persian Physician and Ja'far ibn Muḥammad Abū Ma'shar al-Balkhī ( 10 August 787 in Balkh, Afghanistan &ndash 9 March 886 in al-Wasit Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Yuhanna ibn Masawaih, also written Ibn Masawaih, Masawaiyh, and in latin Mesue, Masuya, Mesue Major, Msuya, and Mesue [69] Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam's Algebra,[58] the chemical works of Geber, and the De Proprietatibus Elementorum, an Arabic work on geology written by a pseudo-Aristotle. (c 850 – c 930 (ابو كامل for short was an Egyptian Muslim mathematician during the Islamic Golden Age. For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Pseudo-Aristotle is a general cognomen for authors of philosophical or medical treatises who attributed their work to the Greek philosopher Aristotle, or [60] By the beginning of the 13th century, Mark of Toledo translated the Qur'an and various medical works. Mark of Toledo (fl 1193-1216 produced one of the earliest translations of the Qur'an into Latin. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran [70]
Fibonacci presented the first complete European account of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system from Arabic sources in his Liber Abaci (1202). Leonardo of Pisa (c 1170 – c 1250 also known as Leonardo Pisano, Leonardo Bonacci, Leonardo Fibonacci, or most commonly simply Fibonacci The Hindu-Arabic numeral system is a Positional Decimal Numeral system first documented in the ninth century The arabic numerals (often capitalized are the ten Digits (0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 which—along with the system Liber Abaci (1202 also spelled as Liber Abbaci) is an historic book on Arithmetic by Leonardo of Pisa known later by his nickname Fibonacci [60] Al-Khazini's Zij as-Sanjari was translated into Greek by Gregory Choniades in the 13th century and was studied in the Byzantine Empire. Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist Zīj ( Arabic: زيج) is the generic name applied to Arabic astronomical books that tabulate parameters used for astronomical calculations of Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Gregory Choniades (Choniates Chioniades (died 1302 was a Byzantine Greek Astronomer. [71] The astronomical corrections to the Ptolemaic model made by al-Battani and Averroes and the non-Ptolemaic models produced by Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (Urdi lemma), Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (Tusi-couple) and Ibn al-Shatir were later adapted into the Copernican heliocentric model. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Mu’ayyad al-Din al-’Urdi (d 1266 was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, architect and engineer working at the Maragheh The Tusi-couple is a mathematical device in which a small circle rotates inside a larger circle twice the radius of the smaller circle Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer See also Nicolaus Copernicus, Heliocentrism Earlier theories See also Heliocentrism Early traces of a Heliocentric model Al-Kindi's (Alkindus) law of terrestrial gravity influenced Robert Hooke's law of celestial gravity, which in turn inspired Newton's law of universal gravitation. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c A terrestrial planet, telluric planet or rocky planet is a Planet that is primarily composed of Silicate rocks Within our Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another Robert Hooke, FRS (18 July 1635 – 3 March 1703 was an English Natural philosopher and Polymath who played an important role in the s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. Newton 's law of universal Gravitation is a physical law describing the gravitational attraction between bodies with mass Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's Ta'rikh al-Hind and Kitab al-qanun al-Mas’udi were translated into Latin as Indica and Canon Mas’udicus respectively. Ibn al-Nafis' Commentary on Compound Drugs was translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago (d. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. 1522), who may have also translated Ibn al-Nafis' Commentary on Anatomy in the Canon of Avicenna, which first described pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation, and which may have had an influence on Michael Servetus, Realdo Colombo and William Harvey. Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the Cardiovascular system which carries Oxygen -depleted Blood away from the heart to the Lungs, and Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the Blood vessels that supply Blood to and from the Heart muscle Michael Servetus (also Miguel Servet or Miguel Serveto; 29 September, 1511 &ndash 27 October, 1553) was a Spanish Matteo Realdo Colombo or Renaldus Columbus (c 1516 - 1559 was an Italian professor of Anatomy and a surgeon at the University of Padua William Harvey ( April 1, 1578 – June 3, 1657) was an English Physician who is credited with being the first in [72] Translations of the algebraic and geometrical works of Ibn al-Haytham, Omar Khayyám and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī were later influential in the development of non-Euclidean geometry in Europe from the 17th century. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین In mathematics non-Euclidean geometry describes how this all works--> hyperbolic and Elliptic geometry, which are contrasted with Euclidean geometry [73][74] Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan was translated into Latin by Edward Pococke in 1671 and into English by Simon Ockley in 1708 and became "one of the most important books that heralded the Scientific Revolution. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān ( حي بن يقظان " Alive son of Awake " Philosophus Autodidactus " The Self-Taught Philosopher Edward Pococke (1604-1691 was an English Orientalist and biblical scholar Simon Ockley (1678 – August 9, 1720) was a British Orientalist. The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published "[75] Ibn al-Baitar's Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada also had an influence on European botany after it was translated into Latin in 1758. Abu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Baitar Dhiya al-Din al-Malaqi (ابن البيطار (d Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life [76]
Fields
In the Middle Ages, especially during the Islamic Golden Age, Muslim scholars made significant advances in science, mathematics, medicine, astronomy, engineering, and many other fields. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and During this time, early Islamic philosophy developed and was often pivotal in scientific debates — key figures were usually scientists and philosophers. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language
Agricultural sciences
- Further information: Islamic geography
During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, Muslim scientists made significant advances in botany and laid the foundations of agricultural science. The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact natural economic and Social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding Muslim botanists and agriculturists demonstrated advanced agronomical, agrotechnical and economic knowledge in areas such as meteorology, climatology, hydrology, soil occupation, and the economy and management of agricultural enterprises. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Agronomy is the science and technology of using plants for food fuel feed and fiber An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary Climatology (from Greek grc κλίμα klima, "region zone" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of Climate, scientifically Hydrology (from Greek Yδωρ hudōr, "water" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of the movement distribution and quality of Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area Management (covering theory practice and scope of management and Manager' (covering the people who manage might help clarify and systematise They also demosntrated agricultural knowledge in areas such as pedology, agricultural ecology, irrigation, preparation of soil, planting, spreading of manure, killing herbs, sowing, cutting trees, grafting, pruning vine, prophylaxis, phytotherapy, the care and improvement of cultures and plants, and the harvest and storage of crops. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops Sowing is the process of planting Seeds. Sowing in practice Pretreatment of seed and soil before sowing Before sowing certain seeds first require Manure is Organic matter used as Organic fertilizer in Agriculture. A(n herb (ˈhɝb or /ˈɝb/ see pronunciation differences) is a plant that is valued for qualities such as medicinal properties flavor scent or the like Sowing is the process of planting Seeds. Sowing in practice Pretreatment of seed and soil before sowing Before sowing certain seeds first require A tree is a perennial Woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or Grafting is a method of asexual Plant propagation widely used in Agriculture and Horticulture where the tissues of one Plant are encouraged to For other uses of the term "Pruning" see Pruning (disambiguation. A vine is any plant of Genus Vitis (the Grape plants or by extension any similar climbing or trailing plant Prophylaxis ( Greek "προφυλάσσω" to guard or prevent beforehand) is any medical or Public health procedure whose purpose Phytotherapy is the study of the use of extracts from natural origin as medicines of health-promoting agents Plant Tissue Culture is a practice used to propagate Plants under sterile conditions often to produce clones of a plant Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. In Agriculture, the harvest is the process of Gathering mature crops from the fields Reaping is the cutting of Grain [77]
Al-Dinawari (828-896) is considered the founder of Arabic botany for his Book of Plants, in which he described at least 637 plants and discussed plant evolution from its birth to its death, describing the phases of plant growth and the production of flowers and fruit. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ābu Ḥanīfah Āḥmad ibn Dawūd Dīnawārī (828 - 896 was a Kurdish polymath Plant evolution is the subset of Evolutionary phenomena that concern Plants. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. [78]
In the 13th century, the Andalusian-Arabian biologist Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati developed an early scientific method for botany, introducing empirical and experimental techniques in the testing, description and identification of numerous materia medica, and separating unverified reports from those supported by actual tests and observations. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding A biologist is a Scientist devoted to and producing results in Biology through the study of Organisms Typically biologists study organisms and their relationship Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Materia medica is a Latin medical term for the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance used for healing Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data [79] His student Ibn al-Baitar published the Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada, which is considered one of the greatest botanical compilations in history, and was a botanical authority for centuries. Abu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Baitar Dhiya al-Din al-Malaqi (ابن البيطار (d It contains details on at least 1,400 different plants, foods, and drugs, 300 of which were his own original discoveries. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body His work was also influential in Europe after it was translated into Latin in 1758. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. [80][76]
Applied sciences
- Further information: Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world
Fielding H. Garrison wrote in the History of Medicine:
"The Saracens themselves were the originators not only of algebra, chemistry, and geology, but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization, such as street lamps, window-panes, firework, stringed instruments, cultivated fruits, perfumes, spices, etc. The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural Colonel Fielding Hudson Garrison, MD ( November 5, 1870 &ndash April 18, 1935) was an acclaimed medical historian, Saracen was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Fatimids at first then later for all who professed the religion of Islam. Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit A street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard or lamp standard, is a raised source of Light on the edge of a Road GlassWindowjpg|thumb|right|190px|A stained glass panel depicting Biblical scenes at a historic church in Scotland]] A window is an opening A paned window is a Window that is divided into sections known as panes Originally the meaning pertained to sectioned glass Windows in walls A firework is classified as a low explosive pyrotechnic device used primarily for aesthetic and entertainment purposes A string instrument (or stringed instrument) is a Musical instrument that produces Sound by means of Vibrating strings In the Hornbostel-Sachs Tillage is the agricultural preparation of the Soil by Ploughing ripping or turning it The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. Perfume is a mixture of fragrant Essential oils and Aroma compounds Fixatives and Solvents used to give the human body animals objects and living A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive . . "[8]
In the applied sciences, a significant number of inventions and technologies were produced by medieval Muslim scientists and engineers such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, Taqi al-Din, and particularly al-Jazari, who is considered a pioneer in modern engineering. For the song by 311, see Grassroots. Applied science is the application of knowledge from one or more natural scientific Abbas Ibn Firnas (810 &ndash 887 AD) was also known as Abbas Qasim Ibn Firnas and العباس بن فرناس ( Arabic language) Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf al-Shami al-Asadi ( Arabic: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي السعدي Turkish: Takiyuddin) (1526&ndash1585 Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري [81] Some of the inventions believed to have come from the medieval Islamic world include the programmable automaton,[82] coffee, soap bar, shampoo, pure distillation, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, filtration, distilled alcohol, uric acid, nitric acid, alembic, crankshaft, valve, reciprocating suction piston pump, mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, combination lock, quilting, pointed arch, scalpel, bone saw, forceps, surgical catgut, windmill, inoculation, fountain pen, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis, three-course meal, stained glass and quartz glass, Persian carpet, modern cheque, celestial globe, explosive rockets and incendiary devices, torpedo, and artificial pleasure gardens. This article is about a self-operating machine For other uses of Automaton see Automaton (disambiguation or Automata (disambiguation. CoFFEE is an Open source Software for computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL in a digital classroom Shampoo is a Hair care product used for the removal of oils, dirt skin particles Dandruff, environmental pollutants and other contaminant particles that Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Crystallization is the (natural or artificial process of formation of solid Crystals precipitating from a homogeneous --> identical Solution Beta oxidation is the process by which Fatty acids in the form of Acyl-CoA molecules are broken down in Mitochondria and/or in Peroxisomes to Evaporation is the process by which Molecules in a Liquid state (e Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases by interposing a medium to fluid flow through which the fluid In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Uric acid (or urate) is an Organic compound of Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen and Hydrogen with the formula C5H4N4O3 Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and An alembic (from Arabic Al-inbiq الأنبيق is an alchemical Still consisting of two Retorts connected by a tube The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an Engine which translates reciprocating Linear For other uses see Valve (disambiguation. For the electronic component see Thermionic valve. A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a Heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating Pistons to convert Suction is the flow of a fluid into a partial Vacuum, or region of low pressure A piston is a component of Reciprocating engines Pumps and Gas compressors It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by Piston For information on Wikipedia project-related discussions see WikipediaVillage pump. A pendulum clock is a Clock that uses a Pendulum, a swinging weight as its Timekeeping element A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow In the Physical sciences weight is a Measurement of the gravitational Force acting on an object A combination lock is a type of lock in which a sequence of numbers or symbols is used to open the lock Quilting is a Sewing method done either by hand by Sewing machine, or by a longarm quilting system An arch is a structure that spans a space while supporting weight (e A scalpel is a small but extremely sharp knife used for Surgery, anatomical Dissection, and various Arts and crafts. A saw is a Tool that uses a hard blade or wire with an abrasive edge to cut through softer materials Forceps are a handheld hinged instrument used for grasping and holding objects Catgut is the name applied to cord of great toughness and tenacity prepared from the Intestines of the Sheep or Goat, or occasionally from those of the A windmill is a machine that is powered by the energy of the wind Inoculation is the placement of something to where it will grow or reproduce and is most commonly used in respect of the introduction of a serum Vaccine, or antigenic substance A fountain pen is a Pen that contains a reservoir of water-based liquid ink. Cryptanalysis (from the Greek kryptós, "hidden" and analýein, "to loosen" or "to untie" is the study of methods for In Cryptanalysis, frequency analysis is the study of the frequency of letters or groups of letters in a Ciphertext. For the coarsely ground flour see Flour. A meal is an instance of Eating, specifically one that takes place at a specific time and includes For the Blackford Oakes novel see Stained Glass (novel The term stained glass refers either to the material of coloured Glass or to the art Fused quartz and fused silica are types of Glass containing primarily Silica in amorphous (non- Crystalline form The Persian carpet ( Pahlavi bōb Persian farš فرش meaning "to spread" and qāli) is an essential part of A cheque (spelled check in American English) is a Negotiable instrument instructing a Financial institution to pay a specific amount of An explosive material is a material that either is chemically or otherwise Energetically unstable or produces a sudden expansion of the material usually accompanied A rocket or rocket vehicle is a Missile, Aircraft or other Vehicle which obtains Thrust by the reaction of the Incendiary devices or incendiary bombs are Bombs designed to start Fires or destroy sensitive equipment using materials such as Napalm, Thermite The modern torpedo (historically called an automotive automobile locomotive or fish torpedo is a self-propelled explosive Projectile weapon launched above or below A pleasure garden is usually a Garden that is opened to the Public for Recreation.
