- This is a sub-article to Islamic science and Medicine. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the
In the history of medicine, Islamic medicine or Arabic medicine refers to medicine developed in the medieval Islamic civilization and written in Arabic, the lingua franca of the Islamic civilization. All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, Death, and Disease. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language A lingua franca (from Italian, literally meaning Frankish language, see etymology under Sabir and Italian below is any Language widely Despite these names, a significant number of scientists during this period were not Arab. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Some consider the label "Arab-Islamic" as historically inaccurate, arguing that this label does not appreciate the rich diversity of Eastern scholars who have contributed to science in this era. [1] Latin translations of Arabic medical works had a significant influence on the development of modern medicine. The Renaissance of the 12th century saw a major search by European scholars for new learning which led them to the Arabic fringes of Europe especially to Islamic
Overview
Islamic medicine was a genre of medical writing that was influenced by several different medical systems, including the traditional Arabian medicine of Muhammad's time, ancient Hellenistic medicine such as Unani, ancient Indian medicine such as Ayurveda, and the ancient Iranian Medicine of the Academy of Gundishapur. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics The first known Greek medical school opened in Cnidus in 700 BC Unani IPA: (in Arabic, Hindi, Persian, Pashtu, Urdu, etc means " Greek " Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other The practice and study of Medicine in Persia has a long and prolific history The Academy of Gundishapur (in دانشگاه گنديشاپور Dânešgâh Gondišâpur was a renowned academy of learning in the city of Gundeshapur during Late antiquity
Foundations
The first Muslim physician is believed to have been Muhammad himself, as a significant number of hadiths concerning medicine are attributed to him. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Several Sahaba are said to have been successfully treated of certain diseases by following the medical advice of Muhammad. In Islam, the Ṣaḥābah (الصحابة "Companions" were the companions of the Islamic prophet Muḥammad. The three methods of healing known to have been mentioned by him were honey, cupping, and cauterization, though he was generally opposed to the use of cauterization unless it "suits the ailment. Honey is a sweet and Viscous fluid produced by Honey bees (and some other species and derived from the nectar of Flowers According to the Fire cupping or simply cupping is a form of Traditional medicine found in several cultures Cauterize redirects here For the band see Cauterize (band Cauterization is a medical term describing the burning of the body to remove Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. " According to Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Muhammad disliked this method due to it causing "pain and menace to a patient" since there was no anasthesia in his time. For other uses see Ibn Hajar. Al-Haafidh Shihabuddin Abu'l-Fadl Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Muhammad, better known as Ibn Hajar due to a fame of Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις [2] Muhammad also appears to have been the first to suggest the contagious nature of leprosy, mange and sexually transmitted disease;[3] and that there is always a cause and a cure for every disease,[2] according to several hadiths in the Sahih al-Bukhari, Sunan Abi Dawood and Al-Muwatta attributed to Muhammad, such as:
"There is no disease that Allah has created, except that He also has created its treatment. An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic Leprosy (from the Greek lepi (λέπι meaning scales on a fish or Hansen's disease, is a chronic disease caused by the bacterium Mange (from Middle English manjeue, from Old French manjue, from mangier, meaning to eat is a parasitic infestation of A sexually transmitted disease ( STD) or venereal disease ( VD) is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between Humans A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Sunan Abu Da'ud (سُنن أبو داوود is one of the Sunni Six Major Hadith collections, collected by Abu Da'ud. The Muwaṭṭa (الموطأ is an early statement of Muslim law compiled and edited by Imam Malik. "[4]
"Make use of medical treatment, for Allah has not made a disease without appointing a remedy for it, with the exception of one disease, namely old age. "[5]
"Allah has sent down both the disease and the cure, and He has appointed a cure for every disease, so treat yourselves medically. "[6]
"The one who sent down the disease sent down the remedy. "[7]
The belief that there is a cure for every disease encouraged early Muslims to engage in biomedical research and seek out a cure for every disease known to them. Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Many early authors of Islamic medicine, however, were usually clerics rather than physicians, and were known to have advocated the traditional medical practices of prophet Muhammad's time, such as those mentioned in the Qur'an and Hadith. A cleric ( Ancient Greek κληρικός - klērikos clergyman (pl A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic For instance, therapy did not require a patient to undergo any surgical procedures at the time. Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment, is the attempted Remediation of a health problem usually following a Diagnosis A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment.
From the 9th century, Hunayn ibn Ishaq translated a number of Galen's works into the Arabic language, followed by translations of the Sushruta Samhita, Charaka Samhita and Middle Persian works from Gundishapur. Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Hunein Bit Ishak أبو زيد حنين بن إسحاق العبادي; known in Latin as Johannitius (809-873 was a famous and influential Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The Sushruta Samhita is a Sanskrit text on Surgery, attributed to Sushruta, (6th century BCE the "father of Surgery" The Charaka Samhita Sutra is an ancient Indian Ayurvedic text on Internal medicine written by Charaka. Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect Muslim physicians soon began making many of their own significant advances and contributions to medicine, including the fields of allergology, anatomy, bacteriology, botany, dentistry, embryology, environmentalism, etiology, immunology, microbiology, obstetrics, ophthalmology, pathology, pediatrics, perinatology, physiology, psychiatry, psychology, pulsology and sphygmology, surgery, therapy, urology, zoology, and the pharmaceutical sciences such as pharmacy and pharmacology, among others. Allergy is a disorder of the Immune system often also referred to as Atopy. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Dentistry' is the "evaluation diagnosis prevention and/or treatment (nonsurgical surgical or related procedures of diseases disorders and/or conditions of the oral cavity Embryology (from Greek grc ἔμβρυον embryon, "unborn embryo" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the development Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. Etiology (alternatively aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical Science that covers the study of all aspects of the Immune system in all Organisms It deals with Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία Obstetrics (from the Latin obstare, "to stand by" is the surgical speciality dealing with the care of a woman and her offspring during Pregnancy Ophthalmology was one of the foremost branches in medieval Islamic medicine. Pathology (from Greek grc πάθος pathos, "fate harm" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study and Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of Medicine that deals with the medical care of Infants Children and Adolescents Maternal-fetal medicine (MFM is the branch of Obstetrics that focuses on the Medical and Surgical management of high-risk pregnancies Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment, is the attempted Remediation of a health problem usually following a Diagnosis Urology is the branch of Surgery that focuses on the Urinary tracts of males and females and on the reproductive system of males Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of The pharmaceutical sciences are a group of Interdisciplinary areas of study involved with the design action delivery disposition and use of Drugs This field draws Pharmacy (from the Greek φάρμακον 'pharmakon' = drug is the Health profession that links the Health sciences with the chemical sciences Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs
Medicine was a central part of medieval Islamic culture. Responding to circumstances of time and place, Islamic physicians and scholars developed a large and complex medical literature exploring and synthesizing the theory and practice of medicine. [8] Islamic medicine was initially built on tradition, chiefly the theoretical and practical knowledge developed in Arabia, Persia, Greece, Rome, and India. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 Galen and Hippocrates were pre-eminent authorities, as well as the Indian physicians Sushruta and Charaka, and the Hellenistic scholars in Alexandria. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other Sushruta was a surgeon and teacher of Ayurveda who flourished in the Indian city of Kashi by the 6th century BCE For the village in Azerbaijan see Çərəkə; for the book Charaka Samhita see Charaka Samhita. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια Islamic scholars translated their voluminous writings from Greek and Sanskrit into Arabic and then produced new medical knowledge based on those texts. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language [9] In order to make the Greek and Indian traditions more accessible, understandable, and teachable, Islamic scholars ordered and made more systematic the vast and sometimes inconsistent Greco-Roman and Indian medical knowledge by writing encyclopedias and summaries. [8] It was through Arabic translations that the West learned of Hellenic medicine, including the works of Galen and Hippocrates. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca Of equal if not of greater influence in Western Europe were systematic and comprehensive works such as Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine, which were translated into Latin and then disseminated in manuscript and printed form throughout Europe. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries alone, The Canon of Medicine was published more than thirty-five times. [8]
Hospitals and Universities
Muslim physicians set up the earliest dedicated hospitals in the modern sense, known as Bimaristans, which were establishments where the ill were welcomed and cared for by qualified staff, and which were clearly distinguished from the ancient healing temples, sleep temples, hospices, assylums, lazarets and leper-houses which were more concerned with isolating the sick and the mad from society "rather than to offer them any way to a true cure. Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health A hospital is an institution for Health care providing treatment by specialised staff and equipment and often but not always providing for Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- Sleep temples (also known as dream temples or Egyptian sleep temples) are regarded by some as an early instance of Hypnosis over 4000 years ago Sleep temples (also known as dream temples or Egyptian sleep temples) are regarded by some as an early instance of Hypnosis over 4000 years ago Palliative care (from Latin palliare to cloak is any form of medical care or treatment that concentrates on reducing the severity of Disease Symptoms A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is A lazaretto or lazaret is a Quarantine station for maritime travellers Leprosy (from the Greek lepi (λέπι meaning scales on a fish or Hansen's disease, is a chronic disease caused by the bacterium "[10] The Bimaristan hospitals later functioned as the first public hospitals,[11] psychiatric hospitals[12] and diploma-granting medical universities. A public hospital is a Hospital which is owned by a Government and receives government funding A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is A diploma (from Greek δίπλωµα diploma, meaning "folded paper" is a Certificate or Deed issued by an educational institution Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects [13]
In the medieval Islamic world, hospitals were built in all major cities; in Cairo for example, the Qalawun Hospital could care for 8,000 patients, and a staff that included physicians, pharmacists, and nurses. One could also access a dispensary, and research facility that led to advances, which included the discovery of the contagious nature of diseases, and research into optics and the mechanisms of the eye. An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Eyes are organs that detect Light, and send signals along the Optic nerve to the visual areas of the brain Muslim doctors were removing cataracts with hollow needles over 1000 years before Western physicians dared attempt such a task. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the Eye or in its envelope varying in degree from slight to complete opacity A hypodermic needle is a hollow needle commonly used with a Syringe to inject substances into the body Hospitals were built not only for the physically sick, but for the mentally sick also. One of the first ever psychiatric hospitals that cared for the mentally ill was built in Cairo. A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is Hospitals later spread to Europe during the Crusades, inspired by the hospitals in the Middle East. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The first hospital in Paris, Les Quinze-vingts, was founded by Louis IX after his return from the Crusade between 1254-1260. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city [14]
Hospitals in the Islamic world featured competency tests for doctors, drug purity regulations, nurses and interns, and advanced surgical procedures. A test or an examination (or "exam" is an Assessment, often administered on paper or on the computer, intended to measure the test-takers' or A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body A nurse is responsible—along with other Health care Professionals —for the treatment safety and recovery of acutely or chronically An intern or stagiaire is one who works in a temporary position with an emphasis on on-the-job training rather than merely employment making it similar to an Apprenticeship Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental [15] Hospitals were also created with separate wards for specific illnesses, so that people with contagious diseases could be kept away from other patients. Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic [16]
One of the features in medieval Muslim hospitals that distinguished them from their contemporaries and predecessors was their significantly higher standards of medical ethics. Medical ethics is primarily a field of Applied ethics, the study of Moral values and judgments as they apply to Medicine. Hospitals in the Islamic world treated patients of all religions, ethnicities, and backgrounds, while the hospitals themselves often employed staff from Christian, Jewish and other minority backgrounds. Muslim doctors and physicians were expected to have obligations towards their patients, regardless of their wealth or backgrounds. The ethical standards of Muslim physicians was first laid down in the 9th century by Ishaq bin Ali Rahawi, who wrote the Adab al-Tabib (Conduct of a Physician), the first treatise dedicated to medical ethics. He regarded physicians as "guardians of souls and bodies", and wrote twenty chapters on various topics related to medical ethics. [17]
Another unique feature of medieval Muslim hospitals was the role of female staff, who were rarely employed in ancient and medieval healing temples elsewhere in the world. Medieval Muslim hospitals commonly employed female nurses, including nurses from as far as Sudan, a sign of great breakthrough. A nurse is responsible—along with other Health care Professionals —for the treatment safety and recovery of acutely or chronically Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. Muslim hospitals were also the first to employ female physicians, the most famous being two female physicians from the Banu Zuhr family who served the Almohad ruler Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur in the 12th century. Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur (ابو يوسف يعقوب المنصور (c [18] Later in the 15th century, female surgeons were illustrated for the first time in Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu's Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye (Imperial Surgery). In Medicine, a surgeon is a person who performs Surgery. Surgery is a broad category of invasive Medical treatment that involves the cutting of a Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu (1385-1468 ( Ottoman Turkish:شرف الدّین صابونجی اوغلی was a medieval Ottoman Surgeon and Physician [19]
Encyclopedias
The first encyclopedia of medicine in Arabic was Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari's Firdous al-Hikmah ("Paradise of Wisdom"), written in seven parts, c. An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari ( (c 838&ndashc 870 CE) was a Muslim hakim, 860. This article is about the year 860 For the area code see Area code 860. It was the first to deal with pediatrics and child development, as well as psychology and psychotherapy. Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of Medicine that deals with the medical care of Infants Children and Adolescents Child development refers to the biological and psychological changes that occur in human beings between birth and the end of Adolescence, as the individual Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living In the fields of medicine and psychotherapy, the work was primarily influenced by Islamic thought and ancient Indian physicians such as Sushruta and Charaka. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other Sushruta was a surgeon and teacher of Ayurveda who flourished in the Indian city of Kashi by the 6th century BCE For the village in Azerbaijan see Çərəkə; for the book Charaka Samhita see Charaka Samhita. Unlike earlier physicians, however, al-Tabari emphasized strong ties between psychology and medicine, and the need of psychotherapy and counseling in the therapeutic treatment of patients. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and [20]
Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) wrote the Comprehensive Book of Medicine in the 9th century. The Large Comprehensive was the most sought after of all his compositions, in which Rhazes recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly The Comprehensive Book of Medicine, with its introduction of measles and smallpox, was very influential in Europe. Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor.
Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (Haly Abbas)'s Kitab Kamil as-sina'a at-tibbiyya ("Complete Book of the Medical Art"), c. Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (died 982-994 also known as Masoudi or Latinized as Haly Abbas, was a Persian Physician and 980, became better known as the Kitab al-Maliki ("Royal Book", Latin: Liber regalis) in honour of its royal patron 'Adud al-Dawla. Events By Place Europe Otto II renounces his claim to Lorraine. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Aḍud al-Dawla ( Arabic: عضد الدولة) or Azod od-Dowleh Fana Khusraw ( ( September 24, 936, Isfahan - March In twenty sections, ten of theory and ten of practice, it was more systematic and concise than Razi's Hawi, but more practical than Avicenna's Canon, by which it was superseded. With many interpolations and substitutions, it served as the basis for the Pantegni (c. The Liber pantegni (παντεχνη " all arts" is a medieval medical text compiled by Constantinus Africanus in ca 1087) of Constantinus Africanus, the founding text of the Schola Medica Salernitana in Salerno. Constantine the African ( Latin Constantinus Africanus c 1020 Carthage or Sicily&ndash1087 monastery of Monte Cassino, near Cassino Principality The Schola Medica Salernitana ( Italian: Scuola Medica Salernitana) was the first Medieval Medical school in the cosmopolitan coastal Salerno is a town in southern Italy, capital of the province of the same name in the region of Campania. [21]
Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), regarded as the father of modern surgery,[22] contributed greatly to the discipline of medical surgery with his Kitab al-Tasrif ("Book of Concessions"), a 30-volume medical encyclopedia published in 1000, which was later translated to Latin and used in European medical schools for centuries. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine He invented numerous surgical instruments and described them in his al-Tasrif. A surgical instrument is a specially designed tool or device for performing specific actions of carrying out desired effects during a Surgery or operation such as modifying
Avicenna (Ibn Sina), a Hanbali and Mu'tazili philosopher and doctor in the early 11th century, was another influential figure. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Hanbali ( حنبلى) is one of the four schools ( Madhhabs of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (the other three being Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. He is regarded as the father of modern medicine,[23] and one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history. His medical encyclopedia, The Canon of Medicine (c. The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian 1020), remained a standard textbook in Europe for centuries, up until the renewal of the Muslim tradition of scientific medicine. He also wrote The Book of Healing (actually a more general encyclopedia of science and philosophy), which became another popular textbook in Europe. The Book of Healing ( Arabic: الشفاء Al-Shefa, Latin: Sanatio) is a scientific and philosophical Among other things, Avicenna's contributions to medicine include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology,[24] the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, the introduction of quarantine to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of experimental medicine,[25] evidence-based medicine, clinical trials,[26] randomized controlled trials,[27][28] efficacy tests,[29][30] clinical pharmacology,[31] risk factor analysis, and the idea of a syndrome in the diagnosis of specific diseases,[32] the first descriptions on bacteria and viral organisms,[33] the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and nervous ailments,[14] as well the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic For other uses see Quarantine (disambiguation Quarantine is voluntary or compulsory isolation typically to contain the spread of something Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Evidence-based medicine (EBM aims to apply Evidence gained from the Scientific method to certain parts of medical practice In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices A randomized controlled trial (RCT is a type of scientific Experiment most commonly used in testing the Efficacy or Effectiveness of Healthcare Efficacy is the capacity to produce a desired size of an effect under Ideal or Optimal conditions Clinical pharmacology is the science of drugs and their Clinical use A risk factor is a variable associated with an increased risk of Disease or Infection. In Medicine and Psychology, the term syndrome refers to the association of several clinically recognizable features signs (observed by a physician Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable Mediastinitis is Inflammation of the tissues in the mid-chest or Mediastinum. Pleurisy, also known as pleuritis, is an Inflammation of the pleura the lining of the Pleural cavity surrounding the Lungs Pleurisy has a variety Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel The skin is the outer covering of living tissue of an animal (or plant A sexually transmitted disease ( STD) or venereal disease ( VD) is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between Humans Perversion is a concept describing those types of Human behavior that are perceived to be a serious deviation from what is considered to be orthodox or normal The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. Ice is a Solid phase, usually crystalline, of a Non-metalic substance that is liquid or gas at Room temperature, such as Ammonia Fever (also known as pyrexia, from the Greek pyretos meaning fire or a febrile response, from the Latin word Febris Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs The pharmaceutical sciences are a group of Interdisciplinary areas of study involved with the design action delivery disposition and use of Drugs This field draws [34]
Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's Kitab-al-Saidana was an extensive medical encyclopedia which synthesized Islamic medicine with Indian medicine. Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other His medical investigations included one of the earliest descriptions on Siamese twins. Conjoined twins are whose bodies are joined in utero A rare phenomenon the occurrence is estimated to range from 1 in 50000 births to 1 in 200000 births with a somewhat higher incidence [35]
Ibn al-Nafis (1213-1288) wrote Al-Shamil fi al-Tibb (The Comprehensive Book on Medicine), a voluminous medical encyclopedia that was originally planned to comprise 300 volumes, but he was only able to complete 80 volumes as a result of his death in 1288. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( However, even in its incomplete state, the book is one of the largest known medical encyclopedias in history, though only a small portion of The Comprehensive Book on Medicine has survived. During his lifetime, The Comprehensive Book on Medicine had eventually replaced Ibn Sina's The Canon of Medicine as a medical authority in the medieval Islamic world. Arabic biographers from the 13th onwards considered Ibn al-Nafis the greatest physician in history, some referring to him as "the second Ibn Sina", and others considering him even greater than Ibn Sina. [36]
The last major medical encyclopedia from the Islamic world was Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu's surgical atlas, Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye (Imperial Surgery). Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu (1385-1468 ( Ottoman Turkish:شرف الدّین صابونجی اوغلی was a medieval Ottoman Surgeon and Physician An atlas is a collection of Maps typically of Earth or a region of Earth but there are atlases of the other planets (and their satellites in the solar system Though his work was mostly based on Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi's Al-Tasrif, he also introduced many innovations of his own. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia
Legacy
George Sarton, the father of the history of science, wrote in the Introduction to the History of Science:[14]
"Through their medical investigations they not merely widened the horizons of medicine, but enlarged humanistic concepts generally. George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers [. . . ] Thus it can hardly have been accidental that those researches should have led them that were inevitably beyond the reach of Greek masters. If it is regarded as symbolic that the most spectacular achievement of the mid-twentieth century is atomic fission and the nuclear bomb, likewise it would not seem fortuitous that the early Muslim's medical endeavor should have led to a discovery that was quite as revolutionary though possibly more beneficent. "
"A philosophy of self-centredness, under whatever disguise, would be both incomprehensible and reprehensible to the Muslim mind. That mind was incapable of viewing man, whether in health or sickness as isolated from God, from fellow men, and from the world around him. It was probably inevitable that the Muslims should have discovered that disease need not be born within the patient himself but may reach from outside, in other words, that they should have been the first to establish clearly the existence of contagion. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic "
"One of the most famous exponents of Muslim universalism and an eminent figure in Islamic learning was Ibn Sina, known in the West as Avicenna (981-1037). Universalism can be classified as a Religion, Theology and Philosophy that generally holds all persons and creatures are related to God or the Divine and TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born For a thousand years he has retained his original renown as one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history. His most important medical works are the Qanun (Canon) and a treatise on Cardiac drugs. The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body The 'Qanun fi-l-Tibb' is an immense encyclopedia of medicine. The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian It contains some of the most illuminating thoughts pertaining to distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy; contagious nature of phthisis; distribution of diseases by water and soil; careful description of skin troubles; of sexual diseases and perversions; of nervous ailments. Mediastinitis is Inflammation of the tissues in the mid-chest or Mediastinum. Pleurisy, also known as pleuritis, is an Inflammation of the pleura the lining of the Pleural cavity surrounding the Lungs Pleurisy has a variety An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common A sexually transmitted disease ( STD) or venereal disease ( VD) is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between Humans Perversion is a concept describing those types of Human behavior that are perceived to be a serious deviation from what is considered to be orthodox or normal The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. "
"We have reason to believe that when, during the crusades, Europe at last began to establish hospitals, they were inspired by the Arabs of near East. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding . . . The first hospital in Paris, Les Quinze-vingt, was founded by Louis IX after his return from the crusade 1254-1260. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city "
Scientific method
Like in other fields of Islamic science, Muslim physicians and doctors developed the first scientific methods for the field of medicine. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena This included the introduction of mathematization, quantification, experimentation, experimental medicine,[25] evidence-based medicine, clinical trials,[37] dissection, animal testing,[34] human experimentation and postmortem autopsy by Muslim physicians, whilst hospitals in the Islamic world featured the first drug tests, drug purity regulations, and competency tests for doctors. Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Evidence-based medicine (EBM aims to apply Evidence gained from the Scientific method to certain parts of medical practice In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices Dissection (also called anatomization) is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function Animal testing or animal research is the use of non-human Animals in scientific experimentation. Human subject research (HSR or human subject use (HSU involves the use of human beings as research subjects An autopsy, also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy, or obduction, is a Medical procedure that consists of a thorough Examination For the episode of the American television series The Office, see " Drug Testing " A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body A test or an examination (or "exam" is an Assessment, often administered on paper or on the computer, intended to measure the test-takers' or [15]
Mathematization
In the 9th century, al-Kindi (Alkindus), in De Gradibus, demonstrated the application of mathematics and quantification to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c De Gradibus was an Arabic book published by the Arab physician Al-Kindi (c Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness, based on the phases of the Moon. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body [38]
Experimental method
In the 10th century, Razi (Rhazes) introduced controlled experiment and clinical observation into the field of medicine, and rejected several Galenic medical theories unverified by experimentation. Scientific controls allow Experiments to study one Variable at a time and are a vital part of the Scientific method. Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or [37] The earliest known medical experiment was carried out by Razi in order to find the most hygienic place to build a hospital. He hung pieces of meat in places throughout 10th century Baghdad and observed where the meat decomposed least quickly, and that was where he built the hospital. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous In his Comprehensive Book of Medicine, Razi recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly In his Doubts about Galen, Razi was also the first to prove both Galen's theory of humorism and Aristotle's theory of classical elements false using experimentation. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Many ancient philosophies used a set of archetypal classical "elements" to explain patterns in Nature. [39] He also introduced urinalysis and stool tests. A urinalysis (or "UA" is an array of tests performed on Urine and one of the most common methods of Medical Diagnosis. A stool test is one where fecal matter is collected for analysis to diagnose the presence or absence of a medical condition [40]
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) is considered the father of modern medicine,[23] for his introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology,[24] the introduction of experimental medicine,[25] clinical trials,[26] risk factor analysis, and the idea of a syndrome in the diagnosis of specific diseases,[32] in his medical encyclopedia, The Canon of Medicine (c. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices A risk factor is a variable associated with an increased risk of Disease or Infection. In Medicine and Psychology, the term syndrome refers to the association of several clinically recognizable features signs (observed by a physician Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian 1025), which was also the first book dealing with evidence-based medicine, randomized controlled trials,[27][28] and efficacy tests. Evidence-based medicine (EBM aims to apply Evidence gained from the Scientific method to certain parts of medical practice A randomized controlled trial (RCT is a type of scientific Experiment most commonly used in testing the Efficacy or Effectiveness of Healthcare Efficacy is the capacity to produce a desired size of an effect under Ideal or Optimal conditions [29][30]
According to Toby Huff and A. C. Crombie, the Canon contained "a set of rules that laid down the conditions for the experimental use and testing of drugs" which were "a precise guide for practical experimentation" in the process of "discovering and proving the effectiveness of medical substances. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease "[37] Avicenna's emphasis on tested medicines laid the foundations for an experimental approach to pharmacology. Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs [41] The Canon laid out the following rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new drugs and medications, which still form the basis of clinical pharmacology[31] and modern clinical trials:[26]
- "The drug must be free from any extraneous accidental quality. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Clinical pharmacology is the science of drugs and their Clinical use In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices "
- "It must be used on a simple, not a composite, disease. "
- "The drug must be tested with two contrary types of diseases, because sometimes a drug cures one disease by Its essential qualities and another by its accidental ones. "
- "The quality of the drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. For example, there are some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain diseases, so that they would have no effect on them. "
- "The time of action must be observed, so that essence and accident are not confused. "
- "The effect of the drug must be seen to occur constantly or in many cases, for if this did not happen, it was an accidental effect. "
- "The experimentation must be done with the human body, for testing a drug on a lion or a horse might not prove anything about its effect on man. "
The first physician known to have performed human dissections and postmortem autopsy in their medical experiments was Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar),[42] who introduced the experimental method into surgery,[43] for which he is considered the father of experimental surgery. Dissection (also called anatomization) is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function An autopsy, also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy, or obduction, is a Medical procedure that consists of a thorough Examination Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental [44] Other early supporters of human dissection and autopsy include Ibn Tufail,[45] Saladin's physician Ibn Jumay, Abd-el-latif,[46] and Ibn al-Nafis. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name Salahadin Ayyubi ( Arabic:صلاح الدين يوسف بن أيوب Kurdish: سهلاحهدین ئهیوبی Selah'edînê Eyubî; c Abd-al-latif, Abd-el-latif or Abd-ul-Latif (1162 &ndash 1231 also known as al-Baghdadi ( Arabic, عبداللطيف البغدادي TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( [47]
The experimental method was introduced into botany, materia medica and the agricultural sciences in the 13th century by the Andalusian-Arab botanist Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, the teacher of Ibn al-Baitar. Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Materia medica is a Latin medical term for the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance used for healing Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact natural economic and Social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or Abu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Baitar Dhiya al-Din al-Malaqi (ابن البيطار (d Al-Nabati introduced empirical techniques in the testing, description and identification of numerous materia medica, and he separated unverified reports from those supported by actual tests and observations. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence [37]
Peer review
The first documented description of a peer review process is found in the Ethics of the Physician written by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854–931) of al-Raha, Syria, who describes the first medical peer review process. Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting an author's scholarly work research or Ideas to the scrutiny of others who are Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Medical peer review is the process by which a committee of physicians examines the work of a peer and determines whether the physician under review has met accepted standards of care in His work, as well as later Arabic medical manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would review the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. See also Critic. A review is an evaluation of a publication such as a movie, Video game, Musical composition If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient. In law a lawsuit is a civil action brought before a Court in which the party commencing the action the Plaintiff, seeks a legal or equitable remedy [48]
Anatomy and Physiology
In anatomy and physiology, the first physician to refute Galen's theory of humorism was Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) in his Doubts about Galen in the 10th century. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers He criticized Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate "humors" (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. Razi was the first to prove this theory wrong using an experiment. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or He carried out an experiment which would upset this system by inserting a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Razi noted particularly that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature, thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. This line of criticism was the first comprehensive experimental refutation of Galen's theory of humours and Aristotle's theory of the four classical elements on which it was grounded. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Many ancient philosophies used a set of archetypal classical "elements" to explain patterns in Nature. Razi's own chemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulfurousness", or inflammability and salinity, which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth and air division of elements. An oil is a substance that is in a viscous Liquid state ( "oily") at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer and is Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Flammability is the ease with which a substance will ignite causing Fire or Combustion. Salinity is the Saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of Water. [39]
Experimental anatomy and physiology
The contributions of Avicenna to physiology include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology in The Canon of Medicine (c. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian 1020). [24] The contributions of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) to anatomy and physiology include his correct explanation of the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his Book of Optics, published in 1021. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni [34] Other innovations introduced by Muslim physicians to the field of physiology by this time include the use of animal testing. Animal testing or animal research is the use of non-human Animals in scientific experimentation. [34]
Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) (1091-1161) was the first physician known to have carried out human dissections and postmortem autopsy. Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr Dissection (also called anatomization) is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function An autopsy, also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy, or obduction, is a Medical procedure that consists of a thorough Examination He proved that the skin disease scabies was caused by a parasite, a discovery which upset the theory of humorism supported by Hippocrates and Galen. In Medicine, a dermatosis is a generic term for disease of the skin. Scabies is a transmissible ectoparasite Skin Infection characterized by superficial Burrows intense pruritus (itching and Secondary Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or The removal of the parasite from the patient's body did not involve purging, bleeding, or any other traditional treatments associated with the four humours. Bleeding, technically known as hemorrhaging / haemorrhaging (see American and British spelling differences) is the loss of Blood from [42]
In the 12th century, Saladin's physician Ibn Jumay was also one the first to undertake human dissections, and he made an explicit appeal for other physicians to do so as well. Salahadin Ayyubi ( Arabic:صلاح الدين يوسف بن أيوب Kurdish: سهلاحهدین ئهیوبی Selah'edînê Eyubî; c During a famine in Egypt in 1200, Abd-el-latif observed and examined a large number of skeletons, and he discovered that Galen was incorrect regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw and sacrum. A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Abd-al-latif, Abd-el-latif or Abd-ul-Latif (1162 &ndash 1231 also known as al-Baghdadi ( Arabic, عبداللطيف البغدادي To examine somebody or something is to inspect it closely hence an examination is a detailed inspection or analysis of an object or person In Biology, the skeleton is a strong and often a rigid framework that supports the body of an animal holding it upright and giving it shape and strength (Also skeletal Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce The jaw is either of the two opposable structures forming or near the entrance to the Mouth. The sacrum is a large triangular bone at the base of the spine and at the upper and back part of the Pelvic cavity, where it is inserted like a wedge between [46]
Circulatory anatomy and physiology
Ibn al-Nafis, the father of circulatory physiology,[49] was another early proponent of human dissection. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Cardiovascular physiology is the study of the Circulatory system. [47] In 1242, he was the first to describe the pulmonary circulation,[50] coronary circulation,[51] and capillary circulation,[52] which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered the one of the greatest physiologists in history. Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the Cardiovascular system which carries Oxygen -depleted Blood away from the heart to the Lungs, and Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the Blood vessels that supply Blood to and from the Heart muscle Capillaries are the smallest of a body's Blood vessels measuring 5-10 μm in diameter which connect Arterioles and Venules and enable the interchange This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical [53] The first European descriptions of the pulmonary circulation came several centuries later, by Michael Servetus in 1553 and William Harvey in 1628. Michael Servetus (also Miguel Servet or Miguel Serveto; 29 September, 1511 &ndash 27 October, 1553) was a Spanish William Harvey ( April 1, 1578 – June 3, 1657) was an English Physician who is credited with being the first in Ibn al-Nafis also described the earliest concept of metabolism,[54] and developed new Nafisian systems of anatomy, physiology and psychology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic doctrines, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on the four humours, pulsation,[55] bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, and the anatomy of almost every other part of the human body. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the In Anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the Stomach to the Anus and in humans and other mammals consists See also Sense A sensory system is a part of the Nervous system responsible for processing sensory information Bile or gall is a bitter yellow or green Alkaline fluid secreted by Hepatocytes from the Liver of most Vertebrates In many species In Anatomy, a canal (or canalis in Latin) is a tubular passage or channel which connect different regions of the body The esophagus or oesophagus (see American and British English spelling differences) sometimes known as the gullet, is an organ in In Human anatomy, the stomach is a J-shaped hollow muscular organ of the Gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of Digestion, following Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration The human body is the entire physical and mental structure of a Human Organism. [47]
The Arab physician Ibn al-Lubudi (1210-1267), also from Damascus, wrote the Collection of discussions relative to fifty psychological and medical questions, in which he rejects the theory of four humours supported by Galen and Hippocrates, discovers that the body and its preservation depend exclusively upon blood, rejects Galen's idea that women can produce sperm, and discovers that the movement of arteries are not dependant upon the movement of the heart, that the heart is the first organ to form in a fetus' body (rather than the brain as claimed by Hippocrates), and that the bones forming the skull can grow into tumors. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products The term sperm is derived from the Greek word (σπέρμα sperma (meaning "seed" and refers to the male reproductive cells. Arteries are Blood vessels that carry blood away from the Heart. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic A fetus (or foetus or fœtus) is a developing Mammal or other Viviparous Vertebrate, after the Embryonic stage and The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce See also Cancer A tumor or tumour is the name for a swelling or lesion formed by an abnormal growth of cells (termed neoplastic He also advises that in cases of extreme fever, a patient should not be released from hospital. Fever (also known as pyrexia, from the Greek pyretos meaning fire or a febrile response, from the Latin word Febris [56]
In the 15th century, the Tashrih al-badan (Anatomy of the body) written by Mansur ibn Ilyas contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems. Manṣūr ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf Ibn Ilyās (ar منصور ابن محمد ابن احمد ابن يوسف ابن الياس was a late 14th century physician from The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" [57]
Pulsology and sphygmology
Muslim physicians were pioneers in pulsology and sphygmology. In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. In ancient times, Galen as well as Chinese physicians erroneously believed that there was a unique type of pulse for every organ of the body and for every disease. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly [58] Galen also erroneously believed that "every part of an artery pulsates simultaneously" and that the motion of the pulse was due to natural motions (the arteries expanding and contracting naturally) as opposed to foced motions (the heart causing the arteries to either expand or contract). [59] The first correct explanations of pulsation were given by Muslim physicians.
