Islamic psychology[1] or Ilm-al Nafsiat[2] refers to the study of the Nafs (meaning "self" or "psyche" in Arabic)[3] in the Islamic world, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age (8th–15th centuries) as well as modern times (20th–21st centuries), and is related to psychology, psychiatry and the neurosciences. Nafs is an Arabic word meaning self or psyche. It is first among the six Lataif (cleanliness or Lataif-e-sitta. Self is broadly defined as the essential qualities that make a person distinct from all others In Psychoanalysis, the psyche (ˈsaɪki refers to the forces in an individual that influence thought, Behavior and Personality. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system
Some of the advances in medieval Islamic psychological thought included the establishment of the first mental hospitals,[4] the development of a clinical[5] approach to mental illness,[6] and the development of an experimental approach to the study of the mind. A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. [7] In the 20th and 21st centuries, attempts to revive psychological concepts from medieval Islamic thought have been attempted by modern Muslim psychologists and Islamic scholars. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Mental health professional A psychologist is a practitioner of Psychology, the systematic investigation of the mind including Behavior, Cognition, Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several [8]
Terminology
Modern attempts at reviving the medieval Islamic study of the mind have referred to it as "Islamic psychology",[1] though this term should not be confused with the modern discipline of psychology, which began in the 19th century. MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and In the pre-modern context, the term "psychology" refers to the general study of human mind and behaviour, while the term "mind" refers more generally to human intellect and consciousness. Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the
- Early Muslim scholars wrote extensively in the area of human psychology, although, the term "psychology" did not exist at that time and such endeavors were mostly a part of philosophical writings. In the writings of Muslim scholars, the term Nafs (self or soul) was used to denote individual personality and the term fitrah for human nature. Nafs encompasses a broad range of topics including the qalb (heart), the ruh (spirit), the aql (intellect) and irada (will). If we examine the historical background under which Muslim scholarship developed, we will find that it arose under the umbrella of philosophy, which encompassed almost all areas of human enquiry. Philosophy, in most simplistic terms, refers to the knowledge of all things, both divine and human. [2]
In medieval Islamic medicine in particular, the study of "mental illness was a speciality of its own",[9] and was variously known as "diseases of the mind," al-‘ilaj al-nafs (approximately "curing/treatment of the ideas/soul/vegetative mind," also translated more simply as "psychotherapy"),[10] al-tibb al-ruhani ("the healing of the spirit," or "spiritual health") and tibb al-qalb ("healing of the heart/self," or "mental medicine"). Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living [3]
Ethics and theology
Most ancient and medieval societies believed that mental illness was caused by either demonic possession or as punishment from a god, which led to a negative attitude towards mental illness in Judeo-Christian and Greco-Roman societies. Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Demonic possession is often the term used to describe the control over a human form by Satan himself or one of his assigned advocates See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always Judeo-Christian (or Judaeo-Christian, sometimes written as Judæo-Christian) is a term used to describe the body of concepts and values which are thought to be held In modern Olympic and amateur Wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling is a particular style and variation On the other hand, Islamic ethics and theology held a more sympathetic attitude towards the mentally ill, as exemplified in Sura 4:5 of the Qur'an:[6]
"Do not give your property which God assigned you to manage to the insane: but feed and cloth the insane with this property and tell splendid words to him. Islamic ethics ( akhlāq) defined as "good character" historically took shape gradually from the 7th century and was finally established by the 11th Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Sura An-Nisa ( Arabic: سورة النساء, Sūratu an-Nisā, "The Women " is the fourth chapter of the The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran "[11]
This Quranic verse summarized Islam's attitudes towards the mentally ill, who were considered unfit to manage property but must be treated humanely and be kept under care by a guardian, according to Islamic law. A humane society may be a group that aims to stop human or animal Suffering due to Cruelty or other reasons although in many countries it is now used mostly for societies Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. [6] This positive neuroethical understanding of mental health consequently led to the establishment of the first mental hospitals in the medieval Islamic world from the 8th century,[4] and an early scientific understanding of neuroscience and psychology by medieval Muslim physicians and psychological thinkers, who discovered that mental disorders are caused by dysfunctions in the brain. Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder. A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and The human brain controls the Central nervous system (CNS by way of the Cranial nerves and Spinal cord, the Peripheral nervous system (PNS [12]
Philosophical approach
Intellect and consciousness studies
- Further information: Avicennism - Thought experiments on self-consciousness
In the philosophy of mind, certain hadiths indicate that dreams consist of three parts, and early Muslim scholars also recognized three different kinds of dreams: false dreams, patho-genetic dreams, and true dreams. Avicennism ( is a school of Early Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. Philosophy of mind is the branch of Philosophy that studies the nature of the Mind, Mental events Mental functions mental properties Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Dreams are the images sounds thoughts and feelings experienced while Sleeping, particularly strongly associated with Rapid eye movement sleep. Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several [10]
One of the earliest Muslim psychological thinkers was Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Sirin (654–728), who was renowned for his Ta’bir al-Ru’ya and Muntakhab al-Kalam fi Tabir al-Ahlam, a book on dreams. Muhammad Ibn Sirin ( Arabic, محمد بن سيرين)(born in Basra, Iraq) was a Muslim interpreter of dreams who lived in the Dreams are the images sounds thoughts and feelings experienced while Sleeping, particularly strongly associated with Rapid eye movement sleep. The work is divided into 25 sections on dream interpretation, from the etiquette of interpreting dreams to the interpretation of reciting certain Surahs of the Qur'an in one's dream. For the John Cale minimalist album see Dream Interpretation (Album Dream interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to Dreams In many of the Sura (sometimes spelt "Surah" ar سورة, plural "Suwar" ar سور is an Arabic term literally meaning "something enclosed or surrounded The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran He writes that it is important for a layperson to seek assistance from a an Alim (Muslim scholar) who could guide in the interpretation of dreams with a proper understanding of the cultural context and other such causes and interpretations. Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several [13] Al-Kindi (Alkindus) (801–873) also wrote a treatise on dream interpretation entitled On Sleep and Dreams. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c For the John Cale minimalist album see Dream Interpretation (Album Dream interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to Dreams In many of the [14]
In consciousness studies, al-Farabi (Alpharabius) (872-951) wrote the On the Cause of Dreams, which appeared as chapter 24 of his Book of Opinions of the people of the Ideal City, was a treatise on dreams, in which he was the first to distinguish between dream interpretation and the nature and causes of dreams. Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi Dreams are the images sounds thoughts and feelings experienced while Sleeping, particularly strongly associated with Rapid eye movement sleep. For the John Cale minimalist album see Dream Interpretation (Album Dream interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to Dreams In many of the [15]
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980-1037), while he was imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan, wrote his famous "Floating Man" thought experiment to demonstrate human self-awareness and self-consciousness and the substantiality of the soul. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Hamedān or Hamadān ( Persian: همدان, Old Persian: Hagmatana Hebrew: המזיין Ancient Greek: Ecbatana) A thought experiment (from the German Gedankenexperiment) is a proposal for an Experiment that would test a Hypothesis or Theory Self-awareness is the concept that one exists as an individual separate from other people with private Thoughts. Self-consciousness is an acute sense of self-awareness It is a preoccupation with oneself as opposed to the philosophical state of Self-awareness, which is the awareness The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living He referred to the living human intelligence, particularly the active intellect, which he believed to be the hypostasis by which God communicates truth to the human mind and imparts order and intelligibility to nature. Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities Active intellect or agent intellect is a term used in both psychology and philosophy Hypostatic abstraction, also known as hypostasis or subjectal abstraction, is a formal operation that takes an element of information such as might be expressed The meaning of the word truth extends from Honesty, Good faith, and Sincerity in general to agreement with Fact or Reality MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. His "Floating Man" thought experiment tells its readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air, isolated from all sensations, which includes no sensory contact with even their own bodies. In Psychology, sensation is the first stage in the biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields He argues that, in this scenario, one would still have self-consciousness. He thus concludes that the idea of the self is not logically dependent on any physical thing, and that the soul should not be seen in relative terms, but as a primary given, a substance. Self is broadly defined as the essential qualities that make a person distinct from all others For other uses of Object see Object. In Philosophy, an object is a thing an Entity, or a Being. A relative term, also called a rhema or a rheme, is a logical term that requires reference to any number of other objects called the Correlates ' of Given may refer to the goalkeeper Shay Given or to Given West Virginia, a community in the United States. Substance theory, or substance attribute theory, is an ontological theory about objecthood, positing that a substance is distinct from its [16] Avicenna also wrote about the potential intellect (within man) and active intellect (outside man) and that cognition cannot be produced mechanically but involves intuition at every stage. Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought As an analogy, he compares the ordinary human mind to a mirror upon which a succession of ideas reflects from the active intellect. Analogy is both the cognitive process of transferring Information from a particular subject (the analogue or source to another particular subject (the target and A mirror is an object with a surface that has good Specular reflection; that is it is smooth enough to form an Image. He writes that a mirror can be rusty at first (i. e. before acquiring knowledge from the active intellect), but when the mirror is polished (i. e. when one thinks), the mirror can then readily reflect light from the Sun (i. e. the active intellect). [17]
H. Chad Hillier writes the following on the contributions made by Averroes (Ibn Rushd) (1126-1198) to the field of psychology:[18]