Astrology
Islamic astrology, in Arabic ilm al-nujum is the study of the heavens by early Muslims. This is a sub-article of History of science in the Islamic World and Astrology. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion In early Arabic sources, ilm al-nujum was used to refer to both astronomy and astrology. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems In medieval sources, however, a clear distinction was made between ilm al-nujum (science of the stars) or ilm al-falak (science of the celestial orbs), referring to astrology, and ilm al-haya (science of the figure of the heavens), referring to astronomy. Both fields were rooted in Greek, Persian, and Indian traditions. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. Despite consistent critiques of astrology by scientists and religious scholars, astrological prognostications required a fair amount of exact scientific knowledge and thus gave partial incentive for the study and development of astronomy.
The first semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology was given by al-Biruni in the 11th century, though he himself refuted the study of astrology. Semantics is the study of meaning in communication The word derives from Greek σημαντικός ( semantikos) "significant" from Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems [83] The study of astrology was also refuted by other Muslim astronomers at the time, including al-Farabi, Ibn al-Haytham, Avicenna and Averroes. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Their reasons for refuting astrology were both due to the methods used by astrologers being conjectural rather than empirical and also due to the views of astrologers conflicting with orthodox Islam. In Mathematics, a conjecture is a Mathematical statement which appears resourceful but has not been formally proven to be true under the rules of A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. [84]
Astronomy
- Further information: List of Muslim astronomers and List of Arabic star names
In astronomy, the works of Egyptian/Greek astronomer Ptolemy, particularly the Almagest, and the Indian work of Brahmagupta, were significantly refined over the years by Muslim astronomers. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study This article is about the contemporary North African ethnic group Greek astronomy is the Astronomy of those who wrote in the Greek language in Classical antiquity. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Almagest is the Latin form of the Arabic name ( الكتاب المجسطي, al-kitabu-l-mijisti, i Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE Brahmagupta ( (598–668 was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The astronomical tables of Al-Khwarizmi and of Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti served as important sources of information for Latinized European thinkers rediscovering the works of astronomy, where extensive interest in astrology was discouraged. Maslama al-Majriti ( Arabic أبو القاسم مسلمة بن أحمد المجريطي) (b Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.
In the 11th century, Muslim astronomers began questioning the Ptolemaic system, beginning with Ibn al-Haytham, and they were the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena, beginning with Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's introduction of the experimental method into astronomy. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena [85] Many of them made changes and corrections to the Ptolemaic model and proposed alternative non- Ptolemaic models within a geocentric framework. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other In particular, the corrections and critiques of al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, and Averroes, and the non-Ptolemaic models of the Maragha astronomers, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (Tusi-couple), Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (Urdi lemma), and Ibn al-Shatir, were later adapted into the heliocentric Copernican model,[86][87] and that Copernicus' arguments for the Earth's rotation were similar to those of al-Tusi and Ali al-Qushji. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Maragheh observatory ( Persian:رصدخانه مراغه Rasad Khaneh) is an Ancient Observatory, which was established in 1259 by The Tusi-couple is a mathematical device in which a small circle rotates inside a larger circle twice the radius of the smaller circle Mu’ayyad al-Din al-’Urdi (d 1266 was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, architect and engineer working at the Maragheh Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer See also Nicolaus Copernicus, Heliocentrism Earlier theories See also Heliocentrism Early traces of a Heliocentric model Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time Ali Kuşçu (? 1403 - 16 December, 1474) was a Turkish astronomer, mathematician, physicist and scientist [88] Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha school as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution", or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance". [11]
Other contributions from Muslim astronomers include Biruni speculating that the Milky Way galaxy is a collection of numerous nebulous stars,[85] the development of a planetary model without any epicycles by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace),[89] the optical writings of Ibn al-Haytham having laid the foundations for the later European development of telescopic astronomy,[90] the development of universal astrolabes,[91] the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, continuation of inquiry into the motion of the planets, Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir's discovery that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres are subject to the same physical laws as Earth,[92] the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena and the first semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology by Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[83] the use of exacting empirical observations and experimental techniques,[93] the discovery that the celestial spheres are not solid and that the heavens are less dense than the air by Ibn al-Haytham,[94] the separation of natural philosophy from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham[95] and al-Qushji,[88] the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than philosophical grounds by Ibn al-Shatir,[11] and the first empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation by al-Tusi and al-Qushji. The Milky Way (a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn derived from the Greek Γαλαξίας (Galaxias sometimes referred to simply A galaxy is a massive gravitationally bound system consisting of Stars an Interstellar medium of gas and dust, and Dark matter A nebula (from Latin: "mist" pl nebulae or nebulæ, with ligature or nebulas) is an Interstellar cloud of A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth In the Ptolemaic system of Astronomy, the epicycle (literally on the circle in Greek) was a geometric model used to explain the variations in Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of Electromagnetic radiation. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle A physical law or scientific law is a Scientific generalization based on empirical Observations of physical behavior (i EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Semantics is the study of meaning in communication The word derives from Greek σημαντικός ( semantikos) "significant" from Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle A solid' object is in the States of matter characterized by resistance to Deformation and changes of Volume. For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time [88] Several Muslim astronomers also discussed the possibility of a heliocentric model with elliptical orbits,[96] such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Ibn al-Haytham, Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, al-Sijzi, 'Umar al-Katibi al-Qazwini, and Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi. In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. In Mathematics, an ellipse (from the Greek ἔλλειψις literally absence) is a Conic section, the locus of points in a Ja'far ibn Muḥammad Abū Ma'shar al-Balkhī ( 10 August 787 in Balkh, Afghanistan &ndash 9 March 886 in al-Wasit TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Abu Sa'id Ahmed ibn Mohammed ibn Abd al-Jalil al-Sijzi (short for al-Sijistani was a Persian astronomer and mathematician. TemplateInfobox Persian scholars --> Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236 &ndash 1311 (قطبالدین شیرازی was a 13th [97]
Chemistry
The 9th century chemist, Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan), is considered a pioneer of chemistry,[98][99][100] for introducing an early experimental method for chemistry, as well as the alembic, still, retort, pure distillation, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, and filtration. A chemist is a Scientist trained in the Science of Chemistry. For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or An alembic (from Arabic Al-inbiq الأنبيق is an alchemical Still consisting of two Retorts connected by a tube A still is an apparatus used to distill Miscible or immiscible (eg In a Chemistry laboratory a retort is a glassware device used for Distillation or Dry distillation of substances Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Crystallization is the (natural or artificial process of formation of solid Crystals precipitating from a homogeneous --> identical Solution Beta oxidation is the process by which Fatty acids in the form of Acyl-CoA molecules are broken down in Mitochondria and/or in Peroxisomes to Evaporation is the process by which Molecules in a Liquid state (e Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases by interposing a medium to fluid flow through which the fluid [100]
Al-Kindi was the first to refute the study of traditional alchemy and the theory of the transmutation of metals,[101] followed by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[102] Avicenna,[103] and Ibn Khaldun. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of The philosopher's stone (lapis philosophorum Greek: Chrysopoeia) is a Legendary substance supposedly capable of turning inexpensive Metals TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 Avicenna also invented steam distillation and produced the first essential oils, which led to the development of aromatherapy. Steam distillation is a special type of Distillation (a separation process) for temperature sensitive materials like natural aromatic compounds An essential oil is a concentrated Hydrophobic Liquid containing volatile Aroma compounds from Plants They are also known as volatile Aromatherapy is a form of Alternative medicine that uses volatile liquid plant materials known as Essential oils (EOs and other aromatic compounds from plants for Razi first distilled petroleum, invented kerosene and kerosene lamps, soap bars and modern recipes for soap, and antiseptics. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Kerosene, sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage is a Combustible Hydrocarbon liquid The kerosene lamp (widely known in Britain as a paraffin lamp) is any type of lighting device which uses Kerosene (paraffin as a fuel SOAP (see below for name and origins is a protocol for exchanging XML -based messages over Computer networks normally using Antiseptics (from Greek αντί - anti, '"against" + σηπτικός - septikos, "putrefactive" are antimicrobial In his Doubts about Galen, al-Razi was also the first to prove both Aristotle's theory of classical elements and Galen's theory of humorism wrong using an experimental method. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Many ancient philosophies used a set of archetypal classical "elements" to explain patterns in Nature. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers [104] In the 13th century, Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī stated an early version of the law of conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change, but is not able to disappear. The law of conservation of mass/matter, also known as law of mass/matter conservation (or the Lomonosov - Lavoisier law says that the Mass of Matter is commonly defined as being anything that has mass and that takes up space. [105]
Will Durant wrote in The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith:
"Chemistry as a science was almost created by the Moslems; for in this field, where the Greeks (so far as we know) were confined to industrial experience and vague hypothesis, the Saracens introduced precise observation, controlled experiment, and careful records. William James Durant ( November 5, 1885 &ndash November 7, 1981) was a prolific American popularizer in the fields of History The Story of Civilization by Will and Ariel Durant is an eleven-volume set of books A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible Saracen was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Fatimids at first then later for all who professed the religion of Islam. Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data Scientific controls allow Experiments to study one Variable at a time and are a vital part of the Scientific method. They invented and named the alembic (al-anbiq), chemically analyzed innumerable substances, composed lapidaries, distinguished alkalis and acids, investigated their affinities, studied and manufactured hundreds of drugs. An alembic (from Arabic Al-inbiq الأنبيق is an alchemical Still consisting of two Retorts connected by a tube A lapidary (the word means "concerned with stones" is an Artisan who practices the craft of working forming and finishing stone, Mineral, In Chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: Al-Qaly القلي القالي) is a basic, ionic salt of an Alkali metal In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body Alchemy, which the Moslems inherited from Egypt, contributed to chemistry by a thousand incidental discoveries, and by its method, which was the most scientific of all medieval operations. "[7]
George Sarton wrote in the Introduction to the History of Science:
"We find in his (Jabir, Geber) writings remarkably sound views on methods of chemical research, a theory on the geologic formation of metals (the six metals differ essentially because of different proportions of sulphur and mercury in them); preparation of various substances (e. George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Mercury (ˈmɜrkjʊri also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a Chemical element with the symbol Hg ( Latinized hydrargyrum g. , basic lead carbonatic, arsenic and antimony from their sulphides). Cerussite (also known as lead carbonate or White lead ore) is a Mineral consisting of Lead Carbonate (PbCO3 Arsenic (ˈɑrsənɪk is a Chemical element that has the symbol As and Atomic number of 33 Antimony (IPA (Received Pronunciation, /ˈæntɪmoʊni/ (US is a Chemical element with the symbol Sb (stibium meaning "mark" and The term sulfide ( sulphide in British English) refers to several types of Chemical compounds containing Sulfur in its lowest Oxidation "[85]