Avicenna was a pioneer of sphygmology after he refined Galen's theory of the pulse and discovered the following in The Canon of Medicine:[58]
"Every beat of the pulse comprises two movements and two pauses. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian Thus, expansion : pause : contraction : pause. [. . . ] The pulse is a movement in the heart and arteries . . . which takes the form of alternate expansion and contraction. "
Avicenna also pioneered the modern approach of examining the pulse through the examination of the wrist, which is still practiced in modern times. In Human anatomy, the wrist is the flexible and narrower connection between the Forearm and the palm. His reasons for choosing the wrist as the ideal location is due to it being easily available and the patient not needing to be distressed at the exposure of his/her body. The Latin translation of his Canon also laid the foundations for the later invention of the sphygmograph. The sphygmograph was a mechanical device used to measure Blood pressure in the mid-19th century [60]
Ibn al-Nafis, in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon, completely rejected the Galenic theory of pulsation after his discovery of the pulmonary circulation. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the Cardiovascular system which carries Oxygen -depleted Blood away from the heart to the Lungs, and He developed his own Nafisian theory of pulsation after discovering that pulsation is a result of both natural and forced motions, and that the "forced motion must be the contraction of the arteries caused by the expansion of the heart, and the natural motion must be the expansion of the arteries. Arteries are Blood vessels that carry blood away from the Heart. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic " He notes that the "arteries and the heart do not expand and contract at the same time, but rather the one contracts while the other expands" and vice versa. He also recognized that the purpose of the pulse is to help disperse the blood from the heart to the rest of the body. Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products Ibn al-Nafis briefly summarizes his new theory of pulsation:[61]
"The primary purpose of the expansion and contraction of the heart is to absorb the cool air and expel the wastes of the spirit and the warm air; however, the ventricle of the heart is wide. Moreover, when it expands it is not possible for it to absorb air until it is full, for that would then ruin the temperament of the spirit, its substance and texture, as well as the temperament of the heart. Thus, the heart is necessarily forced to complete its fill by absorbing the spirit. "
Epidemiology, Etiology, Pathology
In etiology and epidemiology, Muslim physicians were responsible for the discovery of infectious disease and the immune system, advances in pathology, and early hypotheses related to bacteriology and microbiology. Etiology (alternatively aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the Health and Illness of populations and serves as the foundation and Logic of interventions made in the An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor Pathology (from Greek grc πάθος pathos, "fate harm" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study and Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία [34] Their discovery of contagious disease in particular is considered revolutionary and is one of the most important discoveries in medicine. An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic [14] The earliest ideas on contagion can be traced back to several hadiths attributed to Muhammad in the 7th century, who is said to have understood the contagious nature of leprosy, mange, and sexually transmitted disease. An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Leprosy (from the Greek lepi (λέπι meaning scales on a fish or Hansen's disease, is a chronic disease caused by the bacterium Mange (from Middle English manjeue, from Old French manjue, from mangier, meaning to eat is a parasitic infestation of A sexually transmitted disease ( STD) or venereal disease ( VD) is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between Humans [3] These early ideas on contagion arose from the generally sympathetic attitude of Muslim physicians towards lepers (who were often seen in a negative light in other ancient and medieval societies) which can be traced back through hadiths attributed to Muhammad and to the following advice given in the Qur'an:[62]
"There is no fault in the blind, and there is no fault in the lame, and there is no fault in the sick. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran "
This eventually led to the theory of contagious disease, which was fully understood by Avicenna in the 11th century. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born By then, the pathology of contagion had been fully understood, and as a result, hospitals were created with separate wards for specific illnesses, so that people with contagious diseases could be kept away from other patients who do not have any contagious diseases. Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. [63] In The Canon of Medicine (1020), Avicenna discovered the contagious nature of infectious diseases such as phthisis and tuberculosis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and fully understood the contagious nature of sexually transmitted diseases. The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel A sexually transmitted disease ( STD) or venereal disease ( VD) is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between Humans [14] In epidemiology, he introduced the method of quarantine as a means of limiting the spread of contagious diseases,[26] and introduced the method of risk factor analysis and the idea of a syndrome in the diagnosis of specific diseases. For other uses see Quarantine (disambiguation Quarantine is voluntary or compulsory isolation typically to contain the spread of something A risk factor is a variable associated with an increased risk of Disease or Infection. In Medicine and Psychology, the term syndrome refers to the association of several clinically recognizable features signs (observed by a physician Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything [32]
In order to find the most hygienic place to build a hospital, Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) carried out an experiment where he hung pieces of meat in places throughout 10th century Baghdad and observed where the meat decomposed least quickly. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Razi also wrote the Comprehensive Book of Medicine in the 9th century. The Large Comprehensive was the most sought after of all his compositions, in which Razi recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases, as well as the discovery of measles and smallpox. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. The Large Comprehensive also criticized the views of Galen, after Razi had observed many clinical cases which did not follow Galen's descriptions of fevers. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Fever (also known as pyrexia, from the Greek pyretos meaning fire or a febrile response, from the Latin word Febris For example, he stated that Galen's descriptions of urinary ailments were inaccurate as he had only seen three cases, while Razi had studied hundreds of such cases in hospitals of Baghdad and Rayy. The urinary system (also called Excretory system or the genitourinary system (GUS is the Organ system that produces stores and eliminates Urine. Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous See Rayshahr for the Sassanid center of learning in Fars province [64] The Comprehensive Book of Medicine, especially with its introduction of measles and smallpox, was very influential in Europe.
Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) was the first physician to provide a real scientific etiology for the inflammatory diseases of the ear, and the first to clearly discuss the causes of stridor. Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr Etiology (alternatively aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. Inflammation ( Latin, inflamatio, to set on fire is the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli such as Pathogens The ear is the sense organ that detects Sounds The Vertebrate ear shows a common biology from Fish to Humans with variations Stridor is a high pitched sound resulting from turbulent air flow in the upper airway [65] Through his dissections, he was also able to prove that the skin disease scabies was caused by a parasite, a discovery which upset the theory of humorism supported by Hippocrates, Galen and Avicenna. Dissection (also called anatomization) is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function In Medicine, a dermatosis is a generic term for disease of the skin. Scabies is a transmissible ectoparasite Skin Infection characterized by superficial Burrows intense pruritus (itching and Secondary Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or [42] He also gave the first accurate descriptions on neurological diseases, including meningitis, intracranial thrombophlebitis, and mediastinal germ cell tumors. Meningitis is Inflammation of the protective membranes covering the Brain and Spinal cord, known collectively as the Meninges. Thrombophlebitis is Phlebitis (vein Inflammation) related to a blood clot or Thrombus. Malignant mediastinal germ cell tumors of various histologies were first described as a clinical entity approximately 50 years ago Averroes suggested the existence of Parkinson's disease and attributed photoreceptor properties to the retina. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Parkinson's disease (also known as Parkinson disease or PD) is a degenerative disorder of the Central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer's Photoreceptor can refer to In anatomy/cell biology Photoreceptor cell: a photosensitive cell most commonly referring to a specialized type of neuron The vertebrate retina is a light sensitive part inside the inner layer of the Eye. Maimonides wrote about neuropsychiatric disorders and described rabies and belladonna intoxication. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Neuropsychiatry is the branch of Medicine dealing with Mental disorders attributable to diseases of the Nervous system. Rabies (from rabies “madness rage fury” Also known as “ hydrophobia ” is a viral Zoonotic neuroinvasive disease that Atropa belladonna or Atropa bella-donna, commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a perennial Herbaceous [22]
Allergology and immunology
The study of allergology and immunology originate from the Islamic world. Allergy is a disorder of the Immune system often also referred to as Atopy. Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical Science that covers the study of all aspects of the Immune system in all Organisms It deals with [34] Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) was responsible for discovering "allergic asthma", and was the first physician known to have written articles on allergy and the immune system. Asthma is a chronic Condition involving the Respiratory system in which the airways occasionally constrict become inflamed, and are Allergy is a disorder of the Immune system often also referred to as Atopy. An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor In the Sense of Smelling, he explains the occurrence of rhinitis after smelling a rose during the Spring. Rhinitis is the medical term describing irritation and inflammation of some internal areas of the Nose. In the Article on the Reason Why Abou Zayd Balkhi Suffers from Rhinitis When Smelling Roses in Spring, he dicusses seasonal rhinitis, which is the same as allergic asthma or hay fever. Hay Fever is a comic play written by Noel Coward in 1924 and first produced in 1925 with Marie Tempest as the first Judith Bliss Al-Razi was the first to realize that fever is a natural defense mechanism, the body's way of fighting disease. Fever (also known as pyrexia, from the Greek pyretos meaning fire or a febrile response, from the Latin word Febris
The distinction between smallpox and measles also dates back to al-Razi. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. The medical procedure of inoculation was practiced in the medieval Islamic world in order to treat smallpox. Inoculation is the placement of something to where it will grow or reproduce and is most commonly used in respect of the introduction of a serum Vaccine, or antigenic substance This was later followed by the first smallpox vaccine in the form of cowpox, invented in Turkey in the early 18th century. The smallpox vaccine was the first successful vaccine ever to be developed Cowpox is a Disease of the skin that is caused by a Virus known as the Cowpox virus. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches [66]
Microorganisms
Muslim physicians speculated on the existence of bacteria and microorganisms, though these early theories were not proven or observed until the 17th century, when investigations into microbiology were only made possible with the invention of the microscope. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία A microscope ( Greek: ( micron) = small + ( skopein) = to look or see is an instrument for viewing objects that are These early ideas did, however, influence Girolamo Fracastoro. Girolamo Fracastoro ( Fracastorius) (1478‑ August 8, 1553) was an Italian Physician, Scholar (in Mathematics
Avicenna hypothesized that bodily secretion is contaminated by foul foreign earthly bodies before being infected. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Secretion is the process of segregating elaborating and releasing chemicals from a cell, or a secreted Chemical substance or amount of substance [12][33]
When the Black Death bubonic plague reached al-Andalus in the 14th century, Ibn Khatima hypothesized that infectious diseases are caused by small "minute bodies" which enter the human body and cause disease. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia Bubonic plague is the best-known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Another 14th century Andalusian physician, Ibn al-Khatib (1313-1374), wrote a treatise called On the Plague, in which he stated:[12]
"The existence of contagion is established by experience, investigation, the evidence of the senses and trustworthy reports. These facts constitute a sound argument. The fact of infection becomes clear to the investigator who notices how he who establishes contact with the aftlicted gets the disease, whereas he who is not in contact remains safe, and how transmission is affected through garments, vessels and earrings. "
Hematology
In hematology, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) wrote the first description on haemophilia in his Al-Tasrif, in which he wrote of an Andalusian family whose males died of bleeding after minor injuries. Hematology ( American English) or haematology ( British English) is the branch of biology (physiology Pathology, Clinical laboratory TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Haemophilia (also spelled as hemophilia The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia [67]
Dentistry
Dental surgery
Muslim dentists were pioneers in dentistry, particularly dental surgery and dental restoration. Dentistry' is the "evaluation diagnosis prevention and/or treatment (nonsurgical surgical or related procedures of diseases disorders and/or conditions of the oral cavity Dental surgery is any of a number of Medical procedures which involve artificially modifying the Dentition. A dental restoration or dental filling is a Dental restorative material used artificially to restore the function integrity and morphology of missing tooth The earliest medical text to deal with dental surgery in detail was the Al-Tasrif by Abulcasis. The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف He gave detailed methods for the successful replantation of dislodged teeth. [68]
Dental restoration
Another 10th century Arab dentist, Abu Gaafar Amed ibn Ibrahim ibn abi Halid al-Gazzar, from North Africa, described methods of dental restoration in his Kitab Zad al-Musafir wa qut al-Hadir (Provision for the traveler and nutrition for the sedentary), which was later translated into Latin as Viaticum by Constantine the African in Salerno. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Constantine the African ( Latin Constantinus Africanus c 1020 Carthage or Sicily&ndash1087 monastery of Monte Cassino, near Cassino Principality Salerno is a town in southern Italy, capital of the province of the same name in the region of Campania. He provided the earliest treatment for dental caries:[69]
"With caries purging must take place first, and then the teeth can be filled with gallnut, dyer’s, buckthorn, terbinth resine, cedar resine, myrrh, pellitory and honey, or fumigated with colocynthis root. Dental caries is a disease that damages Tooth structures resulting in what is commonly called tooth decay or cavities which are holes in the teeth Galls or plant galls are abnormal outgrowths of Plant tissues and can be caused by various Parasites from Fungi and bacteria, to Insects A dye can generally be described as a Colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied For the genus Hippophae, see Sea-buckthorn. The Buckthorns ( Rhamnus) are a genus (or two genera if Frangula Resin, not to be confused with Rosin, is a Hydrocarbon Secretion of many Plants particularly coniferous trees. Cedar ( Cedrus) is a genus of Coniferous Trees in the Plant family Pinaceae. Myrrh is a reddish-brown Resinous material the dried sap of the tree Commiphora myrrha, native to Yemen, Somalia Anacyclus pyrethrum ( pellitory, Spanish chamomile, or Mount Atlas daisy) is perennial Herb much alike Chamomile Honey is a sweet and Viscous fluid produced by Honey bees (and some other species and derived from the nectar of Flowers According to the Fumigation is a method of Pest control that completely fills an area with gaseous Pesticides to suffocate or poison the pests within "Bitter-apple" and spelling variants redirect here This is also used for the poisonous Soda Apple, a species of Nightshade. "
Al-Gazzar also recommended arsenic compound in his prescription for holes in the teeth, as well as against dental caries, loosening, and relaxing of the nerves as a result of too many fluids. Arsenic (ˈɑrsənɪk is a Chemical element that has the symbol As and Atomic number of 33 FLUID ( F ast L ight '''U'''ser '''I'''nterface D esigner is a graphical editor that is used to produce FLTK Source code [70]
Avicenna dedicated many chapters of The Canon of Medicine to dentistry, particularly dental restoration. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian Influenced by al-Gazzar, he provided his own treatment for dental caries, stating that carious teeth should be filled with cypress, grass, mastix, myrrh, or styrax, among others, with gallnut, yellow sulfur, pepper, camphor, and with drugs for pain relief, like arsenic or wolf’s milk. Cypress is the name applied to many Plants in the conifer family Cupressaceae (cypress family Grass is the common word that generally describes Monocotyledonous green Plants The family Gramineae ( Poaceae) are the "true grasses" and include Mastic ( Greek:μαστίχα( Pistacia lentiscus) is an Evergreen Shrub or small Tree of the Pistacio family growing Styrax is also the companion of the She-Ra Princess of Power villain Shadow Weaver and the race horse that won the 1895 Grand Steeple-Chase de Paris Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 } Camphor is a waxy white or transparent solid with a strong aromatic odor A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body Pain management (also called pain medicine is the medical discipline concerned with the relief of Pain. The grey wolf or gray wolf ( Canis lupus) also known as the timber wolf or simply wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora Milk is an opaque white liquid produced by the Mammary glands of female Mammals (including Monotremes. He further stated that arsenic boiled in oil should be dripped into the carious defect. An oil is a substance that is in a viscous Liquid state ( "oily") at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer and is [70]