"There is evidence of some evolution in Ibn Rushd's thought on the intellect, notably in his Middle Commentary on De Anima where he combines the positions of Alexander and Themistius for his doctrine on the material intellect and in his Long Commentary and the Tahafut where Ibn Rushd rejected Alexander and endorsed Themistius’ position that "material intellect is a single incorporeal eternal substance that becomes attached to the imaginative faculties of individual humans. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities Alexander of Aphrodisias was the most celebrated of the Ancient Greek commentators on the writings of Aristotle. Themistius (317 Paphlagonia - ca 387 CE named (eloquent was a Statesman, Rhetorician and Philosopher, Life He was born " Thus, the human soul is a separate substance ontologically identical with the active intellect; and when this active intellect is embodied in an individual human it is the material intellect. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living Active intellect or agent intellect is a term used in both psychology and philosophy The material intellect is analogous to prime matter, in that it is pure potentiality able to receive universal forms. As such, the human mind is a composite of the material intellect and the passive intellect, which is the third element of the intellect. The passive intellect is identified with the imagination, which, as noted above, is the sense-connected finite and passive faculty that receives particular sensual forms. When the material intellect is actualized by information received, it is described as the speculative (habitual) intellect. As the speculative intellect moves towards perfection, having the active intellect as an object of thought, it becomes the acquired intellect. In that, it is aided by the active intellect, perceived in the way Aristotle had taught, to acquire intelligible thoughts. The idea of the soul's perfection occurring through having the active intellect as a greater object of thought is introduced elsewhere, and its application to religious doctrine is seen. In the Tahafut, Ibn Rushd speaks of the soul as a faculty that comes to resemble the focus of its intention, and when its attention focuses more upon eternal and universal knowledge, it become more like the eternal and universal. As such, when the soul perfects itself, it becomes like our intellect. "
"Ibn Rushd succeeded in providing an explanation of the human soul and intellect that did not involve an immediate transcendent agent. This opposed the explanations found among the Neoplatonists, allowing a further argument for rejecting of Neoplatonic emanation theories. Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by Even so, notes Davidson, Ibn Rushd’s theory of the material intellect was something foreign to Aristotle. "
Empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture
- Further information: Avicennisn - Avicennian epistemology and psychology
One of Avicenna's most influential theories in psychology and epistemology is his theory of knowledge, in which he developed the concept of tabula rasa, a precursor to the nature versus nurture debate in modern psychology. Avicennism ( is a school of Early Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Tabula rasa ( Latin: blank slate) refers to the epistemological thesis that individual human beings are born with no built-in mental content The nature versus nurture debates concern the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities ("nature" i Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and He argued that the "human intellect at birth is rather like a tabula rasa, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know" and that knowledge is attained through "empirical familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts" which are developed through a "syllogistic method of reasoning; observations lead to propositional statements, which when compounded, lead to further abstract concepts. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence A syllogism, or logical appeal, (συλλογισμός &mdash "conclusion" "inference" (usually the categorical syllogism) is a kind of Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for Reasons for beliefs conclusions actions or feelings " He further argued that the intellect itself "possesses levels of development from the material intellect (al-‘aql al-hayulani), that potentiality that can acquire knowledge to the active intellect (al-‘aql al-fa‘il), the state of the human intellect at conjunction with the perfect source of knowledge. "[19]
In the 12th century, the Andalusian-Arabian philosopher and novelist Ibn Tufail (known as "Abubacer" or "Ebn Tophail" in the West) first demonstrated Avicenna's theory of tabula rasa as a thought experiment in his Arabic novel, Hayy ibn Yaqzan, in which he depicted the development of the mind of a feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a desert island. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name A thought experiment (from the German Gedankenexperiment) is a proposal for an Experiment that would test a Hypothesis or Theory Arabic literature ( Arabic: الأدب العربي Al-Adab Al-Arabi) is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān ( حي بن يقظان " Alive son of Awake " Philosophus Autodidactus " The Self-Taught Philosopher A feral child ( Feral, Wild, or undomesticated) is a human child who has lived isolated from human contact from a very young age and has no (or little The term desert island, or deserted island, refers to an Island which is uninhabited or sparsely inhabited The Latin translation of his work, entitled Philosophus Autodidactus, published by Edward Pococke the Younger in 1671, had an influence on John Locke's formulation of tabula rasa in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding,[20] which went on to become one of the principal sources of empiricism in modern Western philosophy, and influenced many Enlightenment philosophers, such as David Hume and George Berkeley. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Edward Pococke (1604-1691 was an English Orientalist and biblical scholar John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is one of John Locke 's two most famous works the other being his Second Treatise on Civil Government In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy George Berkeley (ˈbɑrkli (12 March 1685 14 January 1753 also known as Bishop Berkeley, was a Philosopher.
Sensory perception
Avicenna was the first to divide human perception into five external senses (the classical senses of hearing, sight, smell, taste and touch known since antiquity) and five internal senses which he discovered himself: the sensus communis (seat of all senses) which integrates sense data into percepts; the imaginative faculty which conserves the perceptual images; the sense of imagination which acts upon these images by combining and separating them, serving as the seat of the practical intellect; Wahm (instinct) which perceives qualities (such as good and bad, love and hate, etc. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also Olfaction (also known as olfactics or smell) refers to the Sense of smell. Taste (or more formally gustation) is a form of direct Chemoreception and is one of the traditional five Senses A perception is a philosophical term which roughly means an individual's observation/perception of something external to one's self more specifically the resultant of perceiving Imagination is the ability to form Mental images/sounds/feelings or the ability to Spontaneously Generate images/sounds/feelings within one's own Mind Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities Instinct is the inherent disposition of a living Organism toward a particular Behavior. ) and forms the basis of a person's character whether or not influenced by reason; and intentions (ma'ni) which conserve all these notions in memory. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Intention (criminal|Intentions An agent 's intention in performing an action is his or her specific Purpose in doing so the end In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information [21]
Al-Ghazali (Algazel) (1058-1111) stated that the self has motor and sensory motives for fulfilling its bodily needs. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died The self is a key construct in several schools of Psychology, broadly referring to the cognitive representation of one's identity Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior especially Human behavior as studied in Philosophy, Conflict, Economics A human need can be defined either psychologically or objectively He wrote that the motor motives comprise of propensities and impulses, and further divided the propensities into two types: appetite and anger. The propensity theory of probability is one interpretation of the concept of Probability. An impulse is a wish or urge particularly a sudden one It can be considered as a normal and fundamental part of Human Thought processes but also one that can become Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage He wrote that appetite urges hunger, thirst, and sexual craving, while anger takes the form of rage, indignation and revenge. Hunger is a feeling experienced usually followed by a desire to Eat. Thirst is the craving for liquids resulting in the basic Instinct of humans or animals to Drink. Sexual addiction is a controversial term to describe sexual behaviour that is characterized at least by two key features recurrent failure to control the behavior and continuation of the Rage, in Psychiatry, is a mental state that is one extreme of the intensity spectrum of Anger. Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage Revenge (also vengeance, retribution, or vendetta amongst others consists primarily of retaliation against a person or group in response He further wrote that impulse resides in the muscles, nerves, and tissues, and moves the organs to "fulfill the propensities. Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the A nerve is an enclosed cable-like bundle of peripheral Axons (the long slender projections of Neurons. Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument "[22]
Al-Ghazali was also one of the first to divide the sensory motives (apprehension) into five external senses (the classical senses of hearing, sight, smell, taste and touch) and five internal senses, which he was able to describe more accurately than Avicenna. In Psychology, apprehension (Lat ad, "to" prehendere, "to seize" is a term applied to a model of Consciousness Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also Olfaction (also known as olfactics or smell) refers to the Sense of smell. Taste (or more formally gustation) is a form of direct Chemoreception and is one of the traditional five Senses The five internal senses discovered by al-Ghazali were: common sense (Hiss Mushtarik) which synthesizes sensuous impressions carried to the brain while giving meaning to them; imagination (Takhayyul) which enables someone to retain mental images from experience; reflection (Tafakkur) which brings together relevant thoughts and associates or dissociates them as it considers fit but has no power to create anything new which is not already present in the mind; recollection (Tadhakkur) which remembers the outer form of objects in memory and recollects the meaning; and the memory (Hafiza) where impressions received through the senses are stored. Common sense (or when used attributively as an Adjective, commonsense, common-sense, or commonsensical) based on a strict construction The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain A mental image is an experience that significantly resembles the experience of perceiving some object event or scene but that occurs when the relevant object event or scene is not Experience as a general concept comprises Knowledge of or skill in or Observation of some thing or some event gained through involvement in or Human self-reflection is the capacity of Humans to exercise Introspection and the willingness to learn more about our fundamental nature Purpose and Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both In Psychology and Marketing, two concepts or stimuli are associated when the experience of one leads to the effects of another due to repeated pairing MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Recollection is the retrieval of Memory. It is not a passive process people employ Metacognitive strategies to make the best use of their memory and priming In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information Hafith or Hafiz ( Arabic: حافظ قرآن or حافظ plural huffaz) literally meaning 'guardian' is a term used by Muslims in modern He wrote that, while the external senses occur through specific organs, the internal senses are located in different regions of the brain, and discovered that the memory is located in the hinder lobe, imagination is located in the frontal lobe, and reflection is located in the middle folds of the brain. In Anatomy, a lobe is a clear anatomical division or extension that can be determined without the use of a Microscope (at the Gross anatomy level The frontal lobe is an area in the Brain of Mammals It is located at the front of each Cerebral hemisphere and positioned anterior to (in front of the He stated that these inner senses allow people to predict future situations based on what they learn from past experiences. [23]
In The Revival of Religious Sciences, al-Ghazali also writes that the five internal senses are found in both humans and animals. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus In Mizan al Amal, however, he later states that animals "do not possess a well-developed reflective power" and argues that animals mostly think in terms of "pictorial ideas in a simple way and are incapable of complex association and dissociation of abstract ideas involved in reflection. " He writes that "the self carries two additional qualities, which distinguishes man from animals enabling man to attain spiritual perfection", which are 'Aql (intellect) and Irada (will). ‘Aql (عقل literally "something tied to an animal's feet to restrain it" (see ‘agal عقل "id Will, or willpower is a philosophical concept that is defined in several different ways He argues that the intellect is "the fundamental rational faculty, which enables man to generalize and form concepts and gain knowledge. Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding " He also argues that human will and animal will are both different. He writes that human will is "conditioned by the intellect" while animal will is "conditioned by anger and appetite" and that "all these powers control and regulate the body. " He further writes that the Qalb (heart) "controls and rules over them" and that it has six powers: appetite, anger, impulse, apprehension, intellect, and will. قلب is an Arabic word meaning " Heart " It is the second among the six purities or Lataif-e-sitta in Sufi philosophy Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage An impulse is a wish or urge particularly a sudden one It can be considered as a normal and fundamental part of Human Thought processes but also one that can become In Psychology, apprehension (Lat ad, "to" prehendere, "to seize" is a term applied to a model of Consciousness He states that humans have all six of these traits, while animals only have three (appetite, anger, and impulse). [23] This was in contrast to other ancient and medieval thinkers such as Aristotle, Avicenna, Roger Bacon and Thomas Aquinas who all believed that animals cannot become angry. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O [24]