Earth sciences
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution
Muslim scientists made a number of contributions to the Earth sciences. Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the Sciences related to the planet Alkindus was the first to introduce experimentation into the Earth sciences. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or [26] Biruni is considered a pioneer of geodesy for his important contributions to the field,[106][107] along with his significant contributions to geography and geology. Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit
Among his writings on geology, Biruni wrote the following on the geology of India:
"But if you see the soil of India with your own eyes and meditate on its nature, if you consider the rounded stones found in earth however deeply you dig, stones that are huge near the mountains and where the rivers have a violent current: stones that are of smaller size at a greater distance from the mountains and where the streams flow more slowly: stones that appear pulverised in the shape of sand where the streams begin to stagnate near their mouths and near the sea - if you consider all this you can scarcely help thinking that India was once a sea, which by degrees has been filled up by the alluvium of the streams. The geological history of India started with the geological evolution of rest of the Earth i India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country "[108]
John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson write in the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive:
"Important contributions to geodesy and geography were also made by al-Biruni. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive is an award-winning website maintained by John J He introduced techniques to measure the earth and distances on it using triangulation. In Trigonometry and Geometry, triangulation is the process of determining the location of a point by measuring angles to it from known points at either He found the radius of the earth to be 6339. Remote Authentication Dial In User Service ( RADIUS) is a networking protocol that provides centralized access authorization and accounting management for people or computers 6 km, a value not obtained in the West until the 16th century. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings His Masudic canon contains a table giving the coordinates of six hundred places, almost all of which he had direct knowledge. "[27]
Fielding H. Garrison wrote in the History of Medicine:
"The Saracens themselves were the originators not only of algebra, chemistry, and geology, but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization. Colonel Fielding Hudson Garrison, MD ( November 5, 1870 &ndash April 18, 1935) was an acclaimed medical historian, Saracen was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Fatimids at first then later for all who professed the religion of Islam. Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit . . "
George Sarton wrote in the Introduction to the History of Science:
"We find in his (Jabir, Geber) writings remarkably sound views on methods of chemical research, a theory on the geologic formation of metals (the six metals differ essentially because of different proportions of sulphur and mercury in them). George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Mercury (ˈmɜrkjʊri also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a Chemical element with the symbol Hg ( Latinized hydrargyrum . . "[85]
In geology, Avicenna hypothesized on two causes of mountains in The Book of Healing. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born A mountain is a Landform that extends above the surrounding Terrain in a limited area with a peak The Book of Healing ( Arabic: الشفاء Al-Shefa, Latin: Sanatio) is a scientific and philosophical In cartography, the Piri Reis map drawn by the Ottoman cartographer Piri Reis in 1513, was one of the earliest world maps to include the Americas, and perhaps the first to include Antarctica. The Piri Reis map ("Piri" pronounced /piɹi/ is a famous pre-modern World map created by 16th century Ottoman - Turkish admiral and cartographer The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Piri Reis (full name Hadji Muhiddin Piri Ibn Hadji Mehmed) (about 1465&ndash1554 or 1555 was an Ottoman-Turkish Admiral, geographer and If you are looking for an editable blank World political map go to A world map is a Map of the surface of the Earth, which may be The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America His map of the world was considered the most accurate in the 16th century.
The earliest known treatises dealing with environmentalism and environmental science, especially pollution, were Arabic treatises written by al-Kindi, al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Abd-el-latif, and Ibn al-Nafis. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical chemical and biological components of the environment. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Abu Ja'far Ahmad bin Abi Khalid Ibn al-Jazzar Al-Qayrawani (circa 898-980 ( أبو جعفر أحمد بن أبي خالد بن الجزار القيرواني) was a 10th century This is not the Sub-clan of Quraish, for that see Banu Taim Banī Tamīm or Banu Tamim or Banu Tameem Abu Sahl Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi al-Jurjani (ابو سهل عيسى بن يحيى المسيحي الگرگاني was a Christian physician from Gorgan, east of the Caspian TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abu'l Hasan Ali ibn Ridwan Al-Misri (988–c 1061 was an Egyptian Muslim physician, astrologer and astronomer, born in Giza. Abd-al-latif, Abd-el-latif or Abd-ul-Latif (1162 &ndash 1231 also known as al-Baghdadi ( Arabic, عبداللطيف البغدادي TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities. Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment An ( EIA) is an assessment of the possible impact&ndashpositive or negative&ndashthat a proposed project may have on the Natural environment. [109] Cordoba, al-Andalus also had the first waste containers and waste disposal facilities for litter collection. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or 'Wastebin' redirects here For the temporary deletion of a computer file see Recycle bin (computing. Waste management is the collection Transport, processing, Recycling or disposal of Waste materials Litter is Waste disposed in the wrong place by Unlawful human action and can vary in size of incident occurrence or items [110]
Mathematics
John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson wrote in the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive:
"Recent research paints a new picture of the debt that we owe to Islamic mathematics. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive is an award-winning website maintained by John J Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Certainly many of the ideas which were previously thought to have been brilliant new conceptions due to European mathematicians of the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are now known to have been developed by Arabic/Islamic mathematicians around four centuries earlier. "[111]
Al-Khwarizmi (780-850), from whose name the word algorithm derives, contributed significantly to algebra, which is named after his book, Kitab al-Jabr, the first book on elementary algebra. In Mathematics, Computing, Linguistics and related subjects an algorithm is a sequence of finite instructions often used for Calculation Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī hīsāb al-ğabr wa’l-muqābala ( Arabic for "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing" Elementary algebra is a fundamental and relatively basic form of Algebra taught to students who are presumed to have little or no formal knowledge of Mathematics beyond [112] He also introduced what is now known as Arabic numerals, which originally came from India, though Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. The arabic numerals (often capitalized are the ten Digits (0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 which—along with the system Indian mathematics &mdashwhich here is the mathematics that emerged in South Asia zero, Negative numbers, Arithmetic, and Algebra. In a positional Numeral system, the decimal separator is a Symbol used to mark the boundary between the integral and the fractional Al-Kindi (801-873) was a pioneer in cryptanalysis and cryptology. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Cryptanalysis (from the Greek kryptós, "hidden" and analýein, "to loosen" or "to untie" is the study of methods for Cryptography (or cryptology; from Greek grc κρυπτός kryptos, "hidden secret" and grc γράφω gráphō, "I write" He gave the first known recorded explanations of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis in A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. Cryptanalysis (from the Greek kryptós, "hidden" and analýein, "to loosen" or "to untie" is the study of methods for In Cryptanalysis, frequency analysis is the study of the frequency of letters or groups of letters in a Ciphertext. [113][114]
The first known proof by mathematical induction appears in a book written by Al-Karaji around 1000 AD, who used it to prove the binomial theorem, Pascal's triangle, and the sum of integral cubes. In Mathematics, a proof is a convincing demonstration (within the accepted standards of the field that some Mathematical statement is necessarily true Mathematical induction is a method of Mathematical proof typically used to establish that a given statement is true of all Natural numbers It is done by proving that (or) (c 953 in Karaj or Karkh &ndash c 1029 was a 10th century Persian Muslim mathematician and engineer. In Mathematics, the binomial theorem is an important Formula giving the expansion of powers of Sums Its simplest version says \begin{matrix}&&&&&1\\&&&&1&&1\\&&&1&&2&&1\\&&1&&3&&3&&1\\&1&&4&&6&&4&&1\end{matrix The European Space Agency 's INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory ( INTEGRAL) is detecting some of the most energetic radiation that comes from space In Arithmetic and Algebra, the cube of a number n is its third power &mdash the result of multiplying it by itself three times [115] The historian of mathematics, F. See also History An historian is an individual who studies and writes about History, and is regarded as an Authority on it Woepcke,[116] praised Al-Karaji for being "the first who introduced the theory of algebraic calculus. The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. Calculus ( Latin, calculus, a small stone used for counting is a branch of Mathematics that includes the study of limits, Derivatives " Ibn al-Haytham was the first mathematician to derive the formula for the sum of the fourth powers, and using the method of induction, he developed a method for determining the general formula for the sum of any integral powers, which was fundamental to the development of integral calculus. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized In Arithmetic and Algebra, the fourth power of a number n is the result of multiplying n by itself four times [117] The 11th century poet-mathematician Omar Khayyám was the first to find general geometric solutions of cubic equations and laid the foundations for the development of analytic geometry, algebraic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry. Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position This article discusses cubic equations in one variable For a discussion of cubic equations in two variables see Elliptic curve. Analytic geometry, also called coordinate geometry and earlier referred to as Cartesian geometry or analytical geometry, is the study of Geometry Algebraic geometry is a branch of Mathematics which as the name suggests combines techniques of Abstract algebra, especially Commutative algebra, with In mathematics non-Euclidean geometry describes how this all works--> hyperbolic and Elliptic geometry, which are contrasted with Euclidean geometry Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi (1135-1213) found algebraic and numerical solutions to cubic equations and was the first to discover the derivative of cubic polynomials, an important result in differential calculus. (1135 - 1213 was a Persian mathematician and astronomer of the Islamic Golden Age (during the Middle Ages) Numerical analysis is the study of Algorithms for the problems of continuous mathematics (as distinguished from Discrete mathematics) In Calculus, a branch of mathematics the derivative is a measurement of how a function changes when the values of its inputs change This article discusses cubic equations in one variable For a discussion of cubic equations in two variables see Elliptic curve. [118]
Other achievements of Muslim mathematicians include the invention of spherical trigonometry,[119] the discovery of all the trigonometric functions besides sine and cosine, early inquiry which aided the development of analytic geometry by Ibn al-Haytham, the first refutations of Euclidean geometry and the parallel postulate by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, the first attempt at a non-Euclidean geometry by Sadr al-Din, the development of symbolic algebra by Abū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī,[120] and numerous other advances in algebra, arithmetic, calculus, cryptography, geometry, number theory and trigonometry. Spherical trigonometry is a part of Spherical geometry that deals with Polygons (especially Triangles on the Sphere and explains how to find relations Analytic geometry, also called coordinate geometry and earlier referred to as Cartesian geometry or analytical geometry, is the study of Geometry TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to the Greek Mathematician Euclid of Alexandria. In Geometry, the parallel postulate, also called Euclid 's fifth postulate since it is the fifth postulate in Euclid's ''Elements'', is a distinctive In mathematics non-Euclidean geometry describes how this all works--> hyperbolic and Elliptic geometry, which are contrasted with Euclidean geometry See also Table of mathematical symbols Mathematical notation is used in Mathematics, and throughout the Physical sciences, Engineering Abū al-Hasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī (1412 in Baza, Spain &ndash 1486 in Béja, Tunisia) was an Arab Muslim mathematician Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word αριθμός = number is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics used by almost everyone Cryptography (or cryptology; from Greek grc κρυπτός kryptos, "hidden secret" and grc γράφω gráphō, "I write" Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Number theory is the branch of Pure mathematics concerned with the properties of Numbers in general and Integers in particular as well as the wider classes Circle-trig6svg|300px|thumb|right|All of the Trigonometric functions of an angle θ can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O.