Both Avicenna and al-Gazzar, however, believed that dental caries were caused by "tooth worms" like what the ancients believed. This was proven false in 1200 by another Muslim physician named Gaubari in his Book of the Elite concerning the unmasking of mysteries and tearing of veils which dedicated a chapter to dentistry. He was the first to reject the idea of caries being caused by tooth worms, and he stated that tooth worms in fact do not even exist. The theory of the tooth worm was thus no longer accepted in the Islamic medical community from the 13th century onwards. [70]
Obstetrics
Perinatology
Muslim physicians made many advances in obstetrics, especially perinatology. Obstetrics (from the Latin obstare, "to stand by" is the surgical speciality dealing with the care of a woman and her offspring during Pregnancy Maternal-fetal medicine (MFM is the branch of Obstetrics that focuses on the Medical and Surgical management of high-risk pregnancies In ancient times, Greek and Hellenistic writers such as Hippocrates, Galen, Ptolemy and Paul of Aegina erroneously believed that uterine contractions were only an indication of the onset of childbirth and that the fetus would subsequently swim its way out of the womb and birth canal. Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Paul of Aegina or Paulus Aegineta ( Aegina, 625?–690? was a 7th-century Byzantine Greek Physician best known for writing the medical In Medicine ( Obstetrics) a contraction is a forceful and painful motion of the Uterus as part of the process of Childbirth. Childbirth (also called labour, birth, partus or parturition) is the culmination of a Human Pregnancy or A fetus (or foetus or fœtus) is a developing Mammal or other Viviparous Vertebrate, after the Embryonic stage and The uterus (from the Latin word for womb) is the major Female reproductive organ of most Mammals including Humans One end the The vagina (from Latin, literally " Sheath " or " Scabbard " is a fibromuscular tubular tract leading from the Uterus In the 10th century, Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi proved this theory false as he discovered that uterine contractions are in fact the cause of delivery of the fetus. Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (died 982-994 also known as Masoudi or Latinized as Haly Abbas, was a Persian Physician and Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi offered advice to midwives on childbirth and complex obstetrics in his Al-Tasrif (1000) and made a number of advances in the field. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Midwifery is a Health care profession where providers give Prenatal care to expecting Mothers attend the birth of the Infant The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia He pioneered the method of fetal craniotomy for the delivery of obstructed labour, and he introduced the required surgical instruments for this operation. A craniotomy is a surgical operation in which part of the Skull, called a bone flap, is removed in order to access the brain Caesarean sections were described in detail by Ferdowsi in his Shahnameh (1010) and by al-Biruni in his Al-Athar al-Baliyah. A Caesarean section (or Cesarean section in American English) also known as C-section, is a form of Childbirth in which a surgical Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc [71]
Embryology
- Further information: The relation between Islam and science: Embryology
Embryology was discussed to some extent in early Islamic literature, including the Qur'an and the Hadith literature (see The relation between Islam and science for more details). The relationship between Science and Islam is a matter of controversy Embryology (from Greek grc ἔμβρυον embryon, "unborn embryo" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the development Islamic literature refers to literature written with an Islamic perspective in any language The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic The relationship between Science and Islam is a matter of controversy
Ibn al-Nafis criticized previous Aristotelian, Galenic and Avicennian explanations of embryology and proceeds to develop his own theories on embryology and generation. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Aristotelianism is a tradition of Philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. Embryology (from Greek grc ἔμβρυον embryon, "unborn embryo" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the development Generation (from the Greek γενεά) also known as procreation, is the act of producing Offspring. He believed that when a male and female semen mix, and when they create a mixed matter that has an appropriate temperament to receive an animal or human soul, God issues a soul to this matter, which then develops into an embryo that grows and generates organs. Physiological aspects Internal and external fertilization Depending on the Species, spermatozoa can fertilize Matter is commonly defined as being anything that has mass and that takes up space. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. An embryo (from Greek:, plural, lit "that which grows" from en- "in" + bryein "to swell be full" is a multicellular In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument [72] He further writes:
"Galen believes that each of the two semen has in it the active faculty to fashion and the passive faculty to be fashioned, however the active faculty is stronger in the male semen while the passive in the female semen. The investigators amongst the falasifa believe that the male semen only has the active faculty, while the female only has the passive faculty. . . . As for our opinion on this, and God knows best, neither of the two semen has in it an active faculty to fashion. "[73]
He then shows that once the male semen and female semen are brought together in the womb, the female semen quenches the hot fire of the male semen through its own cool and wet nature. [74]
The Arab physician Ibn al-Quff (1233-1305), a student of Ibn al-Nafis, described embryology and perinatology more accurately in his Al-Jami:
"The formation of a foam stage in the first 6 to 7 days, which in 13 to 16 days, is gradually transformed into a clot and in 28 to 30 days into a small chunk of meat. In 38 to 40 days, the head appears separate from the shoulders and limbs. The brain and heart followed by the liver are formed before other organs. The fetus takes its food from the mother in order to grow and to replenish what it discards or loses . . . There are three membranes covering and protecting the fetus, of which the first connects arteries and veins with those in the mothers womb through the umbilical cord. The veins pass food for the nourishment of the fetus, while the arteries transmit air. By the end of seven months, all organs are complete . . . After delivery, the baby's umbilical cord is cut at a distance of four fingers breadth from the body, and is tied with fine, soft woolen twine. The area of the cut is covered with a filament moistened in olive oil over which a styptic to prevent bleeding is sprinkled . . . After delivery, the baby is nursed by his mother whose milk is the best. Then the midwife puts the baby to sleep in a darkened quiet room. . . Nursing the baby is performed two to three times daily. Before nursing, the mother's breast should be squeezed out two or three times to get rid of the milk near the nipple. "[71]
Pharmaceutical sciences
Al-Kindi was a renowned 9th century Arab doctor who wrote many books on the subject of medicine. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding His most important work in the field was De Gradibus, in which he demonstrated the application of mathematics to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. De Gradibus was an Arabic book published by the Arab physician Al-Kindi (c Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness, based on the phases of the Moon. [38]
In his Comprehensive Book of Medicine, Razi (Rhazes) recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly The Comprehensive Book of Medicine, with its introduction of measles and smallpox, was very influential in Europe. Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Razi also carried out an experiment in order to find the most hygienic place to build a hospital. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or He hung pieces of meat in places throughout 10th century Baghdad and observed where the meat decomposed least quickly, and that was where he built his hospital. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous
In the 10th century, Abu al-Mansur al-Muwaffak mentions for the first time some chemical facts to distinguish certain medicines. Abu Mansur Muvaffak Harawi (ابو منصور موفق هروی was a 10th century Persian Physician. [75]
Clinical pharmacology
Avicenna's contribution to pharmacology and the pharmaceutical sciences in The Canon of Medicine (1020s) include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into pharmacology and the study of physiology,[24] the introduction of clinical pharmacology,[31] experimental medicine,[25] evidence-based medicine, clinical trials,[26] randomized controlled trials,[27][28] efficacy tests,[29][30] the experimental use and testing of drugs, a precise guide for practical experimentation in the process of discovering and proving the effectiveness of medical substances,[37] and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and nervous ailments,[14] as well the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs The pharmaceutical sciences are a group of Interdisciplinary areas of study involved with the design action delivery disposition and use of Drugs This field draws The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring Clinical pharmacology is the science of drugs and their Clinical use Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Evidence-based medicine (EBM aims to apply Evidence gained from the Scientific method to certain parts of medical practice In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices A randomized controlled trial (RCT is a type of scientific Experiment most commonly used in testing the Efficacy or Effectiveness of Healthcare Efficacy is the capacity to produce a desired size of an effect under Ideal or Optimal conditions For the episode of the American television series The Office, see " Drug Testing " A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. The skin is the outer covering of living tissue of an animal (or plant A sexually transmitted disease ( STD) or venereal disease ( VD) is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between Humans Perversion is a concept describing those types of Human behavior that are perceived to be a serious deviation from what is considered to be orthodox or normal The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. Ice is a Solid phase, usually crystalline, of a Non-metalic substance that is liquid or gas at Room temperature, such as Ammonia Fever (also known as pyrexia, from the Greek pyretos meaning fire or a febrile response, from the Latin word Febris Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs [34] The Canon laid out the following rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new drugs and medications, which still form the basis of clinical pharmacology[31] and modern clinical trials:[26]
- "The drug must be free from any extraneous accidental quality. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease "
- "It must be used on a simple, not a composite, disease. "
- "The drug must be tested with two contrary types of diseases, because sometimes a drug cures one disease by Its essential qualities and another by its accidental ones. "
- "The quality of the drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. For example, there are some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain diseases, so that they would have no effect on them. "
- "The time of action must be observed, so that essence and accident are not confused. "
- "The effect of the drug must be seen to occur constantly or in many cases, for if this did not happen, it was an accidental effect. "
- "The experimentation must be done with the human body, for testing a drug on a lion or a horse might not prove anything about its effect on man. "
Pharmacy
In the field of pharmacy, the first drugstores were opened by Muslim pharmacists in Baghdad in 754,[76] while the first apothecary shops were also founded by Muslim practitioners. Pharmacy (from the Greek φάρμακον 'pharmakon' = drug is the Health profession that links the Health sciences with the chemical sciences Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous [77]
The advances made in the Middle East by Muslim chemists in botany and chemistry led Muslim physicians to substantially develop pharmacology. Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) (865-915), for instance, acted to promote the medical uses of chemical compounds. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936-1013) pioneered the preparation of medicines by sublimation and distillation. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture His Liber servitoris is of particular interest, as it provides the reader with recipes and explains how to prepare the `simples’ from which were compounded the complex drugs then generally used. Shapur ibn Sahl (d 869), was, however, the first physician to initiate pharmacopoeia, describing a large variety of drugs and remedies for ailments. Shapur ibn Sahl (also written Sabur ibn Sahl) was a ninth century Persian Christian physician from the Academy of Gundishapur. Pharmacopoeia (literally the art of the drug compounder in its modern technical sense is a book containing directions for the identification of samples and the preparation of compound Al-Biruni (973-1050) wrote one of the most valuable Islamic works on pharmacology entitled Kitab al-Saydalah (The Book of Drugs), where he gave detailed knowledge of the properties of drugs and outlined the role of pharmacy and the functions and duties of the pharmacist. Ibn Sina (Avicenna), too, described no less than 700 preparations, their properties, mode of action and their indications. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born He devoted in fact a whole volume to simple drugs in The Canon of Medicine. The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian Of great impact were also the works by al-Maridini of Baghdad and Cairo, and Ibn al-Wafid (1008-1074), both of which were printed in Latin more than fifty times, appearing as De Medicinis universalibus et particularibus by `Mesue' the younger, and the Medicamentis simplicibus by `Abenguefit'. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Yuhanna ibn Masawaih, also written Ibn Masawaih, Masawaiyh, and in latin Mesue, Masuya, Mesue Major, Msuya, and Mesue Peter of Abano (1250-1316) translated and added a supplement to the work of al-Maridini under the title De Veneris. Pietro d'Abano also known as Petrus De Apono or Aponensis (c 1250 &ndash c Al-Muwaffaq’s contributions in the field are also pioneering. Living in the 10th century, he wrote The foundations of the true properties of Remedies, amongst others describing arsenious oxide, and being acquainted with silicic acid. Arsenic trioxide is the most important commercial compound of Arsenic, and the main starting material for arsenic chemistry Silicic acid is a general name for a family of chemical compounds of the element Silicon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, with the general formula n He made clear distinction between sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate, and drew attention to the poisonous nature of copper compounds, especially copper vitriol, and also lead compounds. Sodium carbonate (also known as washing soda or soda ash), is a Sodium Salt of Carbonic acid. Carbonate of potash redirects here For one of potassium carbonate's impure forms see Potash. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly For the story, he also mentions the distillation of sea-water for drinking. Purified water is water from any source that is physically processed to remove impurities [78]
Analgesics, antiemetics, antipyretics, diuretics
In the medieval Islamic world, Arabic physicians discovered the diuretic, antiemetic, antiepileptic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic (pain killing) and antipyretic properties of medical cannabis, specifically cannabis sativa, and used it extensively as medication from the 8th to 18th centuries. A diuretic is any Drug that elevates the rate of urination ( Diuresis) An anti-emetic is a drug that is effective against Vomiting and Nausea. The anticonvulsants, also called antiepileptic drugs (abbreviated "AEDs" are a diverse group of pharmaceuticals used in the treatment of epileptic Anti-inflammatory refers to the property of a substance or treatment that reduces Inflammation. Antipyretics are Drugs that reduce body temperature in situations such as Fever. Medical cannabis refers to the use of the Cannabis plant as a physician-recommended Herbal therapy as well as synthetic THC and Cannabinoids Cannabis sativa is an annual plant in the Cannabaceae family It is a Herb that has been used throughout recorded history by humans for various purposes Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease [79]
Antiseptics
Razi (10th century) used mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics. Mercury (ˈmɜrkjʊri also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a Chemical element with the symbol Hg ( Latinized hydrargyrum Antiseptics (from Greek αντί - anti, '"against" + σηπτικός - septikos, "putrefactive" are antimicrobial From the 10th century, Muslim physicians and surgeons were applying purified alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Surgeons in Islamic Spain utilized special methods for maintaining antisepsis prior to and during surgery. They also originated specific protocols for maintaining hygiene during the post-operative period. Hygiene refers to practices associated with ensuring good health and cleanliness Their success rate was so high that dignitaries throughout Europe came to Córdoba, Spain, to be treated at what was comparably the "Mayo Clinic" of the Middle Ages. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Mayo Clinic is a Non-profit medical practice Its headquarters the Mayo Medical School and its research facilities are in Rochester Minnesota in [80]
Medical and therapeutic drugs
Razi, Avicenna, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, Abu al-Qasim, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn al-Baitar, Ibn Al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn an-Nafs, al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl and hundreds of other Muslim physicians developed drug therapy and medicinal drugs for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr Abu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Baitar Dhiya al-Din al-Malaqi (ابن البيطار (d Abu Ja'far Ahmad bin Abi Khalid Ibn al-Jazzar Al-Qayrawani (circa 898-980 ( أبو جعفر أحمد بن أبي خالد بن الجزار القيرواني) was a 10th century This article is about the physicist For the physician see Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari. Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body The word "drug" is derived from Arabic. Their use of practical experience and careful observation was extensive. [80]
Chemotherapeutical drugs were first developed in the Muslim world. Chemotherapy, in its most general sense refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells specifically those of micro-organisms or Cancer. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body Muslim physicians used a variety of specific substances to destroy microbes. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually They applied sulfur topically specifically to kill the scabies mite. Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Scabies is a transmissible ectoparasite Skin Infection characterized by superficial Burrows intense pruritus (itching and Secondary Mites, along with Ticks belong to the subclass Acarina (also known as Acari and the class Arachnida Mites are among the most diverse and successful [80]
Medicinal alcohol
Numerous Muslim chemists produced medicinal-grade alcohol through distillation as early as the 10th century and manufactured on a large scale the first distillation devices for use in chemistry. A chemist is a Scientist trained in the Science of Chemistry. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties They used alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic. A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid liquid or gaseous Solute, resulting in a Solution. [80]
Surgery
Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), regarded as the father of modern surgery,[22] contributed greatly to the discipline of medical surgery with his Kitab al-Tasrif (Book of Concessions or The Method of Medicine), a 30-volume medical encyclopedia published in 1000, which was later translated to Latin and used in European medical schools for centuries. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine His influential al-Tasrif introduced his famous collection of over 200 surgical instruments. A surgical instrument is a specially designed tool or device for performing specific actions of carrying out desired effects during a Surgery or operation such as modifying Many of these instruments were never used before by any previous surgeons. Hamidan, for example, listed at least twenty six innovative surgical instruments that were not known before Abulcasis. The surgical instruments he invented include the first instruments unique to women,[34] as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, specula,[81] bone saw,[66] and plaster. Catgut is the name applied to cord of great toughness and tenacity prepared from the Intestines of the Sheep or Goat, or occasionally from those of the Forceps are a handheld hinged instrument used for grasping and holding objects In medicine a ligature is a device similar to a Tourniquet, usually of thread or string tied around a limb blood vessel or similar to restrict blood flow A scalpel is a small but extremely sharp knife used for Surgery, anatomical Dissection, and various Arts and crafts. A curette is a Spoon -shaped surgical instrument for cleaning a diseased surface A spoon is a Utensil consisting of a small shallow bowl at the end of a handle used primarily for serving and eating Liquid, or semi-liquid foods and solid foods In Medicine, sounds are instruments for probing and dilating passages within the body the best-known examples of which are urethral sounds and uterine speculum is a medical tool for investigating body cavities with a form dependent on the body cavity for which it is designed A saw is a Tool that uses a hard blade or wire with an abrasive edge to cut through softer materials The term plaster can refer to plaster of Paris Lime plaster, or Cement plaster. [82] His work also included anatomical descriptions and sections on orthopaedic surgery and ophthalmology. Orthopedic surgery or orthopedics (also spelled orthopaedics) is the branch of Surgery concerned with injuries to or conditions involving the Ophthalmology is the branch of Medicine which deals with the diseases and surgery of the visual pathways including the Eye, Brain [83] The influence of the Al-Tasrif eventually led to the decline of the barber surgeons who were prevalent before his time, and they were instead replaced by physician-surgeons in the Islamic world. The Barber surgeon was one of the most common Medical practitioners of medieval Europe - generally charged with looking after Soldiers during
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, as he studied and correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his Book of Optics, published in 1021. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Eye surgery, also known as orogolomistician surgery or ocular surgery, is Surgery performed on the Eye or its Adnexa, typically by In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni [34] Avicenna was the first to describe the surgical procedure of intubation in order to to facilitate breathing, and he also described the "soporific sponge", an anasthetic imbued with aromatics and narcotics, which was to be placed under a patient's nose during surgical operations. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born In Medicine, intubation refers to the placement of a tube into an external or internal orifice of the body Breathing takes Oxygen in and Carbon dioxide out of the body Aerobic Organisms require oxygen to create energy via respiration, in Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις The term narcotic (ναρκωτικός is believed to have been coined by the Greek physician Galen to refer to agents that benumb or deaden causing loss He also described the first known surgical treatment for cancer, stating that the excision should be radical and that all diseased tissue should be removed, including the use of amputation or the removal of veins running in the direction of the tumor. Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism Amputation is the removal of a body extremity by trauma or Surgery. In the Circulatory system, a vein is a Blood vessel that carries Blood back toward the Heart (as opposed to Artery, a blood vessel See also Cancer A tumor or tumour is the name for a swelling or lesion formed by an abnormal growth of cells (termed neoplastic [67] Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili is also notable for inventing the injection syringe. For the village in Azerbaijan see Mosul Azerbaijan. Mosul (الموصل Al Mūṣul, Kurdish: Mosul/Ninawa, Musul An injection is an infusion method of putting Liquid into the Body, usually with a hollow needle and a Syringe which is pierced through A syringe is a simple piston Pump consisting of a plunger that fits tightly in a tube
Ibn al-Nafis dedicated a volume of The Comprehensive Book on Medicine to surgery. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( He described three stages of a surgical operation. The first stage is the pre-operation period which he calls the "time of presentation" when the surgeon carries out a diagnosis on the affected area of the patient's body. Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything The second stage is the acutal operation which he calls the "time of operative treatment" when the surgeon repairs the affected organs of the patient. In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument The third stage is the post-operation period which he calls the "time of preservation" when the patient needs to take care of himself and be taken care of by nurses and doctors until he recovers. A nurse is responsible—along with other Health care Professionals —for the treatment safety and recovery of acutely or chronically [84] The Comprehensive Book on Medicine was also the earliest book dealing with the decubitus of a patient. Commonly used in medicine the word decubitus is used to mean "lying down" [85]
Anesthesiology
Modern anesthesia was developed by Muslim anesthesiologists. Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις An anaesthetist ( English) or anesthesiologist ( US English) also "anaesthesiologist" is a medical doctor trained to administer They were the first to utilize oral as well as inhalant anesthetics. Inhalational anaesthetics are gases or Vapours possessing Anaesthetic qualities In Islamic Spain, Abu al-Qasim and Ibn Zuhr, among other Muslim surgeons, performed hundreds of surgeries under inhalant anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental The term narcotic (ναρκωτικός is believed to have been coined by the Greek physician Galen to refer to agents that benumb or deaden causing loss The sponges or poriferans (from Latin porus "pore" and ferre "to bear" are Animals Muslim physicians also introduced the anesthetic value of opium derivatives during the Middle Ages. Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies ( Ibn Sina (Avicenna) wrote about its medical uses in his works, which later influenced the works of Paracelsus. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Paracelsus (11 November or 17 December 1493 in Einsiedeln Switzerland – 24 September 1541 in Salzburg, Austria) was an alchemist, [80][86]
Dental surgery
- See Dentistry
Experimental surgery
Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) is considered the father of experimental surgery,[44] for introducing the experimental method into surgery in his Al-Taisir. Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or [43] He was the first to employ animal testing in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human patients. Animal testing or animal research is the use of non-human Animals in scientific experimentation. [43] He also performed the first dissections and postmortem autopsies on humans as well as animals. Dissection (also called anatomization) is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function An autopsy, also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy, or obduction, is a Medical procedure that consists of a thorough Examination [42]
Eye surgery
Neurosurgery
Tracheotomy
The surgical procedure of tracheotomy was invented by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) in the 12th century. Ophthalmology was one of the foremost branches in medieval Islamic medicine. Tracheotomy and tracheostomy are Surgical procedures on the neck to open a direct airway through an incision in the trachea (the windpipe Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr [87]
Surgical instruments
Adhesive bandage and Plaster
Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), in his Al-Tasrif (1000), invented the modern plaster and adhesive bandage, which are still used in hospitals throughout the world. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia The term plaster can refer to plaster of Paris Lime plaster, or Cement plaster. An adhesive bandage (called a sticking plaster, just plaster, or Elastoplast (a trademark in the United Kingdom, New Zealand A hospital is an institution for Health care providing treatment by specialised staff and equipment and often but not always providing for [82] The use of plasters for fractures became a standard practice for Arab physicians, though this practice was not widely adopted in Europe until the 19th century. A fracture is the (local separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of stress. [67]
Catgut and Forceps
Abu al-Qasim's use of catgut for internal stitching is still practised in modern surgery. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Catgut is the name applied to cord of great toughness and tenacity prepared from the Intestines of the Sheep or Goat, or occasionally from those of the The catgut appears to be the only natural substance capable of dissolving and is acceptable by the body
Abu al-Qasim also invented the forceps for extracting a dead fetus, as illustrated in the Al-Tasrif. Catgut is the name applied to cord of great toughness and tenacity prepared from the Intestines of the Sheep or Goat, or occasionally from those of the Forceps are a handheld hinged instrument used for grasping and holding objects A fetus (or foetus or fœtus) is a developing Mammal or other Viviparous Vertebrate, after the Embryonic stage and The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia [88]
Cauter and Ligature
A special medical instrument called a cauter, used for the cauterization of arteries, was first described by Abu al-Qasim in his Kitab al-Tasrif. Cauterize redirects here For the band see Cauterize (band Cauterization is a medical term describing the burning of the body to remove Arteries are Blood vessels that carry blood away from the Heart. [89]
In the Al-Tasrif, Abu al-Qasim also introduced the use of ligature for the arteries in lieu of cauterization. The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف In medicine a ligature is a device similar to a Tourniquet, usually of thread or string tied around a limb blood vessel or similar to restrict blood flow Cauterize redirects here For the band see Cauterize (band Cauterization is a medical term describing the burning of the body to remove [90]
Cotton dressing and Surgical needle
Al-Zahrawi was the first surgeon to make use of cotton (which itself is derived from the Arabic word qutn) as a medical dressing for controlling hemorrhage. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language A dressing is an adjunct used by a person for application to a Wound in order to promote healing and/or prevent further harm Bleeding, technically known as hemorrhaging / haemorrhaging (see American and British spelling differences) is the loss of Blood from [67]
The surgical needle was invented and described by Abu al-Qasim in his Al-Tasrif. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia [87]
Injection syringe and hypodermic needle
The Iraqi surgeon Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili invented the first hollow hypodermic needle and injection syringe in circa 1000 using a hollow glass tube and suction to extract and remove cataracts from a patient's eye during a cataract surgery. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. For the village in Azerbaijan see Mosul Azerbaijan. Mosul (الموصل Al Mūṣul, Kurdish: Mosul/Ninawa, Musul A hypodermic needle is a hollow needle commonly used with a Syringe to inject substances into the body An injection is an infusion method of putting Liquid into the Body, usually with a hollow needle and a Syringe which is pierced through A syringe is a simple piston Pump consisting of a plunger that fits tightly in a tube Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many Suction is the flow of a fluid into a partial Vacuum, or region of low pressure A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the Eye or in its envelope varying in degree from slight to complete opacity Cataract surgery is the removal of the lens of the Eye (also called "crystalline" that has developed an opacification which is referred to as a [91]
Other instruments
Other surgical instruments invented by Abu al-Qasim and first described in his Al-Tasrif (1000) include the scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula,[81] as well as the bone saw. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia A scalpel is a small but extremely sharp knife used for Surgery, anatomical Dissection, and various Arts and crafts. A curette is a Spoon -shaped surgical instrument for cleaning a diseased surface A spoon is a Utensil consisting of a small shallow bowl at the end of a handle used primarily for serving and eating Liquid, or semi-liquid foods and solid foods In Medicine, sounds are instruments for probing and dilating passages within the body the best-known examples of which are urethral sounds and uterine speculum is a medical tool for investigating body cavities with a form dependent on the body cavity for which it is designed A saw is a Tool that uses a hard blade or wire with an abrasive edge to cut through softer materials [66]
Therapy
Aromatherapy
Steam distillation was invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century for the purpose of producing essential oils, giving rise to aromatherapy. Steam distillation is a special type of Distillation (a separation process) for temperature sensitive materials like natural aromatic compounds TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born An essential oil is a concentrated Hydrophobic Liquid containing volatile Aroma compounds from Plants They are also known as volatile Aromatherapy is a form of Alternative medicine that uses volatile liquid plant materials known as Essential oils (EOs and other aromatic compounds from plants for As a result, he is regarded as a pioneer of aromatherapy. Aromatherapy is a form of Alternative medicine that uses volatile liquid plant materials known as Essential oils (EOs and other aromatic compounds from plants for [92]
Cancer therapy
In cancer therapy, Avicenna described the first known treatments for cancer in The Canon of Medicine; one was a surgical method involving amputation or removal of veins,[67] and the other was a herbal compound drug named "Hindiba", which Ibn al-Baitar later identified as having "anticancer" properties and which could also treat other tumors and neoplastic disorders. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian Amputation is the removal of a body extremity by trauma or Surgery. In the Circulatory system, a vein is a Blood vessel that carries Blood back toward the Heart (as opposed to Artery, a blood vessel Abu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Baitar Dhiya al-Din al-Malaqi (ابن البيطار (d See also Cancer A tumor or tumour is the name for a swelling or lesion formed by an abnormal growth of cells (termed neoplastic [93] After recognizing its usefulness in treating neoplastic disorders, Hindiba was patented in 1997 by Nil Sari, Hanzade Dogan, and John K. A patent is a set of Exclusive rights granted by a State to an inventor or his assignee for a fixed period of time in exchange for a disclosure of an Snyder. [94]
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy was pioneered by al-Razi (Rhazes) in the 10th century, when he introduced the use of chemical substances and drugs as forms of medication. Chemotherapy, in its most general sense refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells specifically those of micro-organisms or Cancer. A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease These chemicals included vitriol, copper, mercuric and arsenic salts, sal ammoniac, gold scoria, chalk, clay, coral, pearl, tar, bitumen and alcohol. Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Mercury (ˈmɜrkjʊri also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a Chemical element with the symbol Hg ( Latinized hydrargyrum Arsenic (ˈɑrsənɪk is a Chemical element that has the symbol As and Atomic number of 33 Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants Sal ammoniac is a rare mineral composed of Ammonium chloride, NH4Cl Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Scoria is a textural term for macrovesicular Volcanic rock. It is commonly but not exclusively Basaltic or andesitic in composition Chalk (ʧɔːk is a soft white porous Sedimentary rock, a form of Limestone composed of the Mineral Calcite. Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and Corals are Marine organisms from the class Anthozoa and exist as small Sea anemone –like Polyps typically in colonies of many A pearl is a hard roundish object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled Mollusk. Tar is a viscous black Liquid derived from the Destructive distillation of organic matter Bitumen is a mixture of organic Liquids that are highly Viscous, black sticky entirely soluble in Carbon disulfide, and composed primarily In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon [95]
Chromotherapy
Avicenna, who viewed colour to be of vital importance in diagnosis and treatment, made significant contributions to chromotherapy in The Canon of Medicine. Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything Chromotherapy, sometimes called color therapy or colorology, is an Alternative medicine method The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian He wrote that "Color is an observable symptom of disease" and also developed a chart that related colour to the temperature and physical condition of the body. Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold something that is hotter generally has the greater temperature He further discussed the properties of colours for healing and was "the first to establish that the wrong colour suggested for therapy would elicit no response in specific diseases. " As an example, "he observed that a person with a nosebleed should not gaze at things of a brilliant red color and should not be exposed to red light because this would stimulate the sanguineous humor, whereas blue would soothe it and reduce blood flow. "[96]
Hirudotherapy
Hirudotherapy, the use of medicinal leech for medical purposes, was introduced by Avicenna in The Canon of Medicine (1020s). Medicinal Leeches are any of several Species of leeches but most commonly Hirudo medicinalis, the European Medical Leech'. Medicinal Leeches are any of several Species of leeches but most commonly Hirudo medicinalis, the European Medical Leech'. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian He considered the application of leech to be more useful than cupping in "letting off the blood from deeper parts of the body. Leeches are Annelids comprising the Subclass Hirudinea. There are freshwater terrestrial and marine leeches Fire cupping or simply cupping is a form of Traditional medicine found in several cultures Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products " He also introduced the use of leech as treatment for skin disease. In Medicine, a dermatosis is a generic term for disease of the skin. Leech therapy became a popular method in medieval Europe due to the influence of his Canon. A more modern use for medicinal leech was introduced by Abd-el-latif in the 12th century, who wrote that leech could be used for cleaning the tissues after surgical operations. Abd-al-latif, Abd-el-latif or Abd-ul-Latif (1162 &ndash 1231 also known as al-Baghdadi ( Arabic, عبداللطيف البغدادي Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism He did, however, understand that there is a risk over using leech, and advised patients that leech need to be cleaned before being used and that the dirt or dust "clinging to a leech should be wiped off" before application. He further writes that after the leech has sucked out the blood, salt should be "sprinkled on the affected part of the human body. Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants "[97]