Other philosophical theories of the mind
Al-Kindi dealt with psychology in his First Philosophy, and Eradication of Sorrow. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c In the latter, he described sorrow as "a spiritual (Nafsani) grief caused by loss of loved ones or personal belongings, or by failure in obtaining what one lusts after" and then added: "If causes of pain are discernible, the cures can be found. Sadness is an Emotion characterized by Feelings of disadvantage loss and helplessness Nafs is an Arabic word meaning self or psyche. It is first among the six Lataif (cleanliness or Lataif-e-sitta. " He recommended that "if we do not tolerate losing or dislike being deprived of what is dear to us, then we should seek after riches in the world of the intellect. Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities In it we should treasure our precious and cherished gains where they can never be dispossessed…for that which is owned by our senses could easily be taken away from us. " He also stated that "sorrow is not within us we bring it upon ourselves. "[14]
In the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (10th century), the Brethren of Purity discussed the soul, brain, and process of thought. The Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (also variously known as the Epistles of the Brethren of Sincerity, the Epistles of the Brethren of Purity or Epistles The Brethren of Purity ( Arabic اخوان الصفا Ikhwan al-Safa; also translated as Brethren of Sincerity) were a mysterious The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both They divided the soul into three parts: the vegetative, animal and rational human souls. The vegetative soul is concerned with nutrition, growth and reproduction; the animal soul is concerned with movement, sensation, perception and emotion; and the rational human soul is concerned with thinking and talking. Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced In Psychology, sensation is the first stage in the biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours Contrary to the Aristotelian view of the heart being the most important organ, the Brethren of Purity considered the brain as the most important organ of the body, due to it being responsible for higher functions such as perception and thought. Aristotelianism is a tradition of Philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. [25]
The Arab Muslim physician An-Naysaburi (d. 1016) wrote the Kitab al-Uquala al-Majanin, in which he used the term Mahwus for patients with delusions and hallucinations. A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed False Belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false fanciful or derived from Deception A hallucination, in the broadest sense is a Perception in the absence of a stimulus. He attempted to explain the phenomenon of madness and insanity in philosophical terms, rather than the psychopathological methods used by his contemporaries. Traditionally insanity or madness is the behaviour whereby a person flouts societal norms and may become a danger to himself and others Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of Mental illness or mental distress or the manifestation of behaviours and experiences which may be indicative He considered life as a blending of opposites such as health and disease, and wrote that reason is mixed with madness so that even the sane are never free from madness. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking [26]
Ibn Miskawayh (941–1030) wrote the books Tahdhib al-Akhlaq (Cultivation of Morals) and Al-Fauz al-Asgar (The Lesser Victory),[25] in which he gives psychological advice on certain issues, such as the fear of death, the need to develop traits to restrain oneself from faults, and the concept of morality. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu 'Ali Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ya'qub Ibn Miskawayh, (Persian ابن مسكوويه Fear is an Emotional response to Threats and Danger. It is a basic survival mechanism occurring in response to a specific Stimulus, such as Death is the termination of the biological functions that define living Organisms It refers both to a specific Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings He also introduced the concepts of "self reinforcement" and response cost, where he advises Muslims who feel guilt to learn to punish themselves physically or psychologically through charity, fasting, etc. [21]
Al-Ghazali (Algazel) (1058-1111) discussed the concept of the self and the causes of its misery and happiness. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died Self is broadly defined as the essential qualities that make a person distinct from all others In the fields of Psychology and Psychiatry, the terms depression or depressed refer to both expected and pathologically chronic or severe Happiness is an Emotion associated with feelings ranging from contentment and satisfaction to Bliss and intense Joy. He described the self using four terms: Qalb (heart), Ruh (spirit), Nafs (soul) and 'Aql (intellect). قلب is an Arabic word meaning " Heart " It is the second among the six purities or Lataif-e-sitta in Sufi philosophy Ruh is an Arabic word meaning soul It is the third among the six purities or Lataif-e-sitta Thirteen stages of taming ruh To attend Tajalliy-e-Ruh the Nafs is an Arabic word meaning self or psyche. It is first among the six Lataif (cleanliness or Lataif-e-sitta. ‘Aql (عقل literally "something tied to an animal's feet to restrain it" (see ‘agal عقل "id He stated that "the self has an inherent yearning for an ideal, which it strives to realize and it is endowed with qualities to help realize it. An ideal is a Principle or value that one actively pursues as a goal. "[22] He also stated that there are two types of diseases: physical and spiritual. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly He considered the latter to be more dangerous, resulting from "ignorance and deviation from God", and listed the spiritual diseases as: self-centeredness; addiction to wealth, fame and social status; and ignorance, cowardice, cruelty, lust, waswas (doubt), malevolence, calumny, envy, deception, and greed. In Psychology, egocentrism is defined as a the incomplete differentiation of the self and the world including other people and b the tendency to perceive understand and interpret The term " addiction " is used in many contexts to describe an obsession compulsion or excessive Physical dependence or psychological dependence such as Wealth derives from the old English word "weal" which means "well-being A celebrity is a widely-recognized or famous person who commands a high degree of public and media attention In Sociology or Anthropology, social status is the honor or prestige attached to one's position in Society (one's Social position) Coward redirects here For other meanings including as a surname see Coward (disambiguation. Cruelty can be described as indifference to Suffering, and even positive Pleasure in inflicting it Literature In Dante's Inferno, the first Canticle of the Divine Comedy, the lustful are punished by being continuously Malice is a Legal term referring to a party's Intention to do Injury to another party Envy (also called invidiousness) may be defined as an Emotion that "occurs when a person lacks another’s superior quality achievement or possession and Deception (also called beguilement or subterfuge) is the act of convincing another to believe Information that is not true or not the whole truth as in Greed is the Selfish desire for or pursuit of Money, Wealth, power, Food, or other Possessions, especially when this denies To overcome these spiritual weaknesses, al-Ghazali suggested the therapy of opposites ("use of imagination in pursuing the opposite"), such as ignorance & learning, or hate & love. Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment, is the attempted Remediation of a health problem usually following a Diagnosis He described the personality as an "integration of spiritual and bodily forces" and believed that "closeness to God is equivalent to normality whereas distance from God leads to abnormality. Personality psychology studies personality based on theories of individual differences In Behavior, normal refers to a lack of significant deviation from the average Abnormality is a subjectively defined characteristic assigned to those with rare or dysfunctional conditions "[27]
Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) (d. Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian 1138) "based his psychological studies on physics. Psychophysics is a subdiscipline of Psychology dealing with the relationship between physical stimuli and their subjective correlates or Percepts " In his essay, Recognition of the Active Intelligence, he wrote that active intelligence is the most important ability of human beings, and he wrote many other essays on sensations and imaginations. An essay is usually a short piece of writing It is often written from an author's personal point of view. Active intelligence is a term used to describe Software systems and Business processes containing functionality or components that evaluate information and drive actions Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus In Psychology, sensation is the first stage in the biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a Imagination is the ability to form Mental images/sounds/feelings or the ability to Spontaneously Generate images/sounds/feelings within one's own Mind He concluded that "knowledge cannot be acquired by senses alone but by Active Intelligence, which is the governing intelligence of nature. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities " He begins his discussion of the soul with the definition that "bodies are composed of matter and form and intelligence is the most important part of man—sound knowledge is obtained through intelligence, which alone enables one to attain prosperity and build character. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living " He viewed the unity of the rational soul as the principle of the individual identity, and that by its contact with the Active Intelligence, it "becomes one of those lights that gives glory to God. Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. " His definition of freedom is "that when one can think and act rationally". Freedom, or the idea of being free is a broad concept that He also writes that "the aim of life should be to seek spiritual knowledge and make contact with Active Intelligence and thus with the Divine. Spirituality, in a narrow sense concerns itself with matters of the Spirit, a concept closely tied to religious belief and Faith, a transcendent reality Divinity and divine (sometimes 'the Divinity' or 'the Divine' are broadly applied but loosely defined terms used variously within different faiths and belief systems — "[27]
Ibn al-Nafis (1213-1288) dealt with psychology in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( He developed his own theories on hylomorphic psychology and philosophy, mostly on a theological basis. Hylomorphism ( Greek hylo-, "wood matter" + -morphism morphē, "form" is the philosophical theory Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. [28] In particular, he made a distinction between the soul and the spirit, and he developed his own theory on the soul. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath He also crtiticized the ideas of Avicenna and Aristotle on the soul originating from the heart. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic Ibn al-Nafis rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul "is related to the entirety and not to one or a few organs. " He further criticized Aristotle's idea that every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Ibn al-Nafis concluded that "the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul" and he defined the soul as nothing other than "what a human indicates by saying ‘I’. I (aɪ is the first-person, singular Personal pronoun ( subject case) in Modern English. "[29]
Clinical and medical approach
Unlike medieval Christian physicians who relied on demonological explanations for mental illness, medieval Muslim physicians relied mostly on clinical psychiatry and clinical psychology, and clinical observations on mentally ill patients. Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing They made significant advances to psychiatry and were the first to provide psychotherapy and moral treatment for mentally ill patients, in addition to other new forms of treatment such as baths, drug medication, music therapy and occupational therapy. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Moral Treatment was an approach to Mental disorder based on Humane Psychosocial care or Moral discipline that emerged in the 18th century and Bathing is the immersion of the body in a Fluid, usually Water or an aqueous solution Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which the therapist uses music and all of its facets&mdashphysical emotional mental social aesthetic and spiritual&mdashto help clients to improve Occupational Therapy, often abbreviated "OT", is the "use of productive or creative activity in the treatment or rehabilitation of physically cognitively or [30]