Medicine
- Further information: Ophthalmology in medieval Islam and Bimaristan
Muslim physicians made many significant advances and contributions to medicine, including anatomy, ophthalmology, pathology, the pharmaceutical sciences (including pharmacy and pharmacology), physiology, and surgery. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Ophthalmology is the branch of Medicine which deals with the diseases and surgery of the visual pathways including the Eye, Brain Pathology (from Greek grc πάθος pathos, "fate harm" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study and The pharmaceutical sciences are a group of Interdisciplinary areas of study involved with the design action delivery disposition and use of Drugs This field draws Pharmacy (from the Greek φάρμακον 'pharmakon' = drug is the Health profession that links the Health sciences with the chemical sciences Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Muslim physicians set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals, which later spread to Europe during the Crusades, inspired by the hospitals in the Middle East. A hospital is an institution for Health care providing treatment by specialised staff and equipment and often but not always providing for The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents [121]
Al-Kindi wrote De Gradibus, in which he first demonstrated the application of quantification and mathematics to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c De Gradibus was an Arabic book published by the Arab physician Al-Kindi (c Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body [122] Razi (Rhazes) (865-925), a pioneer of pediatrics,[123] recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of Medicine that deals with the medical care of Infants Children and Adolescents A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly His Comprehensive Book of Medicine, which introduced measles and smallpox, was very influential in Europe. Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. In his Doubts about Galen, al-Razi was also the first to prove both Galen's theory of humorism and Aristotle's theory of classical elements false using experimentation. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Many ancient philosophies used a set of archetypal classical "elements" to explain patterns in Nature. [104] He also introduced urinalysis and stool tests. A urinalysis (or "UA" is an array of tests performed on Urine and one of the most common methods of Medical Diagnosis. A stool test is one where fecal matter is collected for analysis to diagnose the presence or absence of a medical condition [124]
Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), considered a pioneer of modern surgery,[125] wrote the Al-Tasrif (1000), a 30-volume medical encyclopedia which was taught at Muslim and European medical schools until the 17th century. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine He invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,[126] as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula,[127] bone saw,[100] and plaster. A surgical instrument is a specially designed tool or device for performing specific actions of carrying out desired effects during a Surgery or operation such as modifying Catgut is the name applied to cord of great toughness and tenacity prepared from the Intestines of the Sheep or Goat, or occasionally from those of the Forceps are a handheld hinged instrument used for grasping and holding objects In medicine a ligature is a device similar to a Tourniquet, usually of thread or string tied around a limb blood vessel or similar to restrict blood flow A scalpel is a small but extremely sharp knife used for Surgery, anatomical Dissection, and various Arts and crafts. A curette is a Spoon -shaped surgical instrument for cleaning a diseased surface A retractor is a surgical instrument by which a surgeon can either actively separate the edges of a surgical incision or wound or can hold back underlying organs and tissues so that body A spoon is a Utensil consisting of a small shallow bowl at the end of a handle used primarily for serving and eating Liquid, or semi-liquid foods and solid foods In Medicine, sounds are instruments for probing and dilating passages within the body the best-known examples of which are urethral sounds and uterine speculum is a medical tool for investigating body cavities with a form dependent on the body cavity for which it is designed A saw is a Tool that uses a hard blade or wire with an abrasive edge to cut through softer materials The term plaster can refer to plaster of Paris Lime plaster, or Cement plaster. [128] In 1021, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, as he studied and correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his Book of Optics (1021). TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Eye surgery, also known as orogolomistician surgery or ocular surgery, is Surgery performed on the Eye or its Adnexa, typically by In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni [126]
Avicenna, who was a pioneer of experimental medicine and was also an influential thinker and medical scholar,[121] wrote The Canon of Medicine (1025) and The Book of Healing (1027), which remained standard textbooks in both Muslim and European universities until at least the 17th century. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian The Book of Healing ( Arabic: الشفاء Al-Shefa, Latin: Sanatio) is a scientific and philosophical A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects Avicenna's contributions include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology,[129] the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, the introduction of quarantine to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of experimental medicine,[130] evidence-based medicine, clinical trials,[131] randomized controlled trials,[132][133] efficacy tests,[134][135] and clinical pharmacology,[136] the importance of dietetics and the influence of climate and environment on health,[137] the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and nervous ailments,[121] as well the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic For other uses see Quarantine (disambiguation Quarantine is voluntary or compulsory isolation typically to contain the spread of something Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Evidence-based medicine (EBM aims to apply Evidence gained from the Scientific method to certain parts of medical practice In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices A randomized controlled trial (RCT is a type of scientific Experiment most commonly used in testing the Efficacy or Effectiveness of Healthcare Efficacy is the capacity to produce a desired size of an effect under Ideal or Optimal conditions Clinical pharmacology is the science of drugs and their Clinical use Mediastinitis is Inflammation of the tissues in the mid-chest or Mediastinum. Pleurisy, also known as pleuritis, is an Inflammation of the pleura the lining of the Pleural cavity surrounding the Lungs Pleurisy has a variety Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel The skin is the outer covering of living tissue of an animal (or plant A sexually transmitted disease ( STD) or venereal disease ( VD) is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between Humans Perversion is a concept describing those types of Human behavior that are perceived to be a serious deviation from what is considered to be orthodox or normal The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. Ice is a Solid phase, usually crystalline, of a Non-metalic substance that is liquid or gas at Room temperature, such as Ammonia Fever (also known as pyrexia, from the Greek pyretos meaning fire or a febrile response, from the Latin word Febris Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs The pharmaceutical sciences are a group of Interdisciplinary areas of study involved with the design action delivery disposition and use of Drugs This field draws [126]
Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) is considered a pioneer of experimental surgery,[138] for introducing the experimental method into surgery in the 12th century, as he was the first to employ animal testing in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human patients. Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Animal testing or animal research is the use of non-human Animals in scientific experimentation. [28] He also performed the first dissections and postmortem autopsies on both humans as well as animals. Dissection (also called anatomization) is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function An autopsy, also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy, or obduction, is a Medical procedure that consists of a thorough Examination [139]
In 1242, Ibn al-Nafis, considered a pioneer of circulatory physiology,[140] was the first to describe pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation,[141] which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered one of the greatest physiologists in history. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Cardiovascular physiology is the study of the Circulatory system. Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the Cardiovascular system which carries Oxygen -depleted Blood away from the heart to the Lungs, and Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the Blood vessels that supply Blood to and from the Heart muscle This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical [142] He also described the earliest concept of metabolism,[143] and developed new systems of physiology and psychology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic systems, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on the four humours, pulsation,[144] bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, etc. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the In Anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the Stomach to the Anus and in humans and other mammals consists See also Sense A sensory system is a part of the Nervous system responsible for processing sensory information Bile or gall is a bitter yellow or green Alkaline fluid secreted by Hepatocytes from the Liver of most Vertebrates In many species In Anatomy, a canal (or canalis in Latin) is a tubular passage or channel which connect different regions of the body The esophagus or oesophagus (see American and British English spelling differences) sometimes known as the gullet, is an organ in In Human anatomy, the stomach is a J-shaped hollow muscular organ of the Gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of Digestion, following [145] Ibn al-Lubudi (1210-1267) rejected the theory of four humours supported by Galen and Hippocrates, discovered that the body and its preservation depend exclusively upon blood, rejected Galen's idea that women can produce sperm, and discovered that the movement of arteries are not dependent upon the movement of the heart, that the heart is the first organ to form in a fetus' body (rather than the brain as claimed by Hippocrates), and that the bones forming the skull can grow into tumors. Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products The term sperm is derived from the Greek word (σπέρμα sperma (meaning "seed" and refers to the male reproductive cells. Arteries are Blood vessels that carry blood away from the Heart. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic A fetus (or foetus or fœtus) is a developing Mammal or other Viviparous Vertebrate, after the Embryonic stage and The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce See also Cancer A tumor or tumour is the name for a swelling or lesion formed by an abnormal growth of cells (termed neoplastic [146]
The Tashrih al-badan (Anatomy of the body) of Mansur ibn Ilyas (c. Manṣūr ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf Ibn Ilyās (ar منصور ابن محمد ابن احمد ابن يوسف ابن الياس was a late 14th century physician from 1390) contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems. The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" [147] During the Black Death bubonic plague in 14th century al-Andalus, Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib hypothesized that infectious diseases are caused by "contagious entities" which enter the human body. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia Bubonic plague is the best-known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or [148] Other medical innovations first introduced by Muslim physicians include the discovery of the immune system, the use of animal testing, and the combination of medicine with other sciences (including agriculture, botany, chemistry, and pharmacology),[126] as well as the invention of the injection syringe by Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili in 9th century Iraq, the first drugstores in Baghdad (754), the distinction between medicine and pharmacy by the 12th century, and the discovery of at least 2,000 medicinal and chemical substances. An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor Animal testing or animal research is the use of non-human Animals in scientific experimentation. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs An injection is an infusion method of putting Liquid into the Body, usually with a hollow needle and a Syringe which is pierced through A syringe is a simple piston Pump consisting of a plunger that fits tightly in a tube For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. [149]
Physics
- Further information: Book of Optics
In the optics field of physics, Ibn Sahl (c. Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. This article is about the physicist For the physician see Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari. 940-1000), a mathematician and physicist connected with the court of Baghdad, wrote a treatise On Burning Mirrors and Lenses in 984 in which he set out his understanding of how curved mirrors and lenses bend and focus light. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous A curved mirror is a Mirror with a curved reflective surface which may be either convex (bulging outward or concave (bulging inward A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate Axial symmetry which transmits and refracts Light, converging or diverging Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 Ibn Sahl is now credited with first discovering the law of refraction, usually called Snell's law. Refraction is the change in direction of a Wave due to a change in its Speed. In Optics and Physics, Snell's law (also known as Descartes' law or the law of refraction) is a formula used to describe the relationship [150][151] He used this law to work out the shapes of lenses that focus light with no geometric aberrations, known as anaclastic lenses. An aspheric lens or asphere is a lens whose surfaces have a profile that is neither a portion of a Sphere nor of a circular cylinder.