Pharmacotherapy
Physiotherapy
Muslim physicians developed a method of therapy that began with diet and physiotherapy; if this didn't work for the patient, then prescriptions for drugs and medication were given; and if this didn't work, then they resorted to surgery. Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment, is the attempted Remediation of a health problem usually following a Diagnosis A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental The physiotherapy prescribed by Muslim physicians usually included physical exercise and bathing. Bathing is the immersion of the body in a Fluid, usually Water or an aqueous solution Muslim Arab physicians developed an elaborate system of dieting, in which there was an awareness of food deficiencies, and proper nutrition was an important item of treatment. Dieting is the practice of ingesting food in a regulated fashion to achieve or maintain a controlled weight Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support Medical drugs were divided into two groups: simple and compound drugs. Compounding Pharmacy is the process of mixing drugs by a Pharmacist or Physician to fit the unique needs of a patient As they were aware of the interaction between drugs, they used simple drugs first; if these failed, then compound drugs were used which are made from two or more compounds; and if these conservative methods failed, then surgery was undertaken as a last resort. [71]
Psychotherapy
Phytotherapy
In phytotherapy, Avicenna introduced the medicinal use of Taxus baccata L. Phytotherapy is the study of the use of extracts from natural origin as medicines of health-promoting agents Taxus baccata is a conifer native to western central and southern Europe, northwest Africa, northern Iran and southwest in The Canon of Medicine. The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian He named this herbal drug as "Zarnab" and used it as a cardiac remedy. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic This was the first known use of a calcium channel blocker drug, which were not used in the Western world until the 1960s. Calcium channel blockers are a class of drugs and natural substances with effects on many excitable cells of the body like the muscle of the Heart, smooth muscles The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings [98]
Urology
Muslim physicians from the Islamic world made many advances in the field of urology. Urology is the branch of Surgery that focuses on the Urinary tracts of males and females and on the reproductive system of males Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi introduced the methods of urinalysis and stool testing,[40] while other physicians dealt with the medical management and treatment of kidney stones, inflammations, infections, and sexual dysfunction. A urinalysis (or "UA" is an array of tests performed on Urine and one of the most common methods of Medical Diagnosis. A stool test is one where fecal matter is collected for analysis to diagnose the presence or absence of a medical condition Kidney stones, also called renal calculi, are solid concretions (crystal aggregations of dissolved minerals in Urine; calculi typically form Inflammation ( Latin, inflamatio, to set on fire is the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli such as Pathogens An infection is the detrimental Colonization of a host Organism by a foreign Species. Sexual dysfunction or sexual malfunction (see also Sexual function) is difficulty during any stage of the Sexual act (which includes desire, They pioneered advanced surgical approaches to the treatment of bladder stones as well as penile and scrotal problems, using techniques that are still used by modern physicians. The penis (plural penises, penes In some Male Mammals the scrotum - also 'scrutum' or 'scrootum' - is a protuberance of Skin and Muscle containing the Testicles They were also the first to produce tested drugs for the treatment of many urological disorders. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body [99]
Lithotomy
In lithotomy, Abulcasis performed the first successful extraction of bladder and kidney stones from the urinary bladder using a new instrument he invented—a lithotomy scalpel with two sharp cutting edges—and a new technique he invented—perineal cystolithotomy—which allowed him to crush a large stone inside the bladder before its removal, significantly decreasing the death rates previously caused by earlier attempts at this operation by the ancients. Lithotomy from Greek for "lithos" (stone and "thomos" (cut is a surgical method for removal of calculi, stones formed inside certain TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Kidney stones, also called renal calculi, are solid concretions (crystal aggregations of dissolved minerals in Urine; calculi typically form In Anatomy, the urinary bladder is a hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic organ that sits on the Pelvic floor in Mammals It is the A scalpel is a small but extremely sharp knife used for Surgery, anatomical Dissection, and various Arts and crafts. In Human anatomy, the perineum is generally defined as the surface region in both males and females between the Pubic symphysis and the Coccyx. Death is the termination of the biological functions that define living Organisms It refers both to a specific [100]
Sexual health
In sexual health, Muslim physicians and pharmacists identified the issues of sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction, and they were the first to prescribe medication for the treatment of these problems. Within the framework of WHO 's definition of Health as a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity reproductive Sexual dysfunction or sexual malfunction (see also Sexual function) is difficulty during any stage of the Sexual act (which includes desire, Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease They developed several methods of therapy for this issue, including the single drug method where a drug is prescribed, and a "combination method of either a drug or food. Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment, is the attempted Remediation of a health problem usually following a Diagnosis A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an " These drugs were also occasionally used for recreational drug use to improve male sexuality in general by those who did not suffer from sexual dysfunctions. Recreational drug use is the use of Psychoactive drugs for Recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes Human male sexuality encompasses a broad range of issues behavior and processes including male Sexual identity and Sexual behavior, the physiological Most of these drugs were oral medication, though a few patients were also treated through topical and transurethral means. In Medicine, a topical Medication is applied to body surfaces such as the Skin or Mucous membranes for example the Vagina Transurethral resection of the prostate (also known as TURP, plural TURPs and as a transurethral prostatic resection TUPR) is a urological operation Sexual dysfunctions were being treated with tested drugs in the Islamic world since the 9th century until the 16th century by a number of Muslim physicians and pharmacists, including al-Razi, Thabit bin Qurra, Ibn Al-Jazzar, Avicenna (The Canon of Medicine), Averroes, Ibn al-Baitar, and Ibn al-Nafis (The Comprehensive Book on Medicine). (836 in Harran, Mesopotamia &ndash February 18, 901 in Baghdad) was an Arab astronomer, mathematician Abu Ja'far Ahmad bin Abi Khalid Ibn al-Jazzar Al-Qayrawani (circa 898-980 ( أبو جعفر أحمد بن أبي خالد بن الجزار القيرواني) was a 10th century TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Abu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Baitar Dhiya al-Din al-Malaqi (ابن البيطار (d TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( [101]
Other medieval contributions
Other medical contributions first introduced by Muslim physicians include the discovery of the immune system, the introduction of microbiology, the use of animal testing, and the combination of medicine with other sciences (including agriculture, botany, chemistry, and pharmacology),[34] as well as the first drugstores in Baghdad (754), the distinction between medicine and pharmacy in the 12th century, and the discovery of at least 2,000 medicinal substances. An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία Animal testing or animal research is the use of non-human Animals in scientific experimentation. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. [76] Other medical advances came in the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy,[57] and in the following fields of the biomedical sciences:
Botany and environmental science
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Agricultural sciences
Muslims developed a scientific approach to botany and agriculture based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed irrigation techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of crops which were studied and catalogued according to the season, type of land and amount of water they require. Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Pharmacy (from the Greek φάρμακον 'pharmakon' = drug is the Health profession that links the Health sciences with the chemical sciences A biomedical scientist (or biomedical doctor, biomedician, medical scientist) is a scientist educated in the field of Biological science, especially The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops A season is one of the major divisions of the Year, generally based on yearly periodic changes in Weather. A LAND attack is a DoS (Denial of Service attack that consists of sending a special poison spoofed packet to a computer causing it to lock up Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Numerous encyclopaedias on botany were produced, with highly accurate precision and details. An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life [102]
In the early 13th century, Ibn al-Baitar published the Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada, which is considered one of the greatest botanical compilations in history, and was a botanical authority for centuries. Abu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Baitar Dhiya al-Din al-Malaqi (ابن البيطار (d It contains details on at least 1,400 different plants, of which 200 of these plants were his own original discoveries. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. The Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada was also influential in Europe after it was translated into Latin in 1758. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. [103]
The earliest known treatises dealing with environmentalism and environmental science, especially pollution, were Arabic treatises written by al-Kindi, Qusta ibn Luqa, al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical chemical and biological components of the environment. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Qusta ibn Luqa (820-912 ( Costa ben Luca, Constabulus) was a Melkite physician scientist and translator of Byzantine Greek extraction Abu Ja'far Ahmad bin Abi Khalid Ibn al-Jazzar Al-Qayrawani (circa 898-980 ( أبو جعفر أحمد بن أبي خالد بن الجزار القيرواني) was a 10th century This is not the Sub-clan of Quraish, for that see Banu Taim Banī Tamīm or Banu Tamim or Banu Tameem Abu Sahl Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi al-Jurjani (ابو سهل عيسى بن يحيى المسيحي الگرگاني was a Christian physician from Gorgan, east of the Caspian TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abu'l Hasan Ali ibn Ridwan Al-Misri (988–c 1061 was an Egyptian Muslim physician, astrologer and astronomer, born in Giza. Isaac Israeli Ben Solomon (in Hebrew Yitzhaq ben Sh'lomo ha-Yisra'eli; in Arabic Abu Ya'qub Ishaq ibn Suleiman al-Isra'ili; also known as Abd-al-latif, Abd-el-latif or Abd-ul-Latif (1162 &ndash 1231 also known as al-Baghdadi ( Arabic, عبداللطيف البغدادي TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities. Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment An ( EIA) is an assessment of the possible impact&ndashpositive or negative&ndashthat a proposed project may have on the Natural environment. [104] Cordoba, al-Andalus also had the first waste containers and waste disposal facilities for litter collection. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or 'Wastebin' redirects here For the temporary deletion of a computer file see Recycle bin (computing. Waste management is the collection Transport, processing, Recycling or disposal of Waste materials Litter is Waste disposed in the wrong place by Unlawful human action and can vary in size of incident occurrence or items [105]
Child development and pediatrics
Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari was a pioneer of pediatrics and the field of child development, which he discussed in his Firdous al-Hikmah. Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari ( (c 838&ndashc 870 CE) was a Muslim hakim, Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of Medicine that deals with the medical care of Infants Children and Adolescents Child development refers to the biological and psychological changes that occur in human beings between birth and the end of Adolescence, as the individual [20]
His student Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) is considered the father of pediatrics for writing The Diseases of Children, the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independent field of medicine. Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of Medicine that deals with the medical care of Infants Children and Adolescents [26]
Endocrinology
In endocrinology, Avicenna (980-1037) provided a detailed account on diabetes mellitus in The Canon of Medicine, "describing the abnormal appetite and the collapse of sexual functions and he documented the sweet taste of diabetic urine. Endocrinology (from Greek grc ἔνδον endon, "within" grc κρῑνω krīnō, "to separate" and grc -λογία TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian " Like Aretaeus of Cappadocia before him, Avicenna recognized a primary and secondary diabetes. Aretaeus ( is one of the most celebrated of the ancient Greek Physicians of whose life however few particulars are known He also described diabetic gangrene, and treated diabetes using a mixture of lupine, trigonella (fenugreek), and zedoary seed, which produces a considerable reduction in the excretion of sugar, a treatment which is still prescribed in modern times. Please do not add warnings to this page about the pictures Wikipedia is not censored for taste and has a guideline preventing such warnings - WikipediaNo disclaimers in articles Lupin, often spelled lupine in North America, is the common name for members of the Genus Lupinus in the legume family Trigonella is a large genus from the family Fabaceae, with about 130 species Fenugreek ( Trigonella foenum-graecum) is a plant in the family Fabaceae. Zedoary ( Curcuma zedoaria, known as kacōramu in Telugu) is the name for a perennial Herb and member of the genus Curcuma Linn Avicenna also "described diabetes insipidus very precisely for the first time", though it was later Johann Peter Frank (1745-1821) who first differentiated between diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus. Johann Peter Frank (1745 - 1821 was a German physician and Hygienist who was a native of Rodalben. [106]
In the 12th century, al-Jurjani provided the first description of Graves' disease after noting the association of goitre and exophthalmos in his Thesaurus of the Shah of Khwarazm, the major medical dictionary of its time. Zayn al-Din Sayyed Isma‘il ibn al-Husayn al-Jorjani, also spelled al-Jurjani and Gorgani, was a 12th century royal Islamic physician from Gorgan Graves' disease is a Thyroid disorder characterized by goiter, Exophthalmos, "orange-peel" skin and Hyperthyroidism. A goitre ( BrE) or goiter ( AmE) ( Latin struma) also called a bronchocele, is a swelling in the neck (just below the Exophthalmos is a bulging of the Eye anteriorly out of the orbit. [107][108] Al-Jurjani also established an association between goitre and palpitation. A palpitation (medical term ectopic heart beat) is an abnormal awareness of the beating of the Heart, whether it is too slow too fast irregular [109]
Ophthalmology
Of all the branches of Islamic medicine, ophthalmology was one of the foremost. Ophthalmology was one of the foremost branches in medieval Islamic medicine. Ophthalmology is the branch of Medicine which deals with the diseases and surgery of the visual pathways including the Eye, Brain The specialized instruments used in their operations ran into scores. Innovations such as the “injection syringe”, invented by the Iraqi physician Ammar ibn Ali of Mosul, which was used for the extraction by suction of soft cataracts, were quite common. An injection is an infusion method of putting Liquid into the Body, usually with a hollow needle and a Syringe which is pierced through A syringe is a simple piston Pump consisting of a plunger that fits tightly in a tube For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. For the village in Azerbaijan see Mosul Azerbaijan. Mosul (الموصل Al Mūṣul, Kurdish: Mosul/Ninawa, Musul A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the Eye or in its envelope varying in degree from slight to complete opacity In cataract surgery, Ammar ibn Ali attempted the earliest extraction of cataracts using suction. Cataract surgery is the removal of the lens of the Eye (also called "crystalline" that has developed an opacification which is referred to as a Suction is the flow of a fluid into a partial Vacuum, or region of low pressure He introduced a hollow metallic syringe needle through the sclerotic and successfully extracted the cataracts through suction. A hypodermic needle is a hollow needle commonly used with a Syringe to inject substances into the body [110]
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important contributions to ophthalmology and eye surgery, as he studied and correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his Book of Optics, published in 1021. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Eye surgery, also known as orogolomistician surgery or ocular surgery, is Surgery performed on the Eye or its Adnexa, typically by In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni [34] He was also the first to hint at the retina being involved in the process of image formation. The vertebrate retina is a light sensitive part inside the inner layer of the Eye. An image (from Latin imago) or picture is an artifact usually two-dimensional that has a similar appearance to some subject &mdashusually [111]
Ibn al-Nafis, in The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology, discovered that the muscle behind the eyeball does not support the ophthalmic nerve, that they do not get in contact with it, and that the optic nerves transect but do not get in touch with each other. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the Eyes are organs that detect Light, and send signals along the Optic nerve to the visual areas of the brain The ophthalmic nerve is one of the three branches of the Trigeminal nerve, the fifth Cranial nerve. The optic nerve, also called cranial nerve II, is the Nerve that transmits visual information from the Retina to the Brain. A transect is a path along which one records and counts occurrences of the phenomenon of study (e He also discovered many new treatments for glaucoma and the weakness of vision in one eye when the other eye is affected by disease. Glaucoma is a group of diseases of the Optic nerve involving loss of retinal ganglion cells in a characteristic pattern of optic neuropathy. The visual system is the part of the Nervous system which allows organisms to see. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly [112]
Psychiatry and psychology