Al-tibb al-ruhani and diseases of the mind
The concepts of al-tibb al-ruhani (translated as "spiritual health" in Arabic) and "mental hygiene" were introduced in Islamic medicine by the Persian physician Abu Zayd Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi (850-934), who often related it to spiritual health. Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox This article is about the scientist For the poet see Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi. In his Masalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus (Sustenance for Body and Soul), he was the first to successfully discuss diseases related to both the body and the soul. He used the term al-Tibb al-Ruhani to describe spiritual and psychological health, and the term Tibb al-Qalb to describe mental medicine. He criticized many medical doctors in his time for placing too much emphasis on physical illnesses and neglecting the mental illnesses of patients, and argued that "since man’s construction is from both his soul and his body, therefore, human existence cannot be healthy without the ishtibak [interweaving or entangling] of soul and body. " He further argued that "if the body gets sick, the nafs [psyche] loses much of its cognitive and comprehensive ability and fails to enjoy the desirous aspects of life" and that "if the nafs gets sick, the body may also find no joy in life and may eventually develop a physical illness. Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought " Al-Balkhi traced back his ideas on mental health to verses of the Qur'an and hadiths attributed to Muhammad, such as:[3]
"In their hearts is a disease. Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics "
— Qur'an 2:10
"Truly, in the body there is a morsel of flesh, and when it is corrupt the body is corrupt, and when it is sound the body is sound. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Truly, it is the qalb [heart]. "
— Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Iman
"Verily Allah does not consider your appearances or your wealth in (appraising you) but He considers your hearts and your deeds. "
— Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, no. Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal is the collection of Hadith collected by the famous Sunni Scholar Ibn Hanbal to whom the Hanbali 8707
Mental hospitals
As a result of the new positive Islamic understanding of mental illness, the first mental hospitals and insane asylums were built in the Islamic world as early as the 8th century. A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is The first mental hospitals were built by Arab Muslims in Baghdad in 705, Fes in the early 8th century, and Cairo in 800. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Fes or Fez ( Arabic: فاس, French Fès is the fourth largest City in Morocco, after Casablanca, Rabat Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Other famous mental hospitals were built in Damascus and Aleppo in 1270. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation. [4][31]
Al-‘ilaj al-nafs and tibb al-qalb
Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari's Firdous al-Hikmah written in the 9th century was the first work to study 'al-‘ilaj al-nafs (translated as "psychotherapy" from Arabic)[10] in the treatment of patients. Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari ( (c 838&ndashc 870 CE) was a Muslim hakim, Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living His ideas were primarily influenced by early Islamic thought and ancient Indian physicians such as Sushruta and Charaka. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other Sushruta was a surgeon and teacher of Ayurveda who flourished in the Indian city of Kashi by the 6th century BCE For the village in Azerbaijan see Çərəkə; for the book Charaka Samhita see Charaka Samhita. Unlike earlier physicians, however, al-Tabari emphasized strong ties between psychology and medicine, and the need for al-‘ilaj al-nafs and counseling in the therapeutic treatment of patients. He wrote that patients frequently feel sick due to delusions or imagination, and that these can be treated through "wise counselling" by smart and witty physicians who could win the rapport and confidence of their patients, leading to a positive therapeutic outcome. A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed False Belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false fanciful or derived from Deception Imagination is the ability to form Mental images/sounds/feelings or the ability to Spontaneously Generate images/sounds/feelings within one's own Mind [14] In his chapter on mental illness, al-Tabari first described thirteen types of mental disorders, including madness, delirium, and Fasad Al-Khayal Wal-Aqo ("damage to the imagination, intelligence and thought"). Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Delirium is an acute and relatively sudden (developing over hours to days decline in attention-focus perception and Cognition. [32] He also clearly highlighted mental illness as a speciality of its own.
The Tunisian Arab Muslim physician,[33] Ishaq ibn Imran (d. Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding 908),[34] known as "Isaac" in the West,[35] wrote an essay entitled Maqala fil-L-Malikhuliya, in which he first described psychosis, and also described a type of melancholia: the "cerebral type" or "phrenitis". An essay is usually a short piece of writing It is often written from an author's personal point of view. Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Phrenitis was employed in ancient Greece by Hippocrates and his followers He described the diagnosis of this mental disorder, reporting its varied symptoms. Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything The main clinical features he identified were sudden movement, foolish acts, fear, delusions, and hallucinations of black people. A jester, joker, jokester, fool, wit-cracker, prankster, or buffoon is a member of a profession that came into popularity Fear is an Emotional response to Threats and Danger. It is a basic survival mechanism occurring in response to a specific Stimulus, such as A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed False Belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false fanciful or derived from Deception A hallucination, in the broadest sense is a Perception in the absence of a stimulus. The term black people usually refers to a racial group of Humans with dark Skin color, but the term has also been used to categorise a number of diverse [34] This work was later translated into Latin as De Oblivione (On Forgetfulness) by Constantine the African. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Constantine the African ( Latin Constantinus Africanus c 1020 Carthage or Sicily&ndash1087 monastery of Monte Cassino, near Cassino Principality [33]
The Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) (865-925) wrote the landmark texts El-Mansuri and Al-Hawi in the 10th century, which presented definitions, symptoms, and treatments for many illnesses related to mental health and mental illness. Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder. Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Razi's texts made significant advances in psychiatry. Razi also managed the mental ward of a Baghdad hospital. A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Such institutions could not exist in Europe at the time, because of European fears of demonic possession. Demonic possession is often the term used to describe the control over a human form by Satan himself or one of his assigned advocates [30]
In the centuries to come, Islam would serve as a critical waystation of knowledge for Renaissance Europe, through the Latin translations of many scientific Islamic texts. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere The Renaissance of the 12th century saw a major search by European scholars for new learning which led them to the Arabic fringes of Europe especially to Islamic Razi, al-Tabari and Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi were the first known physicians to study al-‘ilaj al-nafs. This article is about the scientist For the poet see Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi.
Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (d. Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (died 982-994 also known as Masoudi or Latinized as Haly Abbas, was a Persian Physician and 982) discussed mental illness in his medical text, Kitab al-Malaki, where he discovered and observed a type of melancholia: clinical lycanthropy, associated with certain personality disorders. Clinical lycanthropy is defined as a rare Psychiatric syndrome which involves a Delusion that the affected person can or has transformed into an Animal, Personality disorder, formerly referred to as a Character Disorder is a class of mental disorders characterized by rigid and on-going patterns of feeling thinking and behavior He wrote the following on this particular mental illness:[34]
"Its victim behaves like a rooster and cries like a dog, the patient wanders among the tombs at night, his eyes are dark, his mouth is dry, the patient hardly ever recovers and the disease is hereditary. "
Avicenna (980-1037) often used psychological methods to treat his patients. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born [22] One such example involved a prince of Persia who had melancholia and suffered from the delusion that he was a cow. A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed False Belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false fanciful or derived from Deception Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family He would low like a cow, crying "Kill me so that a good stew may be made of my flesh," and would not eat anything. Avicenna was persuaded to undertake the case, and sent a message to the patient, asking him to be happy, as the butcher was coming to slaughter him, and the sick man rejoiced. When Avicenna approached the prince with a knife in his hand, he asked, "Where is the cow so I may kill it. " The patient then lowed like a cow to indicate where he was. By order of Avicenna in his role as the butcher, the patient was also laid on the ground for slaughter. When Avicenna approached the patient, pretending to slaughter him, he said, "The cow is too lean and not ready to be killed. He must be fed properly and I will kill it when it becomes healthy and fat. " The patient was then offered food, which he ate eagerly and gradually "gained strength, got rid of his delusion, and was completely cured. "[36]
Music therapy
Al-Kindi (801–873) was the first to realize the therapeutic value of music. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment, is the attempted Remediation of a health problem usually following a Diagnosis Music is an Art form in which the medium is Sound organized in Time. He was the first to experiment with music therapy, and he attempted to cure a quadriplegic boy using this method. Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which the therapist uses music and all of its facets&mdashphysical emotional mental social aesthetic and spiritual&mdashto help clients to improve Quadriplegia, also known as tetraplegia, is a Symptom in which a human experiences Paralysis affecting all four limbs although not necessarily total paralysis [37]
Later in the 9th century, al-Farabi also dealt with music therapy in his treatise Meanings of the Intellect, where he discussed the therapeutic effects of music on the soul. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which the therapist uses music and all of its facets&mdashphysical emotional mental social aesthetic and spiritual&mdashto help clients to improve The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living [15]
Cognitive therapy
Al-Kindi developed cognitive methods to combat depression and discussed the intellectual operations of human beings. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought In the fields of Psychology and Psychiatry, the terms depression or depressed refer to both expected and pathologically chronic or severe Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus [14]
According to the psychologist Amber Haque, the medieval Islamic scholar Abu Zayd Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi (850-934) was "probably the first cognitive and medical psychologist to clearly differentiate between neuroses and psychoses, to classify neurotic disorders, and to show in detail how rational and spiritual cognitive therapies can be used to treat each one of his classified disorders. This article is about the scientist For the poet see Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi. Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language Medical Psychology refers to an emerging specialty of clinical psychological practice in which psychologists who have undergone additional specialized education and training may prescribe This article describes the term in psychology For the experimental metal band see Neurosis (band. Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Cognitive Therapy (CT is a type of Psychotherapy developed by American Psychiatrist Aaron T "[38]