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965-1039), who is considered a pioneer of optics and the scientific method, developed a broad theory of light and optics in his Book of Optics which explained vision, using geometry and anatomy, and stated that each point on an illuminated area or object radiates light rays in every direction, but that only one ray from each point, which strikes the eye perpendicularly, can be seen. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 The other rays strike at different angles and are not seen. He used the example of the camera obscura and pinhole camera, which produces an inverted image, to support his argument. The camera obscura (Latin dark chamber) is an optical device used for example in drawing or for entertainment A' pinhole camera' is a very simple Camera with no lens and a single very small Aperture. This contradicted Ptolemy's theory of vision that objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes. Alhacen held light rays to be streams of minute particles that travelled at a finite speed. He improved accurately described the refraction of light, and discovered the laws of refraction. Optics began with the development of lenses by the Ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians followed by theories on Light and vision developed by ancient Refraction is the change in direction of a Wave due to a change in its Speed. He dealt at length with the theory of various physical phenomena like shadows, eclipses, and the rainbow. A shadow is an area where direct light from a light source cannot reach due to obstruction by an object An eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs when one Celestial object moves into the shadow of another A rainbow is an optical and meteorological phenomenon that causes a spectrum of Light to appear in the Sky when the Sun He also attempted to explain binocular vision and the moon illusion. Binocular vision is vision in which both Eyes are used together The Moon illusion is an Optical illusion in which the Moon appears larger near the Horizon than it does while higher up in the Sky. Through these extensive researches on optics, he is considered a pioneer of modern optics. His Book of Optics was later translated into Latin, and has been ranked alongside Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books in the history of physics,[152] for initiating a revolution in optics[153] and visual perception. The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( Latin: "mathematical principles of natural philosophy" often Principia The modern discipline of Physics emerged in the 17th century following in traditions of inquiry established by Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, Isaac The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also [154]
Avicenna (980-1037) agreed that the speed of light is finite, as he "observed that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born "[155] Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973-1048) also agreed that light has a finite speed, and he was the first to discover that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound. Sound is a vibration that travels through an elastic medium as a Wave. [27] Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236-1311) and Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī (1260-1320) gave the first correct explanations for the rainbow phenomenon. TemplateInfobox Persian scholars --> Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236 &ndash 1311 (قطبالدین شیرازی was a 13th Kamal al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Muhammad Al-Farisi (1267-ca1319/1320 (كمالالدين ابوالحسن محمد فارسی was a prominent Persian Muslim physicist A rainbow is an optical and meteorological phenomenon that causes a spectrum of Light to appear in the Sky when the Sun [156]
In mechanics, Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (800-873) of the Banū Mūsā hypothesized that heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same laws of physics as Earth,[92] and in his Astral Motion and The Force of Attraction, he also hypothesized that there was a force of attraction between heavenly bodies. Mechanics ( Greek) is the branch of Physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to Forces or displacements The Banū Mūsā brothers (بنو موسى "Sons of Mūsā" were three 9th century Persian Scholars of Baghdad, active in the House s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle A physical law or scientific law is a Scientific generalization based on empirical Observations of physical behavior (i EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 In Physics, a force is whatever can cause an object with Mass to Accelerate. Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. [157] Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973-1048), and later al-Khazini, developed experimental scientific methods for mechanics, especially the fields of statics and dynamics, particularly for determining specific weights, such as those based on the theory of balances and weighing. Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Statics is the branch of Mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads ( Force, torque/moment) on Physical systems in Static equilibrium The specific weight (also known as the unit weight) is the Weight per unit Volume of a material or \gamma = \rho \ g A weighing scale (usually just "scale" in common usage except in Australian English where "scales" is more common is a Measuring instrument for Muslim physicists unified statics and dynamics into the science of mechanics, and they combined the fields of hydrostatics with dynamics to give birth to hydrodynamics. Fluid statics (also called hydrostatics) is the Science of Fluids at rest and is a sub-field within Fluid mechanics. Fluid dynamics is the sub-discipline of Fluid mechanics dealing with fluid flow: Fluids ( Liquids and Gases in motion They applied the mathematical theories of ratios and infinitesimal techniques, and introduced algebraic and fine calculation techniques into the field of statics. A ratio is an expression which compares quantities relative to each other Infinitesimals (from a 17th century Modern Latin coinage infinitesimus, originally referring to the " Infinite[[ th]]" member of a series have Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. A calculation is a deliberate process for transforming one or more inputs into one or more results with variable change They were also generalized the theory of the centre of gravity and applied it to three-dimensional bodies. Three-dimensional space is a geometric model of the physical Universe in which we live They also founded the theory of the ponderable lever and created the "science of gravity" which was later further developed in medieval Europe. Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another [158] Al-Biruni also theorized that acceleration is connected with non-uniform motion. [27]
In mechanics, Ibn al-Haytham discussed the theory of attraction between masses, and it seems that he was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity, and he stated that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the laws of physics". TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object The magnitude of a mathematical object is its size a property by which it can be larger or smaller than other objects of the same kind in technical terms an Ordering Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another A physical law or scientific law is a Scientific generalization based on empirical Observations of physical behavior (i [159] Ibn al-Haytham also enunciated the law of inertia when he stated that a body moves perpetually unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of motion. The vis insita or innate force of matter is a power of resisting by which every body as much as in it lies endeavors to preserve in its present state whether it be of rest or of moving The term perpetual motion, taken literally refers to movement that goes on forever [32] He also developed the concept of momentum,[160] though he did not quantify this concept mathematically. In Classical mechanics, momentum ( pl momenta SI unit kg · m/s, or equivalently N · s) is the product Avicenna (980-1037) developed the concept of momentum, referring to impetus as being proportional to weight times velocity. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born In Classical mechanics, momentum ( pl momenta SI unit kg · m/s, or equivalently N · s) is the product In the Physical sciences weight is a Measurement of the gravitational Force acting on an object In Physics, velocity is defined as the rate of change of Position. [161] His theory of motion was also consistent with the concept of inertia in classical mechanics. The vis insita or innate force of matter is a power of resisting by which every body as much as in it lies endeavors to preserve in its present state whether it be of rest or of moving Classical mechanics is used for describing the motion of Macroscopic objects from Projectiles to parts of Machinery, as well as Astronomical objects [161]
In 1121, al-Khazini, in The Book of the Balance of Wisdom, proposed that the gravity and gravitational potential energy of a body varies depending on its distance from the centre of the Earth, and in statics, he clearly differentiated between force, mass and weight. Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another Potential energy can be thought of as Energy stored within a physical system Statics is the branch of Mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads ( Force, torque/moment) on Physical systems in Static equilibrium In Physics, a force is whatever can cause an object with Mass to Accelerate. Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object In the Physical sciences weight is a Measurement of the gravitational Force acting on an object [162] Avempace (d. Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian 1138) argued that there is always a reaction force for every force exerted,[163] though he did not refer to the reaction force as being equal to the exerted force. In Classical mechanics, Newton's third law states that Forces occur in pairs one called the Action and the other the Reaction ( actio et [164] His theory of motion had an important influence on later physicists like Galileo Galilei. Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher [165] Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (1080-1165) wrote a critique of Aristotelian physics entitled al-Mu'tabar, where he negated Aristotle's idea that a constant force produces uniform motion, as he theorized that a force applied continuously produces acceleration. Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (c 1080-1165 was a Muslim physicist, philosopher, psychologist and scientist of Jewish-Arab The Greek Philosopher Aristotle ( 384 BC – 322 BC) developed many theories on the nature of Physics that are completely different Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. In Physics, a force is whatever can cause an object with Mass to Accelerate. [166] He also described acceleration as the rate of change of velocity. In Physics, velocity is defined as the rate of change of Position. [167] Averroes (1126–1198) defined and measured force as "the rate at which work is done in changing the kinetic condition of a material body"[168] and correctly argued "that the effect and measure of force is change in the kinetic condition of a materially resistant mass. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European In Physics, a force is whatever can cause an object with Mass to Accelerate. In Physics, mechanical work is the amount of Energy transferred by a Force. The kinetic energy of an object is the extra Energy which it possesses due to its motion In Physics, a physical body (sometimes called simply a body or even an object) is a collection of Masses taken to be one Friction is the Force resisting the relative motion of two Surfaces in contact or a surface in contact with a fluid (e Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object "[169] In the early 16th century, al-Birjandi developed a hypothesis similar to "circular inertia. Abd al-Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn al-Birjandi (d 934 AH /1528 CE prominent 16th century Muslim astronomer, mathematician and physicist who lived in "[88] The Muslim developments in mechanics laid the foundations for the later development of classical mechanics in early modern Europe. Classical mechanics is used for describing the motion of Macroscopic objects from Projectiles to parts of Machinery, as well as Astronomical objects [170]
Psychology
"Islamic psychology"[171] or Ilm-al Nafsiat[172] refers to the study of the Nafs ("self" or "psyche")[173] in the Islamic world and encompassed a "broad range of topics including the qalb (heart), the ruh (spirit), the aql (intellect) and irada (will). Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Nafs is an Arabic word meaning self or psyche. It is first among the six Lataif (cleanliness or Lataif-e-sitta. Self is broadly defined as the essential qualities that make a person distinct from all others In Psychoanalysis, the psyche (ˈsaɪki refers to the forces in an individual that influence thought, Behavior and Personality. قلب is an Arabic word meaning " Heart " It is the second among the six purities or Lataif-e-sitta in Sufi philosophy Ruh is an Arabic word meaning soul It is the third among the six purities or Lataif-e-sitta Thirteen stages of taming ruh To attend Tajalliy-e-Ruh the ‘Aql (عقل literally "something tied to an animal's feet to restrain it" (see ‘agal عقل "id Will, or willpower is a philosophical concept that is defined in several different ways "[172] Al-Kindi (Alkindus) was the first to experiment with music therapy,[174] and Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari was the first to practice 'al-‘ilaj al-nafs ("psychotherapy"). ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which the therapist uses music and all of its facets&mdashphysical emotional mental social aesthetic and spiritual&mdashto help clients to improve Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari ( (c 838&ndashc 870 CE) was a Muslim hakim, Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living [175] The concepts of al-tibb al-ruhani ("spiritual health") and "mental hygiene" were introduced by Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi,[173] who was "probably the first cognitive and medical psychologist to clearly differentiate between neuroses and psychoses, to classify neurotic disorders, and to show in detail how rational and spiritual cognitive therapies can be used to treat each one of his classified disorders. Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder. This article is about the scientist For the poet see Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi. Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language Medical Psychology refers to an emerging specialty of clinical psychological practice in which psychologists who have undergone additional specialized education and training may prescribe This article describes the term in psychology For the experimental metal band see Neurosis (band. Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Cognitive Therapy (CT is a type of Psychotherapy developed by American Psychiatrist Aaron T "[175] Al-Razi (Rhazes) made significant advances in psychiatry in his landmark texts El-Mansuri and Al-Hawi, which presented definitions, symptoms and treatments for mental illnesses and problems related to mental health. Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as He also ran the psychiatric ward of a Baghdad hospital. A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Such institutions could not exist in Europe at the time because of fear of demonic possessions. Demonic possession is often the term used to describe the control over a human form by Satan himself or one of his assigned advocates [176]
Al-Farabi wrote the first treatises on social psychology and dealt with consciousness studies. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi Social psychology is the study of how people and groups interact Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the [175] In al-Andalus, Abulcasis pioneered neurosurgery, while Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) gave the first accurate descriptions on neurological disorders and contributed to modern neuropharmacology, and Averroes suggested the existence of Parkinson's disease. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Neurosurgery is the surgical discipline focused on treating those central, Peripheral nervous system and spinal column diseases amenable to surgical Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr Neuropharmacology is concerned with drug-induced changes in the functioning of cells in the nervous system Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Parkinson's disease (also known as Parkinson disease or PD) is a degenerative disorder of the Central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer's [177] Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi discussed "the relationship between certain psychological events to the physiological changes in the body",[173] while Avicenna anticipated the word association test,[176] discussed neuropsychiatry in The Canon of Medicine,[178] and described the first thought experiments on self-awareness and self-consciousness. Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (died 982-994 also known as Masoudi or Latinized as Haly Abbas, was a Persian Physician and TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Word Association is a common Word game involving an Exchange of words that are associated together Neuropsychiatry is the branch of Medicine dealing with Mental disorders attributable to diseases of the Nervous system. The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian A thought experiment (from the German Gedankenexperiment) is a proposal for an Experiment that would test a Hypothesis or Theory Self-awareness is the concept that one exists as an individual separate from other people with private Thoughts. Self-consciousness is an acute sense of self-awareness It is a preoccupation with oneself as opposed to the philosophical state of Self-awareness, which is the awareness [179]
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) is considered by some a forerunner of experimental psychology,[180] for his experimental work on the psychology of visual perception in the Book of Optics,[181] where he was the first scientist to argue that vision occurs in the brain, rather than the eyes. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices He pointed out that personal experience has an effect on what people see and how they see, and that vision and perception are subjective. [181] He was also the first to combine physics and psychology to form psychophysics, and his investigations and experiments on psychology and visual perception included sensation, variations in sensitivity, sensation of touch, perception of colours, perception of darkness, the psychological explanation of the moon illusion, and binocular vision. In Psychology, sensation is the first stage in the biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. The Moon illusion is an Optical illusion in which the Moon appears larger near the Horizon than it does while higher up in the Sky. Binocular vision is vision in which both Eyes are used together [180] Biruni was also a pioneer of experimental psychology, as he was the first to empirically describe the concept of reaction time. Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Reaction time (RT is the elapsed time between the presentation of a sensory stimulus and the subsequent behavioral response [182]
Social sciences
- Further information: Islamic economics in the world and Historiography of early Islam
Significant contributions were made to the social sciences in the Islamic civilization. The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973-1048) has been described as "the first anthropologist". Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of [106] He wrote detailed comparative studies on the anthropology of peoples, religions and cultures in the Middle East, Mediterranean and South Asia. Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around and surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations. [183] Biruni has also been praised by several scholars for his Islamic anthropology. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. [184] Biruni is also considered a pioneer of Indology. Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies [185] Al-Saghani (d. Abu Hamid Ahmed ibn Mohammed al-Saghani al-Asturlabi (meaning the Astrolabe maker of Saghan near Merv) was a Persian astronomer and historian of science 990) wrote some of the earliest comments on the history of science, which included a comparison between the "ancients" (including the ancient Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks and Indians) and the "modern scholars" (the Muslim scientists of his time). Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 [186] Al-Muqaddasi (b. Muhammad ibn Ahmad Shams al-Din Al-Muqaddasi (محمد بن أحمد شمس الدين المقدسي also Transliterated as Al-Maqdisi and el-Mukaddasi 945) also made contributions to the social sciences.
Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) is considered a forerunner of several social sciences[187] such as demography,[188] cultural history,[189] historiography,[190] the philosophy of history,[191] sociology,[188][191] and economics. Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Demography is the statistical study of all Populations. It can be a very general science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic population that is one that changes over The term cultural history (from the German term) refers both to an Academic discipline and to its subject matter Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of Philosophy concerning the eventual significance if any of human History. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. [192][193] He is best known for his Muqaddimah (Latinized as Prolegomenon). The Muqaddimah, or the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun ( Arabic: ar مقدّمة ابن خلدون Amazigh: Tazwarit n Ibn Xldun Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Some of the ideas he introduced in the Muqaddimah include social philosophy, social conflict theories, social cohesion, social capital, social networks, dialectics, the Laffer curve, the historical method, systemic bias, the rise and fall of civilizations, feedback loops, systems theory, and corporate social responsibility. Social philosophy is the philosophical study of questions about social Behavior (typically of Humans. Social conflict is a Conflict or Confrontation of social powers. Structural cohesion is the sociological and Graph theory conception and measurement of Cohesion for maximal Social group or graphical boundaries where related Social capital is a concept in business economics, Organizational behaviour, Political science, Public health, Sociology and natural A social network is a Social structure made of nodes (which are generally individuals or organizations that are tied by one or more specific types of interdependency such as In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions In Economics, the Laffer curve is used to illustrate the idea that increases in the rate of Taxation may sometimes decrease Tax revenue. The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which Historians use Primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history Systemic bias is the inherent tendency of a process to favour particular outcomes A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements Feedback is a circular causal Process whereby some proportion of a system's output is returned (fed back to the Input. Systems theory is an Interdisciplinary field of Science and the study of the nature of Complex systems in Nature, Society, and Corporate social responsibility (CSR also called corporate responsibility corporate citizenship responsible business and corporate social opportunity is a concept whereby Organizations He also introduced the scientific method into the social sciences. [29]
Franz Rosenthal wrote in the History of Muslim Historiography:
"Muslim historiography has at all times been united by the closest ties with the general development of scholarship in Islam, and the position of historical knowledge in MusIim education has exercised a decisive influence upon the intellectual level of historicai writing. Franz Rosenthal ( August 31, 1914 – April 8, 2003) was the Louis M . . . The Muslims achieved a definite advance beyond previous historical writing in the sociological understanding of history and the systematisation of historiography. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology The development of modern historical writing seems to have gained considerably in speed and substance through the utilization of a Muslim Literature which enabled western historians, from the seventeenth century on, to see a large section of the world through foreign eyes. The Muslim historiography helped indirectly and modestly to shape present day historical thinking. "[194]
Zoology
- Further information: Islamic medicine and Early Islamic philosophy
In the zoology field of biology, Muslim biologists developed theories on evolution which were widely taught in medieval Islamic schools. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 John William Draper, a contemporary of Charles Darwin, considered the "Mohammedan theory of evolution" to be developed "much farther than we are disposed to do, extending them even to inorganic or mineral things. John William Draper ( May 5, 1811, &ndash January 4, 1882) was an American ( English -born Scientist, Philosopher Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Traditionally inorganic compounds are considered to be of mineral not biological origin A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific " According to al-Khazini, ideas on evolution were widespread among "common people" in the Islamic world by the 12th century. Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist [195]
The first Muslim biologist to develop a theory on evolution was al-Jahiz (781-869). Al-Jāḥiẓ (in Arabic الجاحظ (real name Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri) (born in Basra, c He wrote on the effects of the environment on the likelihood of an animal to survive, and he first described the struggle for existence. Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species (published 24 November 1859) is a seminal work in Scientific literature and arguably the [196][197] Al-Jahiz was also the first to discuss food chains,[198] and was also an early adherent of environmental determinism, arguing that the environment can determine the physical characteristics of the inhabitants of a certain community and that the origins of different human skin colors is the result of the environment. Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. Environmental determinism, also known as climatic determinism or geographical determinism, is the view that the physical environment rather than social conditions Human skin color can range from almost black (due to very high concentrations of the dark brown pigment melanin to nearly colorless (appearing reddish white due to the Blood [199]
Ibn al-Haytham wrote a book in which he argued for evolutionism (although not natural selection), and numerous other Islamic scholars and scientists, such as Ibn Miskawayh, the Brethren of Purity, al-Khazini, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, Nasir al-Din Tusi, and Ibn Khaldun, discussed and developed these ideas. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized In the Creation-evolution controversy, those who accept the Scientific theory of biological Evolution by Natural selection or Genetic drift are TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu 'Ali Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ya'qub Ibn Miskawayh, (Persian ابن مسكوويه The Brethren of Purity ( Arabic اخوان الصفا Ikhwan al-Safa; also translated as Brethren of Sincerity) were a mysterious Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 Translated into Latin, these works began to appear in the West after the Renaissance and appear to have had an impact on Western science. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere
Ibn Miskawayh's al-Fawz al-Asghar and the Brethren of Purity's Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa) expressed evolutionary ideas on how species evolved from matter, into vapor, and then water, then minerals, then plants, then animals, then apes, and then humans. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu 'Ali Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ya'qub Ibn Miskawayh, (Persian ابن مسكوويه The Brethren of Purity ( Arabic اخوان الصفا Ikhwan al-Safa; also translated as Brethren of Sincerity) were a mysterious The Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (also variously known as the Epistles of the Brethren of Sincerity, the Epistles of the Brethren of Purity or Epistles Matter is commonly defined as being anything that has mass and that takes up space. A vapor or vapour (see Spelling differences) is a substance in the Gas phase at a Temperature lower than its Critical temperature Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus These works were known in Europe and likely had an influence on Darwinism. Darwinism is a term used for various different movements or concepts related to a greater or lesser extent to Charles Darwin 's work on Evolution. [200]
Historiography
The history of science in the Islamic world, like all history, is filled with questions of interpretation. The Historiography of early Islam refers to the study of the early origins of Islam based on a critical analysis evaluation and examination of authentic Primary Historians of science generally consider that the study of Islamic science, like all history, must be seen within the particular circumstances of time and place. A. I. Sabra opened a recent overview of Arabic science by noting, "I trust no one would wish to contest the proposition that all of history is local history . Abdelhamid I Sabra is a retired professor of the history of science specializing in the History of optics and Science in medieval Islam. . . and the history of science is no exception. "[201]
Some scholars avoid such local historical approaches and seek to identify essential relations between Islam and science that apply at all times and places. The relationship between Science and Islam is a matter of controversy The Persian philosopher and historian of science, Seyyed Hossein Nasr saw a more positive connection in "an Islamic science that was spiritual and antisecular" which "point[ed] the way to a new 'Islamic science' that would avoid the dehumanizing and despiritualizing mistakes of Western science. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Seyyed Hossein Nasr ( Persian سید حسین نصر) an Iranian "[202][203] Some historians of science, however, question the value of drawing boundaries that label the sciences, and the scientists who practice them, in specific cultural, civilizational, or linguistic terms. [204]
See also
- Timeline of Islamic science and technology
- List of Muslim scientists
- Islamic Golden Age
- Islamic studies
- Latin translations of the 12th century
- Scholasticism
- Qur'an and science
Notes
- ^ Sabra, A. I. (1996). Science in the Islamic world has played an important role in the History of science. This is a list of scientists and scholars from the Arab World and Islamic Spain ( Al-Andalus) that lived from antiquity up until the beginning Classical (pre-modern Era The following is a non-comprehensive list of Iranian scientists and engineers that lived from antiquity up until the beginning of the modern This is a list of Turkish philosophers and scientists. Abdullah Manaz - Philosopher Abu Mansur Al Maturidi - Philosopher Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural For the period of Spanish cultural flourishing in the 17th century see Spanish Golden Age. This is a sub-article to Religious education, Academic discipline, and Islam. The Renaissance of the 12th century saw a major search by European scholars for new learning which led them to the Arabic fringes of Europe especially to Islamic Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries The relation between Qur'an and science is a strong relation in the Islamic thought Abdelhamid I Sabra is a retired professor of the history of science specializing in the History of optics and Science in medieval Islam. "Situating Arabic Science: Locality versus Essence". Isis 87: 654-670.
"Let us begin with a neutral and innocent definition of Arabic, or what also may be called Islamic, science in terms of time and space: the term Arabic (or Islamic) science the scientific activities of individuals who lived in a region that might extended chronologically from the eighth century A. D. to the beginning of the modern era, and geographically from the Iberian Peninsula and north Africa to the Indus valley and from the Southern Arabia to the Caspian Sea—that is, the region covered for most of that period by what we call Islamic Civilization, and in which the results of the activities referred to were for the most part expressed in the Arabic Language. We need not be concerned over the refinements that obviously need to be introduced over this seemingly neutral definition. "
- ^ Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response:
"There have been many civilizations in human history, almost all of which were local, in the sense that they were defined by a region and an ethnic group. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response is a book by Bernard Lewis released in January 2002 This applied to all the ancient civilizations of the Middle East—Egypt, Babylon, Persia; to the great civilizations of Asia—India, China; and to the civilizations of Pre-Columbian America. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences There are two exceptions: Christendom and Islam. Christendom usually refers to Christianity as a territorial phenomenon For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. These are two civilizations defined by religion, in which religion is the primary defining force, not, as in India or China, a secondary aspect among others of an essentially regional and ethnically defined civilization. Here, again, another word of explanation is necessary. "
"In English we use the word “Islam” with two distinct meanings, and the distinction is often blurred and lost and gives rise to considerable confusion. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. In the one sense, Islam is the counterpart of Christianity; that is to say, a religion in the strict sense of the word: a system of belief and worship. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings In the other sense, Islam is the counterpart of Christendom; that is to say, a civilization shaped and defined by a religion, but containing many elements apart from and even hostile to that religion, yet arising within that civilization. Christendom usually refers to Christianity as a territorial phenomenon "
- ^ Bertrand Russell (1945), History of Western Philosophy, book 2, part 2, chapter X
- ^ (Huff 2003)
- ^ Saliba, George (Autumn 1999), “Seeking the Origins of Modern Science? Review of Toby E. Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West”, Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies 1 (2), <http://www.riifs.org/review_articles/review_v1no2_sliba.htm>. Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian A History of Western Philosophy And Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day ( 1945) by the philosopher George Saliba has been Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at the Department of Middle East and Asian Languages and Cultures Columbia University, Retrieved on 10 April 2008
- ^ a b c d e f Robert Briffault (1928). Robert Briffault ( 1876 - 11 December 1948) was a French novelist historian social anthropologist and surgeon The Making of Humanity, p. 191. G. Allen & Unwin Ltd.