The first psychiatric hospitals and insane asylums were built in the Islamic world as early as the 8th century. A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is The first psychiatric hospitals were built by Arab Muslims in Baghdad in 705, Fes in the early 8th century, and Cairo in 800. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Fes or Fez ( Arabic: فاس, French Fès is the fourth largest City in Morocco, after Casablanca, Rabat Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Other famous psychiatric hospitals were built in Damascus and Aleppo in 1270. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation. [113] Unlike medieval Christian physicians who relied on demonological explanations for mental illness, medieval Muslim physicians relied mostly on clinical psychiatry and clinical observations on mentally ill patients. Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing They made significant advances to psychiatry and were the first to provide psychotherapy and moral treatment for mentally ill patients, in addition to other new forms of treatment such as baths, drug medication, music therapy and occupational therapy. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Moral Treatment was an approach to Mental disorder based on Humane Psychosocial care or Moral discipline that emerged in the 18th century and Bathing is the immersion of the body in a Fluid, usually Water or an aqueous solution Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which the therapist uses music and all of its facets&mdashphysical emotional mental social aesthetic and spiritual&mdashto help clients to improve Occupational Therapy, often abbreviated "OT", is the "use of productive or creative activity in the treatment or rehabilitation of physically cognitively or [110]
The concepts of mental health and "mental hygiene" were introduced by the Muslim physician Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi (850-934). Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder. This article is about the scientist For the poet see Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi. In his Masalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus (Sustenance for Body and Soul), he was the first to successfully discuss diseases related to both the body and the mind, and argued that "if the nafs [psyche] gets sick, the body may also find no joy in life and may eventually develop a physical illness. "[114] Al-Balkhi was also a pioneer of psychotherapy, psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine. Psychophysiology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία Psychosomatic medicine is an interdisciplinary medical field studying psychosomatic illness, now more commonly referred to as psychophysiologic illness or disorder He recognized that the body and the soul can be healthy or sick, or "balanced or imbalanced", and that mental illness can have both psychological and/or physiological causes. With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical He wrote that imbalance of the body can result in fever, headaches and other physical illnesses, while imbalance of the soul can result in anger, anxiety, sadness and other mental symptoms. Fever (also known as pyrexia, from the Greek pyretos meaning fire or a febrile response, from the Latin word Febris A headache ( cephalalgia in medical terminology is a condition of pain in the Head; sometimes Neck or upper back pain may also be interpreted Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage Anxiety is a physiological and psychological state characterized by Cognitive, Somatic, Emotional and Behavioral components Sadness is an Emotion characterized by Feelings of disadvantage loss and helplessness He recognized two types of depression: one caused by known reasons such as loss or failure, which can be treated psychologically; and the other caused by unknown reasons possibly caused by physiological reasons, which can be treated through physical medicine. Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression loss may refer to A negative difference between retail Price and Cost of production An event in which the team or individual in question Failure ( fail, phail or flop) in general refers to the state or Condition of not meeting a desirable or intended objective [114]
Najab ud-din Muhammad (10th century) described a number of mental diseases in detail. He made many careful observations of mentally ill patients and compiled them in a book which "made up the most complete classification of mental diseases theretofore known. Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data " The mental illnesses first described by Najab include agitated depression, neurosis, priapism and sexual impotence (Nafkhae Malikholia), psychosis (Kutrib), and mania (Dual-Kulb). This article is an expansion of a section entitled '''Mixed state''' from the main article Bipolar disorder In the context of Mental This article describes the term in psychology For the experimental metal band see Neurosis (band. Priapism (πριαπισμός is a potentially harmful and painful medical condition in which the erect Penis does not return to its flaccid state despite Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Mania (from Greek μανία and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage to be furious" is a severe medical condition [110] Symptoms resembling schizophrenia were also reported in later Arabic medical literature. Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn [115]
Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) and al-Balkhi were the first known physicians to study psychotherapy. Razi in particular made significant advances in psychiatry in his landmark texts El-Mansuri and Al-Hawi in the 10th century, which presented definitions, symptoms and treatments for problems related to mental health and mental illness. A definition is a statement of the meaning of a Word or Phrase. A symptom' (from Greek σύμπτωμα, "accident misfortune that which befalls" from συμπίπτω, "I befall" from Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder. Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as He also ran the psychiatric ward of a Baghdad hospital. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Such institutions could not exist in Europe at the time because of fear of demonic possessions. Demonic possession is often the term used to describe the control over a human form by Satan himself or one of his assigned advocates [110]
In al-Andalus, Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), the father of modern surgery, developed material and technical designs which are still used in neurosurgery. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Neurosurgery is the surgical discipline focused on treating those central, Peripheral nervous system and spinal column diseases amenable to surgical Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) gave the first accurate descriptions on neurological disorders, including meningitis, intracranial thrombophlebitis, and mediastinal germ cell tumors, and made contributions to modern neuropharmacology. Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr Meningitis is Inflammation of the protective membranes covering the Brain and Spinal cord, known collectively as the Meninges. Thrombophlebitis is Phlebitis (vein Inflammation) related to a blood clot or Thrombus. Malignant mediastinal germ cell tumors of various histologies were first described as a clinical entity approximately 50 years ago Neuropharmacology is concerned with drug-induced changes in the functioning of cells in the nervous system Averroes suggested the existence of Parkinson's disease and attributed photoreceptor properties to the retina. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Parkinson's disease (also known as Parkinson disease or PD) is a degenerative disorder of the Central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer's Photoreceptor can refer to In anatomy/cell biology Photoreceptor cell: a photosensitive cell most commonly referring to a specialized type of neuron The vertebrate retina is a light sensitive part inside the inner layer of the Eye. Maimonides wrote about neuropsychiatric disorders and described rabies and belladonna intoxication. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Neuropsychiatry is the branch of Medicine dealing with Mental disorders attributable to diseases of the Nervous system. Rabies (from rabies “madness rage fury” Also known as “ hydrophobia ” is a viral Zoonotic neuroinvasive disease that Atropa belladonna or Atropa bella-donna, commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a perennial Herbaceous [22]
Ibn al-Haytham is considered by some to be the founder of experimental psychology and psychophysics,[116] for his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception in the Book of Optics. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. Psychophysics is a subdiscipline of Psychology dealing with the relationship between physical stimuli and their subjective correlates or Percepts Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni [117] In Book III of the Book of Optics, Ibn al-Haytham was the first scientist to argue that vision occurs in the brain, rather than the eyes. The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices He pointed out that personal experience has an effect on what people see and how they see, and that vision and perception are subjective. Subjectivity refers to a subject's perspective particularly feelings beliefs and desires [117] Along with al-Kindi and Ibn al-Haytham, al-Biruni was also a pioneer of experimental psychology, as he was the first to empirically describe the concept of reaction time. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Reaction time (RT is the elapsed time between the presentation of a sensory stimulus and the subsequent behavioral response [118]
Avicenna was a pioneer of psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born He recognized 'physiological psychology' in the treatment of illnesses involving emotions, and developed a system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings, which is seen as an anticipation of the word association test attributed to Carl Jung. Physiological psychology is a subdivision of Biological psychology that studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behavior through direct manipulation of the brains of An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. Word Association is a common Word game involving an Exchange of words that are associated together [110] Avicenna was also a pioneer of neuropsychiatry. Neuropsychiatry is the branch of Medicine dealing with Mental disorders attributable to diseases of the Nervous system. He first described numerous neuropsychiatric conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor. A hallucination, in the broadest sense is a Perception in the absence of a stimulus. Insomnia is a symptom of a sleeping disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep despite the opportunity Mania (from Greek μανία and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage to be furious" is a severe medical condition A nightmare is a Dream which causes a strong unpleasant emotional response from the sleeper typically fear or horror being in situations of extreme danger or the sensations Dementia (from Latin de- "apart away" + Mens ( genitive mentis) "mind" is the progressive decline Epilepsy is a common chronic Neurological disorder that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. Paralysed redirects here For other uses see xx Paralysed (disambiguation Paralysis is the complete loss of Muscle function A stroke is the rapidly developing loss of brain functions due to a disturbance in the blood vessels supplying blood to the brain Vertigo (from the Latin vertere, to turn and the suffix -igo, a condition i Tremor is an unintentional somewhat rhythmic muscle movement involving to-and-from movements (oscillations of one or more parts of the body [119]
Rheumatology
In rheumatology, Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi reported a psychotherapeutic case study from a contemporary 10th century Muslim physician who treated a woman suffering from severe cramps in her joints which made her unable to rise. Rheumatology is a sub-specialty in Internal medicine and Pediatrics, devoted to the Diagnosis and therapy of Rheumatic diseases. Cramps, sometimes called Charley horses are unpleasant often painful sensations caused by contraction or over shortening of Muscles Cramps can be caused by cold The physician cured who by lifting her skirt, putting her to shame. He wrote: "A flush of heat was produced within her which dissolved the rheumatic humour. "[110]
Zoology
- Further information: Early Islamic philosophy: Evolution
In the zoology field of biology, Muslim biologists developed theories on evolution and natural selection which were widely taught in medieval Islamic schools. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of John William Draper, a contemporary of Charles Darwin, considered the "Mohammedan theory of evolution" to be developed "much farther than we are disposed to do, extending them even to inorganic or mineral things. John William Draper ( May 5, 1811, &ndash January 4, 1882) was an American ( English -born Scientist, Philosopher Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Traditionally inorganic compounds are considered to be of mineral not biological origin A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific " According to al-Khazini, ideas on evolution were widespread among "common people" in the Islamic world by the 12th century. Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist [120]
The first Muslim biologist to develop a theory on evolution was al-Jahiz (781-869). Al-Jāḥiẓ (in Arabic الجاحظ (real name Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri) (born in Basra, c He wrote on the effects of the environment on the likelihood of an animal to survive, and he first described the struggle for existence and an early form of natural selection. Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species (published 24 November 1859) is a seminal work in Scientific literature and arguably the Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of [121][122] Al-Jahiz was also the first to discuss food chains,[123] and was also an early adherent of environmental determinism, arguing that the environment can determine the physical characteristics of the inhabitants of a certain community and that the origins of different human skin colors is the result of the environment. Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. Environmental determinism, also known as climatic determinism or geographical determinism, is the view that the physical environment rather than social conditions Human skin color can range from almost black (due to very high concentrations of the dark brown pigment melanin to nearly colorless (appearing reddish white due to the Blood [124]
Ibn al-Haytham wrote a book in which he argued for evolutionism (although not natural selection), and numerous other Islamic scholars and scientists, such as Ibn Miskawayh, the Brethren of Purity, al-Khazini, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, Nasir al-Din Tusi, and Ibn Khaldun, discussed and developed these ideas. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized In the Creation-evolution controversy, those who accept the Scientific theory of biological Evolution by Natural selection or Genetic drift are TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu 'Ali Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ya'qub Ibn Miskawayh, (Persian ابن مسكوويه The Brethren of Purity ( Arabic اخوان الصفا Ikhwan al-Safa; also translated as Brethren of Sincerity) were a mysterious Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 Translated into Latin, these works began to appear in the West after the Renaissance and appear to have had an impact on Western science. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere
Ibn Miskawayh's al-Fawz al-Asghar and the Brethren of Purity's Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa) expressed evolutionary ideas on how species evolved from matter, into vapor, and then water, then minerals, then plants, then animals, then apes, and then humans. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu 'Ali Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ya'qub Ibn Miskawayh, (Persian ابن مسكوويه The Brethren of Purity ( Arabic اخوان الصفا Ikhwan al-Safa; also translated as Brethren of Sincerity) were a mysterious The Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (also variously known as the Epistles of the Brethren of Sincerity, the Epistles of the Brethren of Purity or Epistles Matter is commonly defined as being anything that has mass and that takes up space. A vapor or vapour (see Spelling differences) is a substance in the Gas phase at a Temperature lower than its Critical temperature Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus These works were known in Europe and likely had an influence on Darwinism. Darwinism is a term used for various different movements or concepts related to a greater or lesser extent to Charles Darwin 's work on Evolution. [125]
Modern contributions
After the 15th century, there were very few medical contributions from Muslim scientists until the 20th and 21st centuries, when Pakistani, Turkish, Iranian, Saudi Arabian, Yemeni, Malaysian and American Muslim scientists made significant contributions to modern medicine and biomedical research. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and The history of Islam in the United States starts in the early 16th century, with Estevánico of Azamor being the first Muslim to enter the historical record Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted
Pharmacology and natural products chemistry
In the 20th century, Salimuzzaman Siddiqui was a leading Pakistani scientist in natural products chemistry. Prof Dr Salimuzzaman Siddiqui ( Urdu سلیم الزّماںصدّیقی səliːmʊzəmã sɪðiqi (19 October 1897 - 14 April 1994 was a leading A natural product is a Chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism - found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties He is the pioneer in extracting chemical compunds from the Neem and Rauwolfia, and is also known for isolating novel chemical compunds from various other flora in the Indian subcontinent. Neem ( Azadirachta indica, syn Melia azadirachta L Antelaea azadirachta (L In Botany, flora ( Plural: floras or florae has two meanings The first meaning flora of an area or of time period, refers to all This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. As the director of H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, he carried out extensive research with a team of scientists on pharmacology of various plants to extract a number of chemical substances of medicinal importance. Hussain Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of Chemistry (HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry was established in 1967 as a "Postgraduate Institute of Chemistry" affiliated Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the [126]
Dermatology and neurology
Behçet's disease is named after Hulusi Behçet (1889-1948), the Turkish dermatologist and scientist who first recognized the syndrome in one of his patients in 1924 and reported his research on the disease in Journal of Skin and Venereal Diseases in 1936. Behçet disease (Behçet's syndrome Morbus Behçet, silk road disease (bɛˈtʃɛt (enPR bĕCHĔT is a chronic condition due to disturbances in the body’s Immune Hulusi Behçet ( Istanbul, February 20, 1889 - March 8, 1948) (bɛˈtʃɛt (enPR bĕCHĔT was a Dermatology (from Greek grc δέρμα derma, "skin" and grc -λογία -logia) is a branch of Medicine dealing with A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices [127][128]
In 1991, Saudi medical researchers discovered "neuro-Behcet's disease",[129] a neurological involvement in Behcet's disease, considered one of the most devastating manifestations of the disease. [130] In 1989, Saudi neurologists also discovered "neurobrucellosis", a neurological involvement in brucellosis. Brucellosis, also called undulant fever, or Malta fever, is a highly contagious Zoonosis caused by ingestion of unsterilized Milk [129]
Diabetes and hematology