Al-Balkhi classified neuroses into four emotional disorders: fear and anxiety, anger and aggression, sadness and depression, and obsession. An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours Fear is an Emotional response to Threats and Danger. It is a basic survival mechanism occurring in response to a specific Stimulus, such as Anxiety is a physiological and psychological state characterized by Cognitive, Somatic, Emotional and Behavioral components Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage In Psychology and other social and Behavioral sciences aggression refers to behavior that is intended to cause harm Sadness is an Emotion characterized by Feelings of disadvantage loss and helplessness According to Haque, al-Balkhi further classified three types of depression: normal sadness (huzn) which is "today known as normal depression", "endogenous depression" which "originated within the body", and "reactive depression" which "originated outside the body". Sadness is an Emotion characterized by Feelings of disadvantage loss and helplessness In the fields of Psychology and Psychiatry, the terms depression or depressed refer to both expected and pathologically chronic or severe The word endogenous means "arising from within" the opposite of Exogenous. Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression [38]
Al-Balkhi also wrote that a healthy individual should always keep healthy thoughts and feelings in his mind in the case of unexpected emotional outbursts in the same way drugs and First Aid medicine are kept nearby for unexpected physical emergencies. Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body First aid is the provision of initial care for an Illness or Injury. An emergency is a situation which poses an immediate risk to Health, Life, Property or environment. He stated that a balance between the mind and body is required for good health and that an imbalance between the two can cause sickness. MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual Al-Balkhi also introduced the concept of reciprocal inhibition (al-ilaj bi al-did), which was re-introduced over a thousand years later by Joseph Wolpe in 1969. Reciprocal inhibition describes Muscles on one side of a Joint relaxing to accommodate contraction on the other side of that joint Joseph Wolpe (1915 &ndash 1997 was born in Johannesburg South Africa in 1915 but became an American citizen later in his life [38]
Physical and psychological disorders
The Muslim physician Abu Zayd Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi (850-934) was a pioneer of al-‘ilaj al-nafs, and the first to compare "physical and psychological disorders" and show "their interaction in causing psychosomatic disorders. This article is about the scientist For the poet see Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi. Psychophysiology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία Psychosomatic medicine is an interdisciplinary medical field studying psychosomatic illness, now more commonly referred to as psychophysiologic illness or disorder " He recognized that the body and the soul can be healthy or sick, or "balanced or imbalanced", and that mental illness can have both psychological and/or physiological causes. With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical He wrote that imbalance of the body can result in fever, headaches and other physical illnesses, while imbalance of the soul can result in anger, anxiety, sadness and other mental symptoms. Fever (also known as pyrexia, from the Greek pyretos meaning fire or a febrile response, from the Latin word Febris A headache ( cephalalgia in medical terminology is a condition of pain in the Head; sometimes Neck or upper back pain may also be interpreted Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage Anxiety is a physiological and psychological state characterized by Cognitive, Somatic, Emotional and Behavioral components Sadness is an Emotion characterized by Feelings of disadvantage loss and helplessness He recognized two types of depression: one caused by known reasons such as loss or failure, which can be treated psychologically through both external methods (such as persuasive talking, preaching and advising) and internal methods (such as the "development of inner thoughts and cognitions which help the person get rid of his depressive condition"); and the other caused by unknown reasons such as a "sudden affliction of sorrow and distress, which persists all the time, preventing the afflicted person from any physical activity or from showing any happiness or enjoying any of the pleasures" which may be caused by physiological reasons (such as impurity of the blood) and can can be treated through physical medicine. loss may refer to A negative difference between retail Price and Cost of production An event in which the team or individual in question Failure ( fail, phail or flop) in general refers to the state or Condition of not meeting a desirable or intended objective [3] He also wrote comparisons between physical disorders with mental disorders, and showed how psychosomatic disorders can be caused by certain interactions between them. A physical disorder (as a medical term is often used as a term in contrast to a Mental disorder, in an attempt to differentiate medical disorders which have an available Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as [38]
In the early 10th century, Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi reported a psychotherapeutic case study from a contemporary Muslim physician who treated a woman suffering from severe cramps in her joints which made her unable to rise. Cramps, sometimes called Charley horses are unpleasant often painful sensations caused by contraction or over shortening of Muscles Cramps can be caused by cold The physician cured her by lifting her skirt, putting her to shame. He wrote: "A flush of heat was produced within her which dissolved the rheumatic humour. Rheumatology is a sub-specialty in Internal medicine and Pediatrics, devoted to the Diagnosis and therapy of Rheumatic diseases. "[30]
Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (d. Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (died 982-994 also known as Masoudi or Latinized as Haly Abbas, was a Persian Physician and 982) elaborated on how the physiological and psychological aspects of a patient can have an effect on one another in his Complete Book of the Medical Art. He found a correlation between patients who were physically and mentally healthy and those who were physically and mentally unhealthy, and concluded that "joy and contentment can bring a better living status to many who would otherwise be sick and miserable due to unnecessary sadness, fear, worry and anxiety. "[3] He also first discussed various mental disorders, including sleeping sickness, memory loss, hypochondriasis, coma, hot and cold meningitis, vertigo epilepsy, love sickness, and hemiplegia. Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Sleeping sickness or human African trypanosomiasis is a Parasitic Disease of people and animals caused by Protozoa of species Memory loss can have many causes Alzheimer's disease is an illness which can cause mild to severe memory loss Hypochondriasis (or hypochondria, sometimes referred to as health phobia) refers to an excessive preoccupation or worry about having a serious illness In Medicine, a coma (from the Greek koma, meaning deep sleep is a profound state of Unconsciousness. Meningitis is Inflammation of the protective membranes covering the Brain and Spinal cord, known collectively as the Meninges. Epilepsy is a common chronic Neurological disorder that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. Love sickness is a non-medical term used to describe mental and physical symptoms associated with Falling in love. Hemiplegia is a condition in which one-half of a patient's body is paralyzed. He also placed more emphasis on preserving health through diet and natural healing than he did on medication or drugs, which he considered a last resort. Health is a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body [15]
Avicenna (980-1037) recognized "physiological psychology" in the treatment of "illnesses involving emotions" and develop "a system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings" which is seen as an anticipation of "the word association test of Jung. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Physiological psychology is a subdivision of Biological psychology that studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behavior through direct manipulation of the brains of An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. Word Association is a common Word game involving an Exchange of words that are associated together " Avicenna identified love sickness (Ishq) when he was treating a very ill patient by "feeling the patient's pulse and reciting aloud to him the names of provinces, districts, towns, streets, and people. Love sickness is a non-medical term used to describe mental and physical symptoms associated with Falling in love. " He noticed how the patient's pulse increased when certain names were mentioned, from which Avicenna deduced that the patient was in love with a girl whose home Avicenna was "able to locate by the digital examination. " Avicenna advised the patient to marry the girl he is in love with, and the patient soon recovered from his illness after his marriage. [30]
Avicenna also gave psychological explanations for certain somatic illnesses, and he always linked the physical and psychological illnesses together. Somatic Psychology, also referred to as Body psychotherapy, is an Interdisciplinary field involving the study of therapeutic and Holistic approaches He described melancholia (depression) as a type of mood disorder in which the person may become suspicious and develop certain types of phobias. In the fields of Psychology and Psychiatry, the terms depression or depressed refer to both expected and pathologically chronic or severe A mood disorder is the term given for a group of diagnoses in the DSM IV TR classification system where a disturbance in the person's emotional mood is hypothesised Phobias Phobias (in the clinical meaning of the term are the most common form of Anxiety disorders An American study by the National Institute of Mental Health He stated that anger heralded the transition of melancholia to mania, and explained that humidity inside the head can contribute to mood disorders. Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage Mania (from Greek μανία and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage to be furious" is a severe medical condition Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air In daily language the term "humidity" is normally taken to mean Relative humidity. He recognized that this occurs when the amount of breath changes: happiness increases the breath, which leads to increased moisture inside the brain, but if this moisture goes beyond its limits, the brain would lose control over its rationality and lead to mental disorders. Breathing takes Oxygen in and Carbon dioxide out of the body Aerobic Organisms require oxygen to create energy via respiration, in Happiness is an Emotion associated with feelings ranging from contentment and satisfaction to Bliss and intense Joy. Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to He also wrote about symptoms and treatments for nightmare, epilepsy, and weak memory. A nightmare is a Dream which causes a strong unpleasant emotional response from the sleeper typically fear or horror being in situations of extreme danger or the sensations Epilepsy is a common chronic Neurological disorder that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information [22]
Nosology and psychopathology
In nosology, the Arab Muslim physician and psychological thinker Najab ud-din Unhammad (870-925) described in detail nine major categories of mental disorders, which included 30 different mental illnesses in total. Nosology (from the Greek νόσος, nosos, "disease" + λόγος " Logos " is a branch of Medicine Some of the categories he first described included obsessive-compulsive disorders (anxious and ruminative states of doubt), delusional disorders (which "manifested itself by the mind's tendency to magnify all matters of personal significance, often leading to actions that prove outrageous to society"), degenerative diseases, involutional melancholia, and states of abnormal excitement. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD is a Chronic Anxiety disorder most commonly characterized by obsessive Distressing Intrusive thoughts Delusional disorder is a psychiatric diagnosis denoting a psychotic Mental illness that involves holding one or more non-bizarre Delusions in the absence A degenerative disease is a disease in which the function or structure of the affected tissues or organs will progressively deteriorate over time whether due to normal Involutional melancholia or involutional depression is a traditional name for a Psychiatric disorder affecting mainly elderly or late middle-aged people usually accompanied [40]
Unhammad made many careful observations of mentally ill patients and compiled them in a book which "made up the most complete classification of mental diseases theretofore known. Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data " The mental illnesses first described by Najab include agitated depression, neurosis, priapism and sexual impotence (Nafkhae Malikholia), psychosis (Kutrib), and mania (Dual-Kulb). This article is an expansion of a section entitled '''Mixed state''' from the main article Bipolar disorder In the context of Mental This article describes the term in psychology For the experimental metal band see Neurosis (band. Priapism (πριαπισμός is a potentially harmful and painful medical condition in which the erect Penis does not return to its flaccid state despite Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Mania (from Greek μανία and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage to be furious" is a severe medical condition [30]