- ^ a b c d e f Will Durant (1980). William James Durant ( November 5, 1885 &ndash November 7, 1981) was a prolific American popularizer in the fields of History The Age of Faith (The Story of Civilization, Volume 4), p. The Story of Civilization by Will and Ariel Durant is an eleven-volume set of books 162-186. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671012002.
- ^ a b Fielding H. Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine: with Medical Chronology, Suggestions for Study and Biblographic Data, p. Colonel Fielding Hudson Garrison, MD ( November 5, 1870 &ndash April 18, 1935) was an acclaimed medical historian, 86
- ^ a b Muhammad Iqbal (1934, 1999). The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam is a compilation of lectures delivered by Muhammad Iqbal on Islamic philosophy; it was published in Kazi Publications. ISBN 0686184823.
- ^ Abdus Salam, H. Abdus Salam ( Urdu: محمد عبد السلام) ( January 29, 1926; Jhang Punjab &ndash November 21, R. Dalafi, Mohamed Hassan (1994). Renaissance of Sciences in Islamic Countries, p. 162. World Scientific, ISBN 9971507137. Established in 1981 World Scientific Publishing Company (WSPC is one of the leading scientific publishers in the world and the largest international scientific publisher in the
- ^ a b c (Saliba 1994, pp. 245, 250, 256-257)
- ^ Abid Ullah Jan (2006), After Fascism: Muslims and the struggle for self-determination, "Islam, the West, and the Question of Dominance", Pragmatic Publishings, ISBN 978-0-9733687-5-8.
- ^ Salah Zaimeche (2003), An Introduction to Muslim Science, FSTC.
- ^ Ahmad Y Hassan and Donald Routledge Hill (1986), Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History, p. Ahmad Y Hassan أحمد يوسف الحسن(born 1925 is a chevalier of the Légion d'honneur and a historian of Arabic and Islamic science and technology Donald Routledge Hill (1922–1994 was an Engineer and historian of science and technology. 282, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534
- ^ Thomas Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution, (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr. , 1957), p. 142.
- ^ Herbert Butterfield, The Origins of Modern Science, 1300-1800.
- ^ Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong?
- ^ Behrooz Broumand, The contribution of Iranian scientists to world civilization, Archives of Iranian Medicine 2006; 9 (3): 288 – 290
- ^ N. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response is a book by Bernard Lewis released in January 2002 M. Swerdlow (1993). "Montucla's Legacy: The History of the Exact Sciences", Journal of the History of Ideas 54 (2), p. 299-328 [320].
- ^ a b c Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002), The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study, Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity, Al Akhawayn University. Al Akhawayn University or AUI ( جامعة الأخوين, literally meaning The Two Brothers' University referring to the King of Saudi Arabia Retrieved on 2008-01-31.
- ^
(cf. C. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" A. Qadir (1990), Philosophy and Science in the lslumic World, Routledge, London)"Observe nature and reflect over it. "
(cf. Bettany, Laurence (1995), "Ibn al-Haytham: an answer to multicultural science teaching?", Physics Education 30: 247-252 [247]) - ^ “You shall not accept any information, unless you verify it for yourself. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" I have given you the hearing, the eyesight, and the brain, and you are responsible for using them. ”[Qur'an 17:36]
- ^ “Behold! In the creation of the heavens and the earth; in the alternation of the night and the day; in the sailing of the ships through the ocean for the benefit of mankind; in the rain which Allah Sends down from the skies, and the life which He gives therewith to an earth that is dead; in the beasts of all kinds that He scatters through the earth; in the change of the winds, and the clouds which they trail like their slaves between the sky and the earth - (Here) indeed are Signs for a people that are wise. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran ”[Qur'an 2:164]
- ^ a b Rosanna Gorini (2003). The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience. First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy.
- ^ David Agar (2001). Arabic Studies in Physics and Astronomy During 800 - 1400 AD. University of Jyväskylä. The University of Jyväskylä (Jyväskylän yliopisto is a University in Jyväskylä, Finland.
- ^ a b Plinio Prioreschi, "Al-Kindi, A Precursor Of The Scientific Revolution", Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, 2002 (2): 17-19.
- ^ a b c d O'Connor, John J. & Robertson, Edmund F. , “Al-Biruni”, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
- ^ a b Rabie E. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive is an award-winning website maintained by John J Abdel-Halim (2005), "Contributions of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) to the progress of surgery: A study and translations from his book Al-Taisir", Saudi Medical Journal 2005; Vol. 26 (9): 1333-1339.
- ^ a b Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N. Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 J. Dawood (1967), The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, p. x, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691017549. The Princeton University Press is an independent publisher with close connections to Princeton University.
- ^ R. L. Verma "Al-Hazen: father of modern optics", Al-Arabi, 8 (1969): 12-13.
- ^ D. C. Lindberg, Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler, (Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Pr. , 1976), pp. 60-7.
- ^ a b Dr. Nader El-Bizri, "Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen", in Josef W. Nader El-Bizri ( Arabic ar نادر البزري / b 1966 Sidon) is a Lebanese Philosopher, Historian of science, and Meri (2006), Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia, Vol. II, p. 343-345, Routledge, New York, London. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals
- ^ Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246. (cf. Bradley Steffens, "Who Was the First Scientist?", Ezine Articles. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" )
- ^ Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246.
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- ^ Robert Briffault (1928). Robert Briffault ( 1876 - 11 December 1948) was a French novelist historian social anthropologist and surgeon The Making of Humanity, p. 202. G. Allen & Unwin Ltd.
- ^ Abdus Salam (1984), "Islam and Science". Abdus Salam ( Urdu: محمد عبد السلام) ( January 29, 1926; Jhang Punjab &ndash November 21, In C. H. Lai (1987), Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam, 2nd ed. , World Scientific, Singapore, p. 179-213.
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- ^ Micheau, Francoise, “The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East”, pp. 992-3, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985-1007)
- ^ (Gaudiosi 1988)
- ^ (Hudson 2003, p. 32)
- ^ John Bagot Glubb (cf. Quotations on Islamic Civilization)
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- ^ Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslim Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", The Egyptian Journal of O. R. L. 4 (1), p. 1-15. (cf. Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" )
- ^ Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
- ^ Katharine Park (March 1990). "Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500 by Nancy G. Siraisi", The Journal of Modern History 62 (1), p. 169-170.
- ^ Jacquart, Danielle (2008), “Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances”, European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219-27
- ^ David W. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
- ^ Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", Health Information and Libraries Journal 20, p. 34–44 [36].
- ^ Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care 16 (1), p. 13–21 [19].
- ^ D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67 (5), p. 447-450 [449].
- ^ Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43 (4), p. 530–540 [536], Johns Hopkins University Press. The Johns Hopkins University Press is a Publishing house and division of Johns Hopkins University that engages in publishing journals and books
- ^ D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67 (5), p. 447-450 [448].
- ^ The Canon of Medicine, The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.
- ^ Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology", Saudi Medical Journal 27 (11): 1631-1641.
- ^ Islamic medicine, Hutchinson Encyclopedia. The Hutchinson Encyclopedia is an English-language general Encyclopedia.
- ^ Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2), p. 74-85 [80].
- ^ Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 1, p. 22–28.
- ^ George Sarton (cf. Dr. George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" Paul Ghalioungui (1982), "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait)
(cf. The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation, Encyclopedia of Islamic World) - ^ Dr. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World). cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult"
- ^ Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 3 & 6, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. The University of Notre Dame du Lac (or simply Notre Dame) (ˌnoʊtɚˈdeɪm is a private Roman Catholic Research university located in [2]
- ^ Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body, Encyclopedia of Islamic World). cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult"
- ^ L. Leclerc (1876), Histoire de la medecine Arabe, vol. 2, p. 161, Paris. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city
(cf. Salah Zaimeche, The Scholars of Aleppo: Al Mahassin, Al Urdi, Al-Lubudi, Al-Halabi, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation) - ^ (Turner 1997, pp. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" 136—138)
- ^ Ibrahim B. Syed, Ph. D. (2002). "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 2, p. 2-9.
- ^ S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", Medicinski Arhiv 51 (1-2), p. 47-50.
- ^ K. B. Wolf, "Geometry and dynamics in refracting systems", European Journal of Physics 16, p. 14-20, 1995.
- ^ R. Rashed, "A pioneer in anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on burning mirrors and lenses", Isis 81, p. Isis is an Academic journal published by The University of Chicago Press devoted to the History of science, History of medicine 464–491, 1990.
- ^ H. Salih, M. Al-Amri, M. El Gomati (2005). "The Miracle of Light", A World of Science 3 (3). UNESCO. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16
- ^ Sabra, A. I. & Hogendijk, J. Abdelhamid I Sabra is a retired professor of the history of science specializing in the History of optics and Science in medieval Islam. P. , The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, MIT Press, pp. The MIT Press is a University press affiliated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT in Cambridge Massachusetts ( USA) 85-118, ISBN 0262194821
- ^ Hatfield, Gary (1996), “Was the Scientific Revolution Really a Revolution in Science?”, in Ragep, F. J. ; Ragep, Sally P. & Livesey, Steven John, Tradition, Transmission, Transformation: Proceedings of Two Conferences on Pre-modern Science held at the University of Oklahoma, Brill Publishers, p. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E 500, ISBN 9004091262
- ^ George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, Vol. George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. 1, p. 710.
- ^ O'Connor, John J. & Robertson, Edmund F. , “Al-Farisi”, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
- ^ K. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive is an award-winning website maintained by John J A. Waheed (1978). Islam and The Origins of Modern Science, p. 27. Islamic Publication Ltd. , Lahore.
- ^ Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", p. 642, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 614-642):
"Using a whole body of mathematical methods (not only those inherited from the antique theory of ratios and infinitesimal techniques, but also the methods of the contemporary algebra and fine calculation techniques), Arabic scientists raised statics to a new, higher level. The classical results of Archimedes in the theory of the centre of gravity were generalized and applied to three-dimensional bodies, the theory of ponderable lever was founded and the 'science of gravity' was created and later further developed in medieval Europe. The phenomena of statics were studied by using the dynamic apporach so that two trends - statics and dynamics - turned out to be inter-related withina single science, mechanics. The combination of the dynamic apporach with Archimedean hydrostatics gave birth to a direction in science which may be called medieval hydrodynamics. [. . . ] Numerous fine experimental methods were developed for determining the specific weight, which were based, in particular, on the theory of balances and weighing. The classical works of al-Biruni and al-Khazini can by right be considered as the beginning of the application of experimental methods in medieval science. In the Middle Ages, Science progressed dramatically from the time of antiquity in areas as diverse as Astronomy, Medicine, and Mathematics "
- ^ Duhem, Pierre (1908, 1969). To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo, p. 28. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
- ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "The achievements of Ibn Sina in the field of science and his contributions to its philosophy", Islam & Science, December 2003. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Seyyed Hossein Nasr ( Persian سید حسین نصر) an Iranian
- ^ a b A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), p. 477–482:
"Thus he considered impetus as proportional to weight times velocity. In other words, his conception of impetus comes very close to the concept of momentum of Newtonian mechanics. "
- ^ Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). Merv, p. 5-7. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.