Iranian scientist Samuel Rahbar was a pioneer in hematology and the understanding of diabetes. Samuel Rahbar (born in 1929 in Hamedan, Iran) is an Iranian scientist who discovered HbA1C, a form of Hemoglobin used primarily to Hematology ( American English) or haematology ( British English) is the branch of biology (physiology Pathology, Clinical laboratory Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc In 1969, he discovered glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1C), a form of hemoglobin used primarily to identify plasma glucose concentration over time. Glycosylated (or glycated hemoglobin ( hemoglobin A1c Hb1c, or HbA1c) is a form of Hemoglobin used primarily to identify the average Hemoglobin ( also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb) is the Iron -containing Oxygen -transport Metalloprotein Blood plasma is the Liquid component of Blood, in which the Blood cells are suspended Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. In Chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance there is mixed with another substance He was also the first to describe its increase in diabetes. Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc [131]
Medical technology
Iranian physician and engineer Toffy Musivand invented a variety of medical technology, including the artificial cardiac pump as treatment for heart failure, "remote power transfer for implantable medical devices, remote patient monitoring (telemedicine), biofluid dynamics to reduce/eliminate thrombosis in blood conducting devices, patient care simulation centre, detection devices and methods for detection, in situ sterilization, medical devices (failure analysis and regulatory process), and medical sensors. Toffy Musivand Persian: توفیق موسیوند (Born in Hamedan) is an Iranian physician and engineer and a world class cardiologist residing in Canada Medical technology refers to the diagnostic or therapeutic application of Science and Technology to improve the management of Health conditions An artificial heart is a prosthetic device that is implanted into the body to replace the biological Heart. Heart failure is a Cardiac condition that occurs when a problem with the structure or function of the Heart impairs its ability to supply A medical device is an object which is useful for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes Telemedicine is a rapidly developing application of Clinical medicine where medical information is transferred via telephone the Internet or other networks for the purpose of consulting Fluid dynamics is the sub-discipline of Fluid mechanics dealing with fluid flow: Fluids ( Liquids and Gases in motion Thrombosis is the formation of a blood Clot ( Thrombus) inside a Blood vessel, obstructing the flow of Blood through the Circulatory A simulated patient or standardized patient ( SP) (also known as a patient instructor) in Health care, is an individual who is trained to act In general detection is the extraction of information from any clear or clouded ambient or otherwise accessible stream of information without neither support from the sender nor synchronization In situ (ɪn siːˈtuː is a Latin phrase meaning in the place. Failure analysis is the process of collecting and analyzing data to determine the cause of a Failure and how to prevent it from recurring A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument "[132]
Internal medicine, pathology, rheumatology
Dr. Muhammad B. Yunus is a Muslim American physician who practices internal medicine and rheumatology. Internal medicine is the medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis management and nonsurgical treatment of unusual or serious diseases Rheumatology is a sub-specialty in Internal medicine and Pediatrics, devoted to the Diagnosis and therapy of Rheumatic diseases. [133] In 1981, he published the "first controlled study of the clinical characteristics" of the fibromyalgia syndrome, for which he is regarded as "the father of our modern view of fibromyalgia. Fibromyalgia (FM is a disorder classified by the presence of chronic widespread Pain and tactile Allodynia. "[134] His work was the "first controlled clinical study" of fibromyalgia "with validation of known symptoms and tender points" and he also proposed "the first data-based criteria. In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices A symptom' (from Greek σύμπτωμα, "accident misfortune that which befalls" from συμπίπτω, "I befall" from " In 1984, he proposed the important concept that the fibromyalgia syndrome and other similar conditions are interconnected. He showed serotonergic and norepinephric drugs to be effective in 1986, published a criteria for fibromyalgia in 1990, and developed neurohormonal mechanisms with central sensitization in the 1990s. Serotonergic means "related to the Neurotransmitter Serotonin " A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body A neurohormone is any Hormone produced by neurosecretory cells usually in the Brain. Sensitization is an example of non-associative Learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell [135]
He also made important advances in the understanding of the chronic fatigue syndromes in general, the biopsychosocial model, medical sociology, neurology, psychosocial development, and neurochemical pathology. Chronic fatigue syndrome ( CFS) is the most common name given to a poorly understood variably debilitating disorder or disorders of uncertain causation The biopsychosocial model is a general model or approach Medical sociology is the study of individual and group behaviors with respect to health and illness The term psychosocial refers to one in Psychological development in and interaction with a Social environment. A neurochemical is an organic molecule such as Serotonin, Dopamine, or Nerve growth factor, that participates in neural activity Pathology (from Greek grc πάθος pathos, "fate harm" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study and [136] His "biopsychosocial perspective" of fibromyalgia and other chronic fatigue syndromes is the "only way to synthesize the disparate contributions of such variables as genes and adverse childhood experiences, life stress and distress, posttraumatic stress disorder, mood disorders, self-efficacy for pain control, catastrophizing, coping style, and social support into the evolving picture of central nervous system dysfunction vis-a-vis chronic pain and fatigue. "[134]
Virology
In virology, Yemeni scientist Sheikh Abdul Majeed al-Zindani is involved in finding a treatment for HIV and AIDS using unorthodox methods inspired by the Qur'an and Hadiths. Virology is the study of viruses and virus-like agents: their structure classification and evolution their ways to infect and exploit cells for virus reproduction Sheikh Abdul Majeed al-Zindani (Other spellings Abdelmajid al-Zendani Abdul Majeed Zendani Abd Al Majid Zandani ( عبد المجيد الزنداني) has been Human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV) is a Lentivirus (a member of the Retrovirus family that can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic [137] In 2007, he claimed to have found a remedy for HIV and AIDS and cited the Hadiths as his inspiration. [138] He gave a speech praising the quality of scientific and medical research carried out at Iman University, claiming that they had successfully treated many cases of AIDS. Iman University ( جامعة الإيمان) (Jāmiʿat al-Īmān is a Sunni religious school in San‘a’, Yemen. In twenty cases, al-Zandani said that the virus had vanished completely without any side effects and called on the UN, which "spends enormous amounts of money to fight the disease," to send "its senior scientists to review [the university's] findings. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security ”
No study of these claims have been done since 2005 when initially announced and according to doctors in Saudi Arabia, the patients who were told of being viral free tested positive for HIV.
Biomedical research in space
In 2007, Malaysian scientist Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, who is both an astronaut and orthopedic surgeon, became the first to perform biomedical research in outer space. Datuk Dr Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor (born Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor Al Masrie bin Sheikh Mustapha on July 27, 1972) is a Malaysian orthopaedic An astronaut or cosmonaut (космона́вт) is a person trained Orthopedic surgery or orthopedics (also spelled orthopaedics) is the branch of Surgery concerned with injuries to or conditions involving the Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Outer space, often simply called space, comprises the relatively empty regions of the Universe outside the escape velocities of Celestial bodies. His medical experiments on board the International Space Station were related to the characteristics and growth of liver cancer and leukemia cells, and the crystallisation of various proteins and microbes in space. Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Leukemia or leukaemia (Greek leukos λευκός, "white" aima αίμα, "blood" is a Cancer of the Blood Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually [139] His experiments relating to liver cancer, leukemia cells and microbes will benefit general science and medical research, while his experiments relating to the crystallisation of proteins, lipases in this case, will directly benefit local Malaysian industries. [140]
See also
- Medical Encyclopedia of Islam and Iran
- De Gradibus
- Al-Tasrif
- The Canon of Medicine
- Bimaristan
- Unani
- Islamic Golden Age
- Islamic science
- Inventions in the Islamic world
Notes
- ^ Behrooz Broumand, The contribution of Iranian scientists to world civilization, Arch Iranian Med 2006; 9 (3): 288 – 290
- ^ a b Nurdeen Deuraseh, "Ahadith of the Prophet (s. Medical encyclopedia of Islam and Iran is a series of reference books being prepared in the Islamic Republic of Iran Academy of Medical Sciences De Gradibus was an Arabic book published by the Arab physician Al-Kindi (c The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- Unani IPA: (in Arabic, Hindi, Persian, Pashtu, Urdu, etc means " Greek " a. w) on Healing in Three Things (al-Shifa’ fi Thalatha): An Interpretational", Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, 2003 (4): 14-20.
- ^ a b Lawrence I. Conrad and Dominik Wujastyk (2000), Contagion: Perspectives from Pre-Modern Societies, "A Ninth-Century Muslim Scholar's Discussion". Ashgate, ISBN 0754602583. Ashgate is an area in northeast Derbyshire, England, west of the town of Chesterfield.
- ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:71:582
- ^ Sunan Abi Dawood, 28:3846
- ^ Sunan Abi Dawood, 28:3865
- ^ Al-Muwatta, 50 5.12
- ^ a b c National Library of Medicine digital archives. Sunan Abu Da'ud (سُنن أبو داوود is one of the Sunni Six Major Hadith collections, collected by Abu Da'ud. Sunan Abu Da'ud (سُنن أبو داوود is one of the Sunni Six Major Hadith collections, collected by Abu Da'ud. The Muwaṭṭa (الموطأ is an early statement of Muslim law compiled and edited by Imam Malik. The United States National Library of Medicine ( NLM) operated by the United States federal government, is the world's largest Medical library.
- ^ Hakeem Abdul Hameed, Exchanges between India and Central Asia in the field of Medicine
- ^ Micheau, Francoise, “The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East”, pp. 991-2, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985-1007)
- ^ Peter Barrett (2004), Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding, p. Peter Barrett (born 1935 is a British painter, Illustrator, Graphic designer and Children's book Author. 18, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 056708969X. The Continuum International Publishing Group is a publisher of Books, with its editorial offices in London and New York City.
- ^ a b c Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, 2002 (2): 2-9.
- ^ Sir Glubb, John Bagot (1969), A Short History of the Arab Peoples, <http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/quote2.html#glubb>. Lieutenant-General Sir John Bagot Glubb KCB, CMG, DSO, OBE, better known as Glubb Pasha (born 16 April Retrieved on 25 January 2008
- ^ a b c d e f Sarton, George (1927-31), Introduction to the History of Science, <http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html#sarton2>. George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. Retrieved on 25 January 2008
- ^ a b Michael Woods, Islam, once at forefront of science, fell by wayside, Post-Gazette National Bureau, Sunday, April 11, 2004. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, also known simply as the "PG" is the largest daily Newspaper serving metropolitan Pittsburgh,
- ^ Medicine And Health, "Rise and Spread of Islam 622-1500: Science, Technology, Health", World Eras, Thomson Gale.
- ^ Islamic Science, the Scholar and Ethics, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
- ^ The Art as a Profession, United States National Library of Medicine
- ^ G. The United States National Library of Medicine ( NLM) operated by the United States federal government, is the world's largest Medical library. Bademci (2006), First illustrations of female "Neurosurgeons" in the fifteenth century by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu, Neurocirugía 17: 162-165.
- ^ a b Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [361]
- ^ Charles S. F. Burnett, Danielle Jacquart (eds. ), Constantine the African and ʻAlī Ibn Al-ʻAbbās Al-Magūsī: The Pantegni and Related Texts. Leiden: Brill, 1995. ISBN 9004100148
- ^ a b c d Martin-Araguz, A. ; Bustamante-Martinez, C. ; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V. ; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892.
- ^ a b Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23.
- ^ a b c d Katharine Park (March 1990). "Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500 by Nancy G. Siraisi", The Journal of Modern History 62 (1), p. 169-170.
- ^ a b c d Jacquart, Danielle (2008), “Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances”, European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219-27
- ^ a b c d e f g David W. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
- ^ a b c Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", Health Information and Libraries Journal 20, p. 34–44 [36].
- ^ a b c Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care 16 (1), p. 13–21 [19].
- ^ a b c D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67 (5), p. 447-450 [449].
- ^ a b c Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43 (4), p. 530–540 [536], Johns Hopkins University Press. The Johns Hopkins University Press is a Publishing house and division of Johns Hopkins University that engages in publishing journals and books
- ^ a b c d D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67 (5), p. 447-450 [448].
- ^ a b c Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, p. 155, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195135806.
- ^ a b The Canon of Medicine, The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2 (4), p. 475-479 [476]. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni, Hasanuddin University. Hasanuddin University (Universitas Hasanuddin is a public University in Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia.
- ^ Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 58 & 61, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. The University of Notre Dame du Lac (or simply Notre Dame) (ˌnoʊtɚˈdeɪm is a private Roman Catholic Research university located in [1]
- ^ a b c d e Huff, Toby (2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West, Cambridge University Press, p. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 218, ISBN 0521529948
- ^ a b Felix Klein-Frank (2001), Al-Kindi, in Oliver Leaman and Hossein Nasr, History of Islamic Philosophy, p. Oliver Leaman is a Professor of Philosophy and Zantker Professor of Judaic Studies TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Seyyed Hossein Nasr ( Persian سید حسین نصر) an Iranian 172. Routledge, London. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals
- ^ a b G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", The Rational Argumentator, Issue VI.
- ^ a b Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", Islam & Science, December 2003.
- ^ Jacquart, Danielle, “Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances”, European Review 16 (2): 219–227 [219 & 222-5
- ^ a b c d Islamic medicine, Hutchinson Encyclopedia. The Hutchinson Encyclopedia is an English-language general Encyclopedia.
- ^ a b c Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2005), "Contributions of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) to the progress of surgery: A study and translations from his book Al-Taisir", Saudi Medical Journal 2005; Vol. 26 (9): 1333-1339.
- ^ a b Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology", Saudi Medical Journal 27 (11): 1631-1641.
- ^ Jon Mcginnis, Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources, p. 284, Hackett Publishing Company, ISBN 0872208710. Hackett Publishing Company Inc is an academic Publishing house based in Indianapolis, Indiana.
- ^ a b Emilie Savage-Smith (1996), "Medicine", pp. 951-2, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 903-962)
- ^ a b c Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body, Encyclopedia of Islamic World). cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult"
- ^ Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process", Trends in Biotechnology 20 (8), p. 357-358 [357].
- ^ Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2), p. 74-85 [80].
- ^ S. A. Al-Dabbagh (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation", The Lancet 1, p. This article is about the journal For other uses of the term "lancet" see Lancet (disambiguation. 1148.
- ^ Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 1, p. 22–28.
- ^ Dr. Paul Ghalioungui (1982), "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation, Encyclopedia of Islamic World)
- ^ George Sarton (cf. Dr. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" Paul Ghalioungui (1982), "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait)
(cf. The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation, Encyclopedia of Islamic World) - ^ Dr. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World). cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult"
- ^ Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 3 & 6, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. The University of Notre Dame du Lac (or simply Notre Dame) (ˌnoʊtɚˈdeɪm is a private Roman Catholic Research university located in [2]
- ^ L. Leclerc (1876), Histoire de la medecine Arabe, vol. 2, p. 161, Paris. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city
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References
- Morelon, Régis & Roshdi Rashed (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. The Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science is a three-volume Encyclopedia covering the history of Arabic contributions to science, mathematics 3, Routledge, ISBN 0415124107
Further reading
- Browne, Edward G. (2002). Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals Edward Granville Browne (1862&ndash1926 born in Stouts Hill, Uley, Gloucestershire, England was a British Orientalist who published Islamic Medicine. Goodword Books. ISBN 81-87570-19-9.
- Dols, Michael W. (1984). Medieval Islamic Medicine: Ibn Ridwan's Treatise "On the Prevention of Bodily Ills in Egypt", Comparative Studies of Health Systems and Medical Care. University of California Press. ISBN 0520048369.
- Pormann, Peter E. ; Emilie Savage-Smith (2007). Medieval Islamic Medicine. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0748620664.
- Porter, Roy (2001). The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521002524.
- Ullmann, Manfred (1978). Islamic Medicine, Islamic Surveys 11. ISBN 0852243251.
External links
- Manuscripts at the National Library of Medicine. The United States National Library of Medicine ( NLM) operated by the United States federal government, is the world's largest Medical library.
- Influence On the Historical Development of Medicine by Prof. Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead.
- Islamic Medicine on Line by Dr. Sharif Kaf Al-Ghazal
- Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis) - A light in the Middle Ages in Europe by Dr. Sharif Kaf Al-Ghazal
- The Influence of Islamic Philosophy and Ethics on The Development of Medicine During the Islamic Renaissance by Dr. Sharif Kaf Al-Ghazal
- All about Islamic Medicine for magic, possession and more
- Contagion - Perspectives from Pre-Modern Societies
- The Islamic Vision of Some Medical Practices
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