Unhammad also listed nine classes of psychopathology. Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of Mental illness or mental distress or the manifestation of behaviours and experiences which may be indicative This included the earliest description of Souda a Tabee (febrile delirium), which was in turn subdivided into Souda where patients showed impairment of memory, loss of contact with the environment, and childish behaviour; and Jannon (agitated reaction) which occurs when Souda reaches a chronic state and is characterized by insomnia, restlessness and sometimes "beast-like roars. Fever (also known as pyrexia, from the Greek pyretos meaning fire or a febrile response, from the Latin word Febris Delirium is an acute and relatively sudden (developing over hours to days decline in attention-focus perception and Cognition. In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information Maturity is a psychological term used to indicate that a person responds to the Circumstances or environment in an appropriate manner. In Medicine, a chronic disease is a Disease that is long-lasting or recurrent Insomnia is a symptom of a sleeping disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep despite the opportunity "[41]
Anatomy and physiology
Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (d. Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (died 982-994 also known as Masoudi or Latinized as Haly Abbas, was a Persian Physician and 982), in his Complete Book of the Medical Art, described the anatomy, physiology and diseases of the brain. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain [15]
In the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (10th century), the Brethren of Purity discussed the process of thought, and wrote that the thinking process begins with the five external senses which send messages through the nerves to the brain, which processes the messages in different locations of the brain. The Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (also variously known as the Epistles of the Brethren of Sincerity, the Epistles of the Brethren of Purity or Epistles The Brethren of Purity ( Arabic اخوان الصفا Ikhwan al-Safa; also translated as Brethren of Sincerity) were a mysterious Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields A nerve is an enclosed cable-like bundle of peripheral Axons (the long slender projections of Neurons. [25]
Avicenna discovered the cerebellar vermis—which he named "vermis"—and the caudate nucleus, which he named "tailed nucleus" or "nucleus caudatus". TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Part of the structure of animal Brains the cerebellar vermis is a narrow wormlike structure between the hemispheres of the Cerebellum. The caudate nucleus is a nucleus located within the Basal ganglia of the Brains of many animal species These terms are still used in modern neuroanatomy. [42] He was also the earliest to note that intellectual dysfunctions were largely due to deficits in the brain's middle ventricle, and that the frontal lobe of the brain mediated common sense and reasoning. The ventricular system is a set of structures in the Brain continuous with the Central canal of the Spinal cord. The frontal lobe is an area in the Brain of Mammals It is located at the front of each Cerebral hemisphere and positioned anterior to (in front of the Common sense (or when used attributively as an Adjective, commonsense, common-sense, or commonsensical) based on a strict construction Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for Reasons for beliefs conclusions actions or feelings [40]
Ibn al-Nafis (1213-1288), in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon, corrected some of the erroneous theories of Galen and Avicenna (Ibn Sina) on the anatomy of the brain. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Ibn al-Nafis quoted an error made by Galen, who believed that "blood reaches the brain itself at the section called forebrain through the duramater which divides the vault longitudinally into two equal halves at the sagittal suture. Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products In the Anatomy of the Brain of Vertebrates, the prosencephalon (or forebrain) is the Rostral -most (forward-most portion of the The dura mater (from the Latin "hard mother" or pachymeninx, is the tough and inflexible outermost of the three layers of the Meninges surrounding the The sagittal suture is a dense fibrous Connective tissue Joint between the two Parietal bones of the Skull. " Ibn al-Nafis criticized this theory and corrected it as follows:[43]
"The blood permeates first to the back ventricle (hindbrain) then to the other two ventricles. The rhombencephalon (or hindbrain) is a developmental categorization of portions of the Central nervous system in Vertebrates. In the Heart, a ventricle is a heart chamber which collects Blood from an atrium (another heart chamber that is smaller than a ventricle and Dissection confirms this and disproves what they say. The permeation of arteries into the cranium is well known not to be from the front ventricle. Permeation, in Physics and Engineering, is the penetration of a permeate (such as a Liquid, Gas, or Vapor) through a solid and is Arteries are Blood vessels that carry blood away from the Heart. "
Ibn al-Nafis corrected another theory on the nerves stated by Avicenna, who believed that the glossopharyngeal nerve, vagus nerve and accessory nerve arise from the nerve ganglion and that they are attached to the sigmoid and facial nerves through membranous fascia so that these five nerves look like one nerve emerging as three branches from the back foramen lacerum. A nerve is an enclosed cable-like bundle of peripheral Axons (the long slender projections of Neurons. The glossopharyngeal nerve is the ninth of twelve pairs of Cranial nerves. The vagus nerve (ˈveɪˌgəs (VĀ-gəs (also called pneumogastric nerve or cranial nerve X) is the tenth of twelve paired Cranial nerves, and is the In Anatomy, the accessory nerve is a Nerve that controls specific Muscles of the neck In Anatomy, a ganglion (pl ganglia) is a tissue mass. Neurology In neurological contexts ganglia are composed mainly of The sigmoid colon ( pelvic colon; sigmoid flexure) forms a loop which averages about 40 cm The facial nerve is the seventh (VII of twelve paired Cranial nerves. Fascia (făsh'ē-ə pl fas·ci·ae (făsh'ē-ē adj fascial (făsh'ē-əl (from Latin: a band is the Soft tissue component of The foramen lacerum ( Latin for lacerated piercing) is a triangular hole in the base of the Skull located at the base of the Medial pterygoid plate While experimenting with this theory, Ibn al-Nafis performed the earliest known dissection on the human brain, after he made the following correction to the theory:[43]
"About what he [Ibn Sina] said concerning the sixth nerve being attached to the fifth through membranous facia, I have not so far found a good reason for that attachment, and I have not even verified it. Dissection (also called anatomization) is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function The facial nerve is the seventh (VII of twelve paired Cranial nerves. This sixth pair [a confluence of the glossopharyngeal, vagus and accessory nerves] both arises and emerges from behind the fifth, so there is no way it could be attached to it. "
Another example was Galen's incorrect theory on the optic nerve, in which he stated that the optic nerve "which comes from the right side of the brain goes to the right eye, and the nerve which comes from the left side goes to the left eye. The optic nerve, also called cranial nerve II, is the Nerve that transmits visual information from the Retina to the Brain. " Ibn al-Nafis also proved this theory wrong and stated:[43]
"In fact it is not like that, [but] each nerve goes to the opposite side. "
Neurosurgery
In al-Andalus, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), considered a father of modern surgery, developed material and technical designs which are still used in neurosurgery. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Neurosurgery is the surgical discipline focused on treating those central, Peripheral nervous system and spinal column diseases amenable to surgical [44]
In Egypt, Ibn al-Nafis performed the earliest known dissections on the human brain, while he was correcting some of the incorrect theories of Galen and Avicenna on the anatomy of the brain. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Dissection (also called anatomization) is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born [43]
Neuropsychiatric conditions
Avicenna first described a number of neuropsychiatric conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Neuropsychiatry is the branch of Medicine dealing with Mental disorders attributable to diseases of the Nervous system. A hallucination, in the broadest sense is a Perception in the absence of a stimulus. Insomnia is a symptom of a sleeping disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep despite the opportunity Mania (from Greek μανία and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage to be furious" is a severe medical condition A nightmare is a Dream which causes a strong unpleasant emotional response from the sleeper typically fear or horror being in situations of extreme danger or the sensations Dementia (from Latin de- "apart away" + Mens ( genitive mentis) "mind" is the progressive decline Epilepsy is a common chronic Neurological disorder that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. Paralysed redirects here For other uses see xx Paralysed (disambiguation Paralysis is the complete loss of Muscle function A stroke is the rapidly developing loss of brain functions due to a disturbance in the blood vessels supplying blood to the brain Vertigo (from the Latin vertere, to turn and the suffix -igo, a condition i Tremor is an unintentional somewhat rhythmic muscle movement involving to-and-from movements (oscillations of one or more parts of the body [45] He dedicated three chapters of The Canon of Medicine (1020s) to neuropsychiatric disorders,[34] in which he defined madness (Junun) as a mental condition in which reality is replaced by fantasy, and discovered that it is a disorder of reason with its origin in the middle part of the brain. The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian Traditionally insanity or madness is the behaviour whereby a person flouts societal norms and may become a danger to himself and others Reality, in everyday usage means "the state of things as they actually exist" Fantasy is a Genre that uses magic and other Supernatural forms as a primary element of plot, theme, and/or setting Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain [46]
Avicenna also discovered a condition resembling schizophrenia which he described as Junun Mufrit (severe madness), which he clearly distinguished from other forms of madness such as mania, rabies, and manic depressive psychosis. Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn Rabies (from rabies “madness rage fury” Also known as “ hydrophobia ” is a viral Zoonotic neuroinvasive disease that Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic He observed that patients suffering from schizophrenia-like severe madness show agitation, behavioural and sleep disturbance, give inappropriate answers to questions, and in some cases are incapable of speaking at times. He wrote that such patients need to be restrained, in order to avoid any harm they may cause to themselves or to others. Avicenna also dedicated a chapter of the Canon to mania and rabies, where he described mania as bestial madness characterized by rapid onset and remission, with agitation and irritability, and described rabies as a type of mania. Remission is the state of absence of Disease activity in patients with known Chronic illness. Irritability is an excessive response to stimuli. Irritability takes many forms from the Contraction of a Unicellular organism when touched to complex [4]
In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna extended the theory of temperaments to encompass "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams. In psychology temperament is the innate aspect of an individual's personality such as Introversion or Extroversion. An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours A moral is a message conveyed or a lesson to be learned from a story or event Self-awareness is the concept that one exists as an individual separate from other people with private Thoughts. Dreams are the images sounds thoughts and feelings experienced while Sleeping, particularly strongly associated with Rapid eye movement sleep. " Avicenna's work is thus considered by some to be a "forerunner of twentieth century psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior "[47]
Later in the 13th century, Maimonides wrote about neuropsychiatric disorders and described rabies and belladonna intoxication. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Atropa belladonna or Atropa bella-donna, commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a perennial Herbaceous [44]
Neurology and neuropharmacology
Avicenna's contributions in neurology include his diagnosis of facial nerve paralysis, his distinction between brain paralysis and hyperaemia, and most importantly his discovery of meningitis. Facial nerve paralysis is a common problem that involves the Paralysis of any structures innervated by the Facial nerve. Paralysed redirects here For other uses see xx Paralysed (disambiguation Paralysis is the complete loss of Muscle function Hyperemia describes the increase of blood flow to different tissues in the body Meningitis is Inflammation of the protective membranes covering the Brain and Spinal cord, known collectively as the Meninges. He diagnosed meningitis as a disease induced by the brain itself and differentiated it from infectious brain disease, and was also able to diagnose and describe the type of meningitis induced by an infection in other parts of the body. The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain [42]
Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) gave the earliest accurate descriptions on certain neurological disorders, including meningitis, intracranial thrombophlebitis, and mediastinal tumours, and made contributions to modern neuropharmacology. Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr Meningitis is Inflammation of the protective membranes covering the Brain and Spinal cord, known collectively as the Meninges. Thrombophlebitis is Phlebitis (vein Inflammation) related to a blood clot or Thrombus. Malignant mediastinal germ cell tumors of various histologies were first described as a clinical entity approximately 50 years ago Neuropharmacology is concerned with drug-induced changes in the functioning of cells in the nervous system Averroes suggested the existence of Parkinson's disease and attributed photoreceptor properties to the retina. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Parkinson's disease (also known as Parkinson disease or PD) is a degenerative disorder of the Central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer's Photoreceptor can refer to In anatomy/cell biology Photoreceptor cell: a photosensitive cell most commonly referring to a specialized type of neuron The vertebrate retina is a light sensitive part inside the inner layer of the Eye. [44]
Experimental approach
Sensation and stimulus
In the 9th century, the Arabian psychological thinker al-Kindi (Alkindus) (801–873) was the first to use the method of experiment in psychology, which led to his discovery that sensation is proportionate to the stimulus. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or In Psychology, sensation is the first stage in the biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a In Physiology, a stimulus is a detectable change in the internal or external environment [48]
Visual perception
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965-1039) is considered by some to be a "founder of experimental psychology",[7] for his experimental work on the psychology of visual perception in the Book of Optics. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni [49] In Book III of the Book of Optics, Ibn al-Haytham was the first scientist to argue that vision occurs in the brain, rather than the eyes. The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices He pointed out that personal experience has an effect on what people see and how they see, and that vision and perception are subjective. Subjectivity refers to a subject's perspective particularly feelings beliefs and desires He explained possible errors in vision in detail, and as an example, describes how a small child with less experience may have more difficulty interpreting what he/she sees. He also gives an example of an adult that can make mistakes in vision because of how one's experience suggests that he/she is seeing one thing, when he/she is really seeing something else. [49]
In the Book of Optics, Ibn al-Haytham also developed the "concept of a sensory core that interprets visual stimuli" and which was "highly sophisticated, incorporating mathematical, anatomical and physiopsychological components. In a Sensory system, a sensory receptor is a structure that recognizes a stimulus in the internal or external environment of an Organism. "[47]
Some argue that Ibn al-Haytham is also a "founder of psychophysics", a distinct subdiscipline of psychology,[7] though this is a minority opinion. Psychophysics is a subdiscipline of Psychology dealing with the relationship between physical stimuli and their subjective correlates or Percepts Psychophysics is a battery of quantitative statistical and mathematical methods of relating changes in physical stimulus magnitude to perception. Ibn al-Haytham made many subjective reports regarding vision, though there is no evidence that he used quantitative psychophysical techniques.
Reaction time
Al-Biruni (973-1048) also an early forerunner to experimental psychology, as he was the first to use an experimental method to describe the concept of reaction time:[48]
"Not only is every sensation attended by a corresponding change localized in the sense-organ, which demands a certain time, but also, between the stimulation of the organ and consciousness of the perception an interval of time must elapse, corresponding to the transmission of stimulus for some distance along the nerves. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Reaction time (RT is the elapsed time between the presentation of a sensory stimulus and the subsequent behavioral response "
Other experiments
In The Book of Healing, Avicenna (980-1037) discussed the mind, its existence, the mind and body relationship, sensation, perception, etc. The Book of Healing ( Arabic: الشفاء Al-Shefa, Latin: Sanatio) is a scientific and philosophical TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. In common usage existence is the world of which we are aware through our senses but in Philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning and is often contrasted with In Psychology, sensation is the first stage in the biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. He wrote that at the most common level, the influence of the mind on the body can be seen in voluntary movements, in that the body obeys whenever the mind wishes to move the body. He further writes that the second level of influence of the mind on the body is from emotions and the will. An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours This article is about the radio and television stations For other uses see Will. As a thought experiment, he states that if a plank of wood is placed as a bridge over a chasm, a person could hardly creep over it without falling if that person only pictures himself/herself in a possible fall so vividly that the "natural power of limbs accord with it. A thought experiment (from the German Gedankenexperiment) is a proposal for an Experiment that would test a Hypothesis or Theory In Geology, a rift is a place where the Earth 's crust and Lithosphere are being pulled apart and is an example of Extensional tectonics " He also writes that strong negative emotions can have a negative effect on the vegetative functions of an individual and may even lead to death in some cases. He also discusses hypnosis, which he refers to as al-Wahm al-Amil, distinguishing it from sleep. Hypnosis is often thought to be a wakeful state of focused attention and heightened suggestibility with diminished peripheral awareness Sleep is a Natural state of bodily rest observed throughout the animal kingdom He states that one could create conditions in another person so that he/she accepts the reality of hypnosis. [21]
Ibn al-Nafis (1213-1288) identified the "psychic faculties" with cognition, sensation, imagination, and animal locomotion,[50] and disproved Aristotle's notion that these come from the heart rather than the brain through observation. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought In Biomechanics, animal locomotion is the study of how Animals move. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data After Ibn al-Nafis empirically discovered that the brain and nerves are cooler than the heart and arteries, he concluded that the psychic faculties come from the brain on this basis. A nerve is an enclosed cable-like bundle of peripheral Axons (the long slender projections of Neurons. Arteries are Blood vessels that carry blood away from the Heart. [51] He further wrote that it is the brain which controls sensation, movement and cognition. [52]
Sociological approach
The earliest works on "the social organization of ants" and "animal communication and psychology" were written by al-Jahiz (766–868), an Afro-Arab scholar who wrote many works on these subjects. Social organization or social institution, refers to a group of Social positions connected by Social relations performing a Social role. Animal communication is any Behaviour on the part of one Animal that has an effect on the current or future behaviour of another animal Psychologists and scientists do not always agree on what should be considered Comparative Psychology. Al-Jāḥiẓ (in Arabic الجاحظ (real name Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri) (born in Basra, c Afro-Arab (sometimes referred to as African Arab) refers to people who possess both Black African and Arab ancestry [10]
Al-Farabi's Social Psychology and Model City were the earliest treatises to deal with social psychology. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi Social psychology is the study of how people and groups interact He stated that "an isolated individual could not achieve all the perfections by himself, without the aid of other individuals. " He wrote that it is the "innate disposition of every man to join another human being or other men in the labor he ought to perform. " He concluded that in order to "achieve what he can of that perfection, every man needs to stay in the neighborhood of others and associate with them. "[15]
Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), considered a father of sociology[53][54][55] and the social sciences,[56] was another Muslim scholar who significant contributions to the area of social psychology. Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies His book Muqaddimah (known as Prolegomena in the West) was a classic on the social psychology of the peoples of the Arabian Peninsula, particularly the Bedouins. The Muqaddimah, or the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun ( Arabic: ar مقدّمة ابن خلدون Amazigh: Tazwarit n Ibn Xldun The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) The Bedouin, (from the Arabic (ar بدوي pl badū) are a desert-dwelling Arab Nomadic pastoralist, or previously [57]
Modern contributions
Neurology
In 1991, Saudi Arabian medical researchers discovered "neuro-Behcet's disease",[58] a neurological involvement in Behcet's disease, considered one of the most devastating manifestations of the disease. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi Behçet disease (Behçet's syndrome Morbus Behçet, silk road disease (bɛˈtʃɛt (enPR bĕCHĔT is a chronic condition due to disturbances in the body’s Immune [59] In 1989, Saudi neurologists also discovered "neurobrucellosis", a neurological involvement in brucellosis. Brucellosis, also called undulant fever, or Malta fever, is a highly contagious Zoonosis caused by ingestion of unsterilized Milk [58]
Biopsychosociology and neurochemical pathology
Dr. Muhammad B. Yunus is a Muslim physician and neuroscientist who practices internal medicine and rheumatology in the United States. Internal medicine is the medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis management and nonsurgical treatment of unusual or serious diseases Rheumatology is a sub-specialty in Internal medicine and Pediatrics, devoted to the Diagnosis and therapy of Rheumatic diseases. The history of Islam in the United States starts in the early 16th century, with Estevánico of Azamor being the first Muslim to enter the historical record [60] In 1981, he published the "first controlled study of the clinical characteristics" of the fibromyalgia syndrome, for which he is regarded as "the father of our modern view of fibromyalgia. Fibromyalgia (FM is a disorder classified by the presence of chronic widespread Pain and tactile Allodynia. "[61] His work was the "first controlled clinical study" of fibromyalgia "with validation of known symptoms and tender points" and he also proposed "the first data-based criteria. In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices A symptom' (from Greek σύμπτωμα, "accident misfortune that which befalls" from συμπίπτω, "I befall" from " In 1984, he proposed the important concept that the fibromyalgia syndrome and other similar conditions are interconnected. He showed serotonergic and norepinephric drugs to be effective in 1986, published a criteria for fibromyalgia in 1990, and developed neurohormonal mechanisms with central sensitization in the 1990s. Serotonergic means "related to the Neurotransmitter Serotonin " A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body A neurohormone is any Hormone produced by neurosecretory cells usually in the Brain. Sensitization is an example of non-associative Learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell [62]
He also made important advances in the understanding of the chronic fatigue syndromes in general, the biopsychosocial model, medical sociology, neurology, psychosocial development, and neurochemical pathology. Chronic fatigue syndrome ( CFS) is the most common name given to a poorly understood variably debilitating disorder or disorders of uncertain causation The biopsychosocial model is a general model or approach Medical sociology is the study of individual and group behaviors with respect to health and illness The term psychosocial refers to one in Psychological development in and interaction with a Social environment. A neurochemical is an organic molecule such as Serotonin, Dopamine, or Nerve growth factor, that participates in neural activity Pathology (from Greek grc πάθος pathos, "fate harm" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study and [63] His "biopsychosocial perspective" of fibromyalgia and other chronic fatigue syndromes is the "only way to synthesize the disparate contributions of such variables as genes and adverse childhood experiences, life stress and distress, posttraumatic stress disorder, mood disorders, self-efficacy for pain control, catastrophizing, coping style, and social support into the evolving picture of central nervous system dysfunction vis-a-vis chronic pain and fatigue. "[61]
See also
Notes
- ^ a b Majed Ashy (1999): http://www.springerlink.com/content/hw3t71515r4460nq/
- ^ a b (Haque 2004, p. Science in the Islamic world has played an important role in the History of science. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar 358)
- ^ a b c d e Nurdeen Deuraseh and Mansor Abu Talib (2005), "Mental health in Islamic medical tradition", The International Medical Journal 4 (2), pp. 76-79.