- ^ Shlomo Pines (1964), "La dynamique d’Ibn Bajja", in Mélanges Alexandre Koyré, I, 442-468 [462, 468], Paris
(cf. Abel B. Shlomo Pines ( August 5, 1908 – January 9, 1990) was a scholar of Jewish and Islamic philosophy cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" Franco (October 2003), "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4): 521-546 [543]) - ^ Abel B. Franco (October 2003), "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4):521-546 [543])
- ^ Ernest A. Moody (1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (I)", Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (2): 163-193 [.
- ^ Shlomo Pines (1970). Shlomo Pines ( August 5, 1908 – January 9, 1990) was a scholar of Jewish and Islamic philosophy "Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī , Hibat Allah". Dictionary of Scientific Biography 1. The Dictionary of Scientific Biography is a scholarly reference work that was published from 1970 through 1980 New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 26-28. ISBN 0684101149.
(cf. Abel B. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4), p. 521-546 [528]. ) - ^ A. C. Crombie, Augustine to Galileo 2, p. 67.
- ^ Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (3), p. 375-422 [375].
- ^ Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (3), p. 375-422 [380].
- ^ Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", p. 642, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 614-642):
"Arabic statics was an essential link in the progress of world science. It played an important part in the prehistory of classical mechanics in medieval Europe. Without it classical mechanics proper could probably not have been created. "
- ^ Ashy, Majed A. (Fall 1999), “Health and Illness from an Islamic Perspective”, Journal of Religion and Health 38 (3): 241-57
- ^ a b Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [358]
- ^ a b c Nurdeen Deuraseh and Mansor Abu Talib (2005), "Mental health in Islamic medical tradition", The International Medical Journal 4 (2), p. 76-79.
- ^ Saoud, R. The Arab Contribution to the Music of the Western World (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-01-12. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 475 - Basiliscus becomes Byzantine Emperor, with a coronation ceremony in the Hebdomon palace in Constantinople
- ^ a b c Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [361-363]
- ^ a b Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, 2002 (2), p. 2-9 [7].
- ^ Martin-Araguz, A. ; Bustamante-Martinez, C. ; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V. ; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892.
- ^ S Safavi-Abbasi, LBC Brasiliense, RK Workman (2007), "The fate of medical knowledge and the neurosciences during the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire", Neurosurgical Focus 23 (1), E13, p. 3.
- ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Oliver Leaman (1996). TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Seyyed Hossein Nasr ( Persian سید حسین نصر) an Iranian Oliver Leaman is a Professor of Philosophy and Zantker Professor of Judaic Studies History of Islamic Philosophy. Routledge, 315 & 1022-1023. ISBN 0415131596.
- ^ a b Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2).
- ^ a b Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.
- ^ Muhammad Iqbal, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, "The Spirit of Muslim Culture" (cf. [3] and [4])
- ^ J. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam is a compilation of lectures delivered by Muhammad Iqbal on Islamic philosophy; it was published in cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" T. Walbridge (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam", Journal of the History of Ideas 59 (3), p. 389-403.
- ^ Richard Tapper (1995). "Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam", Anthropological Quarterly 68 (3), Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts, p. 185-193.
- ^ Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
- ^ Franz Rosenthal (1950). Franz Rosenthal ( August 31, 1914 – April 8, 2003) was the Louis M "Al-Asturlabi and as-Samaw'al on Scientific Progress", Osiris 9, p. 555-564 [559].
- ^ Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", Middle East Journal 56 (1), p. 25.
- ^ a b H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
- ^ Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", Islam & Science 5 (1), p. 61-70.
- ^ Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.
- ^ a b Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3).
- ^ I. M. Oweiss (1988), "Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics", Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses, New York University Press, ISBN 0887066984. New York University Press (or NYU Press) founded in 1916 is a University press that is part of New York University.
- ^ Jean David C. Boulakia (1971), "Ibn Khaldun: A Fourteenth-Century Economist", The Journal of Political Economy 79 (5): 1105-1118.
- ^ Historiography. The Islamic Scholar.
- ^ John William Draper (1878). John William Draper ( May 5, 1811, &ndash January 4, 1882) was an American ( English -born Scientist, Philosopher History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science, p. 154-155, 237. ISBN 1603030964.
- ^ Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 84 (1), p. 71-123.
- ^ Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism", The Islamic Quarterly. London. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom.
- ^ Frank N. Egerton, "A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 6: Arabic Language Science - Origins and Zoological", Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America, April 2002: 142-146 [143]
- ^ Lawrence I. Conrad (1982), "Taun and Waba: Conceptions of Plague and Pestilence in Early Islam", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 25 (3), pp. 268-307 [278].
- ^ Muhammad Hamidullah and Afzal Iqbal (1993), The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic World-view, Intellectual Tradition and Polity, p. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Hamidullah or Muhammad Hameedullah, D Phil, D 143-144. Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad.
- ^ A. I. Sabra, Situating Arab Science: Locality versus Essence," Isis, 87(1996):654-70; reprinted in Michael H. Shank, ed. , The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages," (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr. , 2000), pp. 215-231.
- ^ F. Jamil Ragep, "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science," Osiris, topical issue on Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions, n. s. 16(2001):49-50, note 3
- ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1968), “The Principles of Islam”, Science and Civilization in Islam, Harvard University Press, <http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/nasr.html>. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Seyyed Hossein Nasr ( Persian سید حسین نصر) an Iranian Harvard University Press ( HUP) is a Publishing house, a division of Harvard University, that is highly respected in Academic publishing. Retrieved on 3 February 2008
- ^ George Saliba (1999). George Saliba has been Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at the Department of Middle East and Asian Languages and Cultures Columbia University, Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?
References
- Campbell, Donald (2001). Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages. Routledge. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals (Reprint of the London, 1926 edition). ISBN 0415231884.
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- Eglash, Ron (1999), African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design, Rutgers University Press, ISBN 0-8135-2614-0
- Gaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988), "The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College", University of Pennsylvania Law Review 136 (4): 1231-1261
- Graham, Mark (2006). The University of Pennsylvania Law Review is a scholarly journal focusing on legal issues published by an organization of second and third year J How Islam Created the Modern World. Amana Publication. ISBN 1-59008-043-2.
- Hobson, John M. (2004). John Hobson may refer to John A Hobson (1858&ndash1940 English economist and imperial critic John Hobson (politician (1912&ndash1967 The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521547245.
- Hudson, A. (2003), Equity and Trusts (3rd ed. ), Cavendish Publishing, ISBN 1-85941-729-9
- Huff, Toby E. (2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521529948
- Joseph, George G. (2000). The Crest of the Peacock. Princeton University Press. The Princeton University Press is an independent publisher with close connections to Princeton University. ISBN 0691006598.
- Katz, Victor J. (1998). A History of Mathematics: An Introduction. Addison Wesley. Addison-Wesley is a Book publishing imprint of Pearson PLC, best known for computer books ISBN 0321016181.
- Levere, Trevor Harvey (2001). Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6610-3.
- Mintz, Sidney W. (1986). Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History, Reprint, Penguin (Non-Classics). ISBN 978-0140092332.
- Phillips, William D.; Carla Rahn Phillips, Jr. William Daniel Phillips (born November 5, 1948 in Wilkes-Barre Pennsylvania) is an American Physicist. Phillips (1992). The Worlds of Christopher Columbus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052144652X.
- Saliba, George (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, New York University Press, ISBN 0814780237
- Turner, Howard R. George Saliba has been Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at the Department of Middle East and Asian Languages and Cultures Columbia University, New York University Press (or NYU Press) founded in 1916 is a University press that is part of New York University. (1997), Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction, University of Texas Press, ISBN 0292781490
Further reading
- Deen, S M (2007). Science Under Islam: Rise, Decline, Revival. LULU. ISBN 978-1-84799-942-9. More information at [5]
- Daffa, Ali Abdullah al- (1984). Studies in the exact sciences in medieval Islam. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0471903205.
- Hogendijk, Jan P. ; Abdelhamid I. Sabra (2003). The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-19482-1. Reviewed by Robert G. Morrison at [6]
- Hill, Donald Routledge, Islamic Science And Engineering, Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3
- Huff, Toby E. Donald Routledge Hill (1922–1994 was an Engineer and historian of science and technology. (1993, 2nd edition 2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52994-8. Reviewed by George Saliba at Seeking the Origins of Modern Science?
- Huff, Toby E. George Saliba has been Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at the Department of Middle East and Asian Languages and Cultures Columbia University, (2000), "Science and Metaphysics in the Three Religions of the Books", Intellectual Discourse 8 (2): 173-198.
- Kennedy, Edward S. (1970). "The Arabic Heritage in the Exact Sciences". Al-Abhath 23: 327-344.
- Kennedy, Edward S. (1983). Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0815660677.
- Morelon, Régis & Roshdi Rashed (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. The Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science is a three-volume Encyclopedia covering the history of Arabic contributions to science, mathematics 2-3, Routledge, ISBN 0415020638
- Saliba, George (2007). Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals George Saliba has been Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at the Department of Middle East and Asian Languages and Cultures Columbia University, Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. The MIT Press. ISBN 0262195577.
- Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1976). Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study. Kazi Publications. ISBN 1567443125.
- Seyyed Hossein Nasr (2003). Science & Civilization in Islam, 2nd, Islamic Texts Society. ISBN 1903682401.
- Sezgin, Fuat (1997). Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 1: Quranwissenschaften, Hadit, Geschichte, Fiqh, Dogmatik, Mystik (in German). Brill. ISBN 9004041532.
- Sezgin, Fuat (1997). Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 2: Poesie. Bis CA. 430 H (in German). Brill. ISBN 9004031316.
- Sezgin, Fuat (1997). Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 3: Medizin-Pharmazie Zoologie-Tierheilkunde (in German). Brill. ISBN 9004031316.
- Sezgin, Fuat (1997). Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 4: Alchimie-Chemie Botanik-Agrikultur (in German). Brill. ISBN 9004020098.
- Sezgin, Fuat (1997). Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 5: Mathematik (in German). Brill. ISBN 9004041532.
- Sezgin, Fuat (1997). Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 6: Astronomie (in German). Brill. ISBN 9004058788.
- Sezgin, Fuat (1997). Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 7: Astrologie-Meteorologie Und Verwandtes (in German). Brill. ISBN 9004061592.
- Sezgin, Fuat (1997). Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 8: Lexikographie. Bis CA. 430 H (in German). Brill. ISBN 9004068678.
- Sezgin, Fuat (1997). Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 9: Grammatik. Bis CA. 430 H (in German). Brill. ISBN 9004072616.
- Sezgin, Fuat (2000). Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums X: Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland. Historische Darstellung. Teil 1 (in German).
- Sezgin, Fuat (2000). Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums XI: Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland. Historische Darstellung. Teil 2 (in German).
- Sezgin, Fuat (2000). Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums XII: Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland. Historische Darstellung. Teil 3 (in German).
- Suter, Heinrich (1900). Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber und ihre
Werke, Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathematischen Wissenschaften Mit Einschluss Ihrer Anwendungen, X Heft.
External links
- Richard Covington, Rediscovering Arabic Science, Saudi Aramco World, May-June 2007
- Saliba, George. Saudi Aramco World is a bi-monthly magazine published by Saudi Aramco, the national oil company of Saudi Arabia. George Saliba has been Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at the Department of Middle East and Asian Languages and Cultures Columbia University, Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?.
- Habibi, Golareh. Review article, Science Creative Quarterly.
- An interactive guide to Muslim scientists whose multi-disciplinary contributions sparked the flame of learning and productivity
- Islam, Knowledge, and Science
- History of Science and Technology in Islam
- Islamic Civilization
- The Islamization of science or the marginalization of Islam
- Muslimheritage
- 1001inventions
- Science and religion in Islam
- Keith L. Moore, The Developing Human at YouTube
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