- ^ a b c d (Youssef, Youssef & Dening 1996, p. 57)
- ^ (Syed 2002)
- ^ a b c A. Vanzan Paladin (1998), "Ethics and neurology in the Islamic world: Continuity and change", Italial Journal of Neurological Science 19: 255-258 [257], Springer-Verlag.
- ^ a b c Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2).
- ^ (Haque 2004)
- ^ (Youssef, Youssef & Dening 1996, p. 58)
- ^ a b c d (Haque 2004, p. 376)
- ^ Qur'an, Sura 4:5
- ^ (Youssef, Youssef & Dening 1996, p. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Sura An-Nisa ( Arabic: سورة النساء, Sūratu an-Nisā, "The Women " is the fourth chapter of the 59)
- ^ (Haque 2004, p. 375)
- ^ a b c d (Haque 2004, p. 361)
- ^ a b c d e (Haque 2004, p. 363)
- ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Oliver Leaman (1996). TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Seyyed Hossein Nasr ( Persian سید حسین نصر) an Iranian Oliver Leaman is a Professor of Philosophy and Zantker Professor of Judaic Studies History of Islamic Philosophy. Routledge, 315 & 1022-1023. ISBN 0415131596.
- ^ (Haque 2004, pp. 365-6)
- ^ Hillier, H. Chad (2006), “Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126 - 1198 CE)”, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <http://www.iep.utm.edu/i/ibnrushd.htm>. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP is a free Online encyclopedia on philosophical topics and philosophers founded by James Fieser in 1995 Retrieved on 23 January 2008
- ^ Rizvi, Sajjad H. (2006), “Avicenna/Ibn Sina (CA. 980-1037)”, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/avicenna.htm>. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP is a free Online encyclopedia on philosophical topics and philosophers founded by James Fieser in 1995 Retrieved on 23 January 2008
- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, pp. 224-262, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ a b c (Haque 2004, p. 365)
- ^ a b c d (Haque 2004, p. 366)
- ^ a b (Haque 2004, p. 367)
- ^ Simon Kemp, K. T. Strongman, Anger theory and management: A historical analysis, The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 108, No. 3. (Autumn, 1995), pp. 397-417
- ^ a b c (Haque 2004, p. 364)
- ^ (Youssef, Youssef & Dening 1996, p. 61)
- ^ a b (Haque 2004, p. 368)
- ^ (Fancy 2006, pp. 239-40)
- ^ (Fancy 2006, p. 209-10)
- ^ a b c d e (Syed 2002, p. 7)
- ^ (Syed 2002, pp. 7-8)
- ^ (Youssef, Youssef & Dening 1996, p. 58)
- ^ a b Thomas F. Glick, Steven John Livesey, Faith Wallis (2005), Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, p. 145, Routledge, ISBN 0415969301. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals
- ^ a b c d (Youssef, Youssef & Dening 1996, p. 56)
- ^ Henry George Farmer (1978), Historical Facts for the Arabian Musical Influence, p. 25, Ayer Publishing, ISBN 040508496X.
- ^ (Haque 2004, p. 376)
- ^ Saoud, R. . The Arab Contribution to the Music of the Western World (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-01-12. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 475 - Basiliscus becomes Byzantine Emperor, with a coronation ceremony in the Hebdomon palace in Constantinople
- ^ a b c d (Haque 2004, p. 362)
- ^ Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23.
- ^ a b Millon, Theodore (2004), Masters of the Mind: Exploring the Story of Mental Illness from Ancient Times to the New Millennium, John Wiley & Sons, p. John Wiley & Sons Inc, also referred to as Wiley, is a global Publishing company that markets its products to professionals and consumers students and instructors 38, ISBN 0471679615
- ^ Adamis, Dimitrios; Treloar, Adrian; Martin, Finbarr C. & Macdonald, Alastair J. D. (2007), “A brief review of the history of delirium as a mental disorder”, History of Psychiatry 18 (4): 459-69
- ^ a b Professor Dr. Aydin, İbrahim Hakkı (2001), “Avicenna And Modern Neurological Sciences”, Journal of Academic Researches in Religious Sciences 1 (2): 1-4
- ^ a b c d Dr. Oataya, Sulaiman (1982), Ibn al-Nafis has dissected the human body, Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait, Encyclopedia of Islamic World, <http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/oataya.html>. IMANA Logogif|frame|right|The IMANA Logo]] The Islamic Medical Association of North America ( "IMANA") is the largest Muslim medical organization in The State of Kuwait ( دولة الكويت IPA [dawlatt̪ alkuwajt̪]) is a sovereign Arab Emirate on the coast of the Persian Gulf, enclosed Retrieved on 23 January 2008
- ^ a b c Martin-Araguz, A. ; Bustamante-Martinez, C. ; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V. ; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002), "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9): 877-892
- ^ S Safavi-Abbasi, LBC Brasiliense, RK Workman (2007), "The fate of medical knowledge and the neurosciences during the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire", Neurosurgical Focus 23 (1), E13, p. 3.
- ^ (Youssef, Youssef & Dening 1996, pp. 56-7)
- ^ a b Lutz, Peter L. (2002), The Rise of Experimental Biology: An Illustrated History, Humana Press, p. Humana Press is a publisher of science technology and medical books and journals 60, ISBN 0896038351
- ^ a b Iqbal, Muhammad, “The Spirit of Muslim Culture”, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, <http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction>. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam is a compilation of lectures delivered by Muhammad Iqbal on Islamic philosophy; it was published in Retrieved on 25 January 2008
- ^ a b Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.
- ^ (Fancy 2006, p. 172)
- ^ (Fancy 2006, p. 215)
- ^ (Fancy 2006, p. 216)
- ^ H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
- ^ Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3).
- ^ (Haque 2004, p. 375)
- ^ Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", Middle East Journal 56 (1), p. 25.
- ^ (Haque 2004, p. 376)
- ^ a b Ravi Malhotra (2004), "Saudi Arabia", Practical Neurology 4: 184-185.
- ^ Saleem, S. (2005), “Neuro-Behcet's Disease: NBD”, Neurographics 4 (2, article 1), <http://www.neurographics.org/4/2/1/4.shtml>. Retrieved on 23 January 2008
- ^ Dr. Muhammad Yunus, MD. HealthGrades, Inc. HealthGrades ( NASDAQ: HGRD incorporated in December 1995 provides objective ratings of Hospitals, Nursing homes and home health agencies in the United Retrieved on 2008-01-23. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 393 - Roman Emperor Theodosius I proclaims his nine year old son Honorius co-emperor
- ^ a b John B. Winfield (2007), "Fibromyalgia and Related Central Sensitivity Syndromes: Twenty-five Years of Progress", Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism 36 (6): 335-338.
- ^ F. Fatma Inanici and Muhammad B. Yunus (2004), "History of fibromyalgia: Past to present", 8 (5): 369-378.
- ^ “Further Legitimization Of Fibromyalgia As A True Medical Condition”, Science Daily, June 25, 2007, <http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/06/070625095756.htm>. Dan Hogan Editoreditor@sciencedailycom Michele Hogan Sales Managersales@sciencedaily Retrieved on 23 January 2008
References
- Fancy, Nahyan A. G. (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", Electronic Theses and Dissertations (University of Notre Dame), <http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615>. The University of Notre Dame du Lac (or simply Notre Dame) (ˌnoʊtɚˈdeɪm is a private Roman Catholic Research university located in Retrieved on 2008-01-23
- Haque, Amber (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377
- Syed, Ibrahim B. , PhD (2002), "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 2002 (2): 2-9
- Youssef, Hanafy A. ; Fatma A. Youssef & T. R. Dening (1996), "Evidence for the existence of schizophrenia in medieval Islamic society", History of Psychiatry 7: 55-62